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Construction and Building Materials 306 (2021) 124762
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Review
Geopolymer concrete as sustainable material: A state of the art review

Furqan Farooq a, Jin Xinb, Muhammad Faisal Javed a, Arslan Akbar b, *, Muhammad Izhar Shah a,
Fahid Aslam c, Rayed Alyousef c
a
Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus 22060, Pakistan
b
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
c
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The rise in population and improvement in the lifestyle of human beings has caused a rapid increase in energy
Geopolymer demands for buildings in the present day. An upsurge in energy demand, lack of fossil fuels, and environmental
Sustainability issues provide a crucial motive to the development of sustainable and viable infrastructure. Geopolymer (GP)
Durability
composite free from cement, made from various waste materials with a high amount of Al2SiO3 and Na2SiO3/
Microstructure
Waste materials
NaOH (alkali-activated silica) is evolving as an eminent material for sustainability purposes. They are also
Compressive strength preferred due to the lesser emission of greenhouse gases as compared to ordinary Portland cement (OPC). This
Characterizations paper aims at presenting a sustainable domain and state of the art review of GP composite. The properties of
Applications composites made from various geopolymeric waste binders are presented. Besides, the microstructure and
chemical characterization of GP composites are also discussed. The durability of GP composite is also highlighted
considering its deterioration in various aggressive environments. In the end, a global warming potential (GWP)
assessment was conducted and the practical applications of GP composites in the building industry are also
provided.
1. Introduction concrete produces 30% of carbon dioxide around the world [1]. Cement
system (fine particles size) possess adamant adhesive binding ability in
Cementitious resources are extensively used as constructive mate construction works. However, the production of cement emits carbon
rials in the development of the country’s construction structural means. dioxide (CO2) on a large scale [2]. CO2 emission produces an obstinate
The cementitious concrete has an adamant effect on the greenhouse effect in the environment, which results from the grinding of minerals,
effect. From the environmental perceptive, the manufacturing of the burning of fossils, and raw material in the Kiln chamber [2].
Abbreviations: AAR, alkali activator ratio; AAS, Na2SiO3/NaOH; AA, alkali-activated; AAFA, alkali-activated fly ash; AD, At the average depth of abrasion; AS,
aluminosilicate; AVPV, the apparent volume of permeable voids; BA, bottom ash; BAG, blended ash geopolymer; BFA, biomass fly ash; CAC, Cilico-manganese fume;
CASH, calcium-aluminum-silicate-hydrate; CBA, coal bottom ash; CC, cement concrete; CG, container glass; CO2, carbon dioxide; CS, compressive strength; CSH,
calcium silicate hydrate; CT, curing time; ET, elevated temperature; FA, fly ash; FGDG, flue gas desulfurization gypsum; FS, ferrochrome slag; FT, freeze-thaw; FTIR,
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy; GGBFS, ground granulated blast furnace slag; GLSS, granulated lead smelter slag; GP, geopolymer; GPC, geopolymer
concrete; GPM, geopolymer mortar; GPP, geopolymer paste; GWP, global warming potential; HMNS, high-magnesium nickel slag; Ia, grade of abrasion resistance;
IOT, Iron ore tailing; ITZ, interfacial Transition Zone; KHFA, ultra-fine kaolite high-performance ash; KL, kaolin; LS, limestone; LWA, lightweight aggregate; LWAGC,
lightweight aggregate geopolymer concrete; LWC, lightweight concrete; M, molarity; MK, metakaolin; MPCM, micro-encapsulated phase change materials; NAGC,
natural aggregate geopolymer concrete; NASH, alumino-silicates gel; NH, sodium hydroxide; NHNS, sodium hydroxide plus sodium silicate solution; NS, sodium
silicate; OPC, ordinary Portland cement; PC, cement repair; PCC, Portland cement concrete; PCFA, powder coal fly ash; PCM, phase-change material; PFG, palm fly
ash geopolymer; PG, geopolymer repair; PGS, geopolymer repair with steel slag; POFA, palm oil fly ash; RAGC, Recycled aggregate geopolymer concrete; RCA,
recycled concrete aggregate; RHA, rice husk ash; RM, red mud; SBL, styrene-butadiene latex; SD, sawdust; SEM, scanning electron microscope; SF, silica fume;
SFRGC, Short fiber reinforced fly ash-geopolymer composites; SMF, silico-manganese fume; SS/SH, sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide ratio; SSD, Saturated surface
dry; XRD, X-Ray diffraction.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: furqan@cuiatd.edu.pk (F. Farooq), cindyjin2-c@my.cityu.edu.hk (X. Jin), arbabfaisal@cuiatd.edu.pk (M. Faisal Javed), aakbar4-c@my.cityu.
edu.hk (A. Akbar), mizhar@cuiatd.edu.pk (M. Izhar Shah), f.aslam@psau.edu.sa (F. Aslam), r.alyousef@psau.edu.sa (R. Alyousef).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124762
Received 31 March 2021; Received in revised form 21 August 2021; Accepted 31 August 2021
Available online 13 September 2021
0950-0618/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Farooq et al. Construction and Building Materials 306 (2021) 124762
based on different countries is also shown in Fig. 2.

Manufacturing cement, directly or indirectly, emits gasses which has
an adverse effect on the environment. The calcination process and
burning of raw materials are classified as the main sources of gaseous
emissions [10,11]. Emission of CO2 during cement manufacturing is an
alarming situation around the world and hence measurement is needed
to minimize CO2 emissions [12].
The emission of CO2 can be reduced by various approaches: (1)
replacement of cement by secondary raw materials and secondary
cementitious materials, (2) use of alternative fuel in clinker cement
production, (3) use of alternative binder in the manufacturing of
cement, (4) process-related emissions can be readily reduced by
changing the manufacturing process as these emissions are higher than
the energy-related emissions [13]. The emission of CO2 can be signifi
cantly reduced by utilizing alternative binders and raw materials in the
manufacturing process of cement. These alternative binders are poten
tial candidates in the reduction of gases without compromising cemen
titious properties together with enhanced ductile behaviour of cement
mortar [14–34]. These alternative binders include the use of waste-
Fig. 1. Production of cement around the world (U.S. Geological Survey derived fuel with raw materials. Geopolymer concrete (GPC) is one of
2018) [8].
Moreover, the cement industry as one unit generates high emissions of

CO2 [3,4]. This emission vigorously affects the environmental condition
and generates global warming, melting of ice in different regions.
However, knowing its adverse side, cement utilization increases in the
building construction industry around the globe. Cement binder pro
ductions vary in different countries around the world. The variation in
cement production is due to the availability of resources/materials. The
majority of the countries have their resources by which cement pro
duction and its need for construction is achieved. However, those
countries which do not meet the criteria for cement production, have to
import the resources to meet their needs [5,6]. A recent survey con
ducted by the United States Geological Survey about the production of
cement worldwide [8]. Stats result showed a drastic variation of cement
production and emission of CO2. The production of cement around the
world in the year 2018 is shown in Fig. 1. The manufacturing of cement
produces 4 billion tons of cement worldwide in which China covers half
of the total emission and production of cement [8]. Ordinary Portland
cement (OPC) adds adamantly to the earth’s CO2 emissions, the pre
dictive value was about 1.45 ± 0.20 Gt of CO2, that is, approximately 8%
Fig. 3. Yearly publication trend of geopolymer concrete (GPC) reviewed in
of the total anthropogenic CO2 release [7]. Moreover, the CO2 emission this study.
Fig. 2. CO2 emission based on different sectors; (a) by countries; (b) worldwide [9].
2
Table 1 Table 1 (continued )

Properties difference of GPC and OPC. Properties OPC GP Remarks Reference
Properties OPC GP Remarks Reference Concrete Concrete
Concrete Concrete
curing conditions,
Compressive Lower Higher Generally, GPC gains [37] and type of precursors
Strength higher strength at and activator.
early ages as
compared to OPC.
Source of the sustainable means to reduce CO2 emissions and energy utilization
aluminosilicate, type during the production and utilization of cement in the construction in
of activator, curing
dustry [35,36]. Recently, the use of geopolymer (GP) in concrete as
condition, and
reactivity of sustainable materials has been increased as shown in Fig. 3. GP concrete
precursor are some of performance outburst than OPC in terms of sustainability and durability.
the factors that Table 1 presented below show the difference between the OPC with
mainly decide the GPC.
compressive strength
of GPC
Before providing a summary of available evidence on GPC behavior,
Water Slightly Moderate Internal pores in the [38] it is worth reviewing recently reported research on related issues in
Absorption lower matrix of GPC readily recent years. Although many reviews are available on the geopolymer
affect its water composites and they mainly focused on the general application of geo
absorption.
polymer composites reinforced with cellulose fibers, synthetic fibers,
Setting time Slower Faster Depending on the [39]
different factors i.e. and fabrics. Many reviews are present on the history, background and
activators and source characterization, sustainability, and various factors affecting the final
of aluminosilicate, properties of geopolymer composites. Still, the literature lacks in
the setting time of providing a comprehensive review on the new type of precursor-based
GPC is faster than
OPC.
geopolymer composites i.e. fly ash-based geopolymer composites.
Shrinkage Lower Moderate Curing condition [40] Recently, new information has been added to the literature about the
affects the shrinkage geopolymerization process and precursors that affect the properties of
related cracks in the such composites. In addition to this, the application and challenges of
GPC.
geopolymer composites on a larger scale need to be addressed with
Tensile Lower Higher GPC possess higher [41]
Strength tensile strength GWP.
compared to OPC Furthermore, Sing et al. [49] concluded that OPC concrete con
concrete. The tensile struction guidelines relate to geopolymer concrete. Secondly, the Life
strength of GPC is also Cycle impact assessment approach can provide a comprehensive envi
controlled by the
same factors as
ronmental assessment for geopolymer concrete production. The author
compressive strength. has demonstrated that sodium silicate has a strong influence on the
Durability Lower Higher Due to the presence of [42] environment [50]. Amran et al. [9] presented a summary of clean pro
silicate and alumina duction techniques, heat curing approaches, and physical characteristics
products, GPC
of GPC. Das et al. [51] focused on creating proper codes to improve the
possesses better
durability. usage of GPC in the area of civil engineering. Zain et al. [52] conducted a
Acid Attack Lower Higher Due to the presence of [43] comparative analysis between environmental impacts of the geopolyitic
resistance resistance products of alumino- content of fly ash, metakaolin (MK), kaolin (KL), palm oil fuel ash, and
silicates, GPC shows dolomite and concluded that the geopolymeric materials of fly ash
higher resistance
against acid attack.
provide the best performance for SiO2 and Al2O3 composition and that
Fire Limited Typically GPC sustain [44] this is a viable choice for the conservation of the environment. This
Resistance higher degradation due to analysis subsequently summarised numerous conventional and modern
elevated temperature geopolymer aluminosilicates, mechanical properties, and durability
and perform better
characteristics of GPC [53–55]. Also, it explores GPC adoption in the
than OPC concrete
under fire conditions. construction sectors and also examines the related environmental
Freeze and More Less GPC performs better [45] impacts.
thaw susceptible susceptible in an aggressive
cycling environment and 2. Geopolymer concrete
shows higher
chemical and physical
resistance. resistance GP cement/concrete is rich in aluminosilicates (ASs) and hence has
to GPC characteristics similar to the cement family [49,56–59]. These GP
CO2 Emission High Low Overall global [46] composites are unreactive in the presence of water thus require an
warming potential of
alkaline medium for their proper functioning [60,61]. Moreover, these
GCP is lower as
compared to OPC GPs alternative binders have the load-bearing ability by forming a 3-D
during their life cycle. polymeric structure, when placed in an alkaline binder. This is due to
Porosity Lower Moderate Internal [47] the high amorphous nature of the GP by AS content. The cement
geopolymeric component has strong natural alkaline content, thus efficiently react
structure has a great
with water [62]. However, an alkaline binder requires an alkaline me
effect on the overall
porosity of GPC. dium for its activation to form a bond with the adjacent matrix [49]. GP
Insulating Limited Higher GPC offers higher [48] is the newest cement trend between gypsum cement and OPC. In the
property insulating properties future, this seems to be one of the world’s most extensively used con
depending on the
struction materials [9]. In the 1970 s, the term ’geopolymer’ was coined
by Prof. Joseph Davidovits and French researchers and introduced to a
3
Fig. 4. Desirable properties governing the selection of geopolymer matrix.
2.1. Benefits of geopolymer Concrete.
The prime objective of sustainability is to meet the needs at present

while keeping the needs of future generations under consideration
without interrupting the environmental balance [91]. The major pillars
of sustainability are the economy, society, and environment, and these
pillars must be protected to preserve the environment. In the epoch of
the industrial revolution, the architects and engineers inventively use
the sustainability principle to lessen the overall adverse effect on the
environment. Hence, in construction materials, the term ’sustainability’
seems identical to green and environmentally affable [92].
Every year around the world, industrial waste is generated in mil
lions of tonnes and it is becoming an environmental liability because of
the insufficiency in safe disposal and storage. Afterward, such wastes
(ceramic waste powder, FA, and slag, etc.) pollute the environment
(water and land) in the locality of the factories [93]. Recently, various
studies [93,94] indicated that the best way to recycle these waste ma
terials is to produce cement-free GPs. Moreover, it is possible to reuse
waste materials including ceramic and concrete as aggregate in the GP
industries [95,96]. It is evident that extensive manufacturing of GP will
just not conserve energy being utilized throughout the process but will
also minimize the effect of pollution particularly CO2 emissions. Thus,
Fig. 5. Characteristics of GP composite. GPs offer a practical solution to landfill issues and at the same time
lessen the over-exploitation of natural resources [93]. Bondar [97] re
group of source materials produced by an alkaline solution combination ported the advantages of mortar made with alkali-activated alumina
with AS powder materials [63]. GP composite is a sustainable concrete silicate compared to other binders regarding their carbon footprint and
synthesized by triggering an alkaline source material abundant in ASs, cost. These factors are significant to be considered to improve sustain
using strong alkaline solutions such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and ability within the concrete industry. The relation between CO2 footprint
potassium hydroxide (KOH) and soluble silicates (most of them) such as and cost of geopolymer mortar (GPM) and its compositions in compar
gelatine silicate, under suitable curing environments [61,64]. Signifi ison with Portland-based cement is roughly quantified. GP shows high
cant AS is mostly found in by-product waste materials such as slag durability compared with OPC and other commercial repair materials,
[65–69], fly ash (FA) [70–78], rice husk ash (RHA) [69,79–81], red mud excellent properties within both acid and salt environments [98,99].
(RM) [82–85], MK [77,86–89] and using silica fume (SF) as source Similarly, the GPM reveals high early mechanical properties than other
materials [70,71,80,90]. The raw materials undergo geopolymerization materials [100–102]. Moreover, GP source materials provide promising
in the presence of an alkaline medium to form an amorphous to semi- ways to convert waste into resources, thereby contributing to a cleaner
crystalline structure, ultimately gives higher strength or similar to the environment and producing low carbon footprint concrete [103–105].
conventional cement composite. To achieve good product efficiency, The obstinate characteristics of GPC are mentioned in Fig. 4.
precursor and alkaline activator coupling need to be taken into The literature review showed that GPs had enormous mechanical
consideration; most precursors will either react preferentially or work power and longevity. These distinctive features comprise a resistance to
efficiently with some type of activator, due to the difference in compo elevated temperatures, high performance in acid and sulphate envi
sition. For example, a sodium silicate solution will provide better acti ronment, high early strength, low porosity (Fig. 5). All these aspects
vation to the ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) than other make GP composite a prospective and adamant candidate in use in the
types of alkaline activators. Experimental results demonstrated that an field of civil engineering, automotive, waste management, and retro
adamant increase in strength can be obtained by using the mass ratio of fitting of existing buildings.
sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide (SiO2/Na2O = 0.75) in solution.
4
Table 2 utilization in concrete offers an obstinate effect and is found to be a

AS as a major source in GP composite. potential contender as supportive material for GP. Statistical analysis
Type Item Abbreviation References indicates that its annual production is around one thousand million tons
which is extraordinarily malignant from the environmental perspective.
(a) Alumina silicate as Source materials
fly ash FA [28,41,56–58,71–73,94,106–145] The application of FA in the presence of a basic solution engenders AS
bottom ash BA [146,147] gel (AlNa12SiO5) which functions as a binder in GPC. The X-Ray
granulated blast furnace slag GBFS [66,95,126,142,148–150] diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) graphs of FA
metakaolin MK [77,151–154] particles as demonstrated in Fig. 6a and Fig. 6b, respectively, indicate
natural zeolites [155,156]
kaolin KL [157,158]
that the particles are nearly spherical, permitting them to flow and mix
palm oil fuel ash POFA [76,151,159–161] easily in the mixtures. The hump showed in the XRD graph of FA in
granulated lead smelter slag GLSS [162,163] dicates the presence of an amorphous phase in the FA which finally
rice husk ash RHA [150,152,164] reacts with hydration products. While the sharp peaks indicate the
ferrochrome slag FS [165]
presence of crystalline impurities in the raw FA. FA is frequently utilized
ultra-fine kaolite high- KHFA [65,166]
performance ash as a replacement to OPC in concrete manufacturing [137,178]. FA
biomass fly ash BFA [167,168] concrete has greater strength and is more durable as compared to con
silico-manganese fume SMF [169,170] ventional concrete [178]. It is utilized in concrete to lower the cost with
(b) Additives as source materials obdurate resistance to sulphate attack [179]. The environment can be
calcium aluminate cement CAC [171]
nano-silica NS [172]
positively affected by this material as landfill areas are conserved,
calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 [146] consumption of water and energy is reduced and greenhouse gas emis
ordinary Portland cement OPC [73,77,173–176] sions are minimized. In this case, FA can lessen the manufacturing of
silica fume SF [70,71] OPC that releases about one thousand kilograms of CO2 for every one
thousand kilograms of cement manufactured; in other words, for every
thousand kilograms of FA utilized, the CO2 emissions are cut by one
2.2. Constituents of geopolymer
thousand kilograms. Utilizing a complete year’s supply of FA for con
crete manufacturing is equal to disposing of 25% of CO2 released by
2.2.1. Aluminosilicate (AS)
means of vehicles worldwide [180].
AS source by utilizing waste by-products is adamant in making the
FA manufacturing has become substantial due to its important role in
GP matrix. FA is used as primarily waste product in making GPC,
the economic and green application of technologies. This material can
however, the conjunction of FA with other AS sources and individuals
also be utilized in soil stabilization to improve its physical properties
are also reported and can be seen in Table 2. Moreover, the use of ad
[183], nutrients retrieval [184], waste removal (as an economical
ditives was also reported in making GPC.
absorbent), and zeolite manufacturing (as a source of Si and Al)
[183,184]. Lately, FA has been adopted as an alternative material for the
2.2.2. Fly ash (FA)
manufacturing of GPs, a binder that is identical to hydrated cement in
FA is engendered by electric and steam-generating centers in
appearance, reactivity, and other characteristics.
particular industries and power-plants. Generally, coal is crushed and
expelled into the ignition chamber with air where it sparks impulsively
2.2.3. Ground granulated blast furnace slag as supporting material for
resulting in the generation of heat and traces of molten mineral. Boiler
geopolymer concrete
tubes completely eradicate heat from the kiln, as a result, flue gas gets
GGBFS is a side-product that is obtained during the manufacturing of
cooler and mineral residue hardens to form ash. Coarse ash pebbles are
iron and steel in the blast furnace where iron ore (Fe2O3, Fe3O4, etc),
characterized as slag, descent to the bottom of the ignition chamber
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and coke are heated at a specific tempera
whereas FA particles are retained in the flue gas. FA is collected at the
ture of about 1500 ◦ C. While these materials soften in the blast furnace,
culmination of the process by using electrostatic precipitators or fabric
as a result, molten iron and molten slag are produced. Molten slag that is
filters to control particulate emissions [177]. It contains alumina (Al2O3)
lighter floats on the top of molten iron, is swiftly chilled with a high
and silica (SiO2) as key constituents that aid in the formation of cement
strain water jet to attain granular particles. These particles are then
as its substitute. FA reacts with lime Ca(OH)2 in the presence of water to
dehydrated and grounded into the fine powder to achieve a product that
form compounds identical to cement. It is a widely acknowledged
is known as GGBFS [185].
building material and its application as a blend in concrete, mortar, and
GGBFS is a renowned building material that is being utilized
paste has major importance to the concrete industry [60]. Their
Fig. 6. (a) FA XRD (Quartz and Mullite) [181], (b) SEM of FA [182].
5
Fig. 7. (a) XRD of GGBFS, (b) SEM of GGBFS [189].
Fig. 8. (a) SEM of RM [200], (b) XRD of RM [201].
effectively to manufacture blended mortar, cement, and concrete [186]. amount of alumina content and it exhibits highly alkaline characteristics
GGBFS can replace the OPC content by almost 35–70%, when finely with pH ranging from 11.3 ± 1.0 [191]. Bauxite contains very finer
grounded it indicates exceptional properties and then combined with particles which make its removal very problematic. RM possesses
other materials to produce GPC [187]. The glass particles of GGBFS adamant environmental issues because of its toxic nature. If not dis
contain mono-silicates of Q0-type which are identical to those being carded properly, it may impose harmful effects on nature. For more than
utilized in OPC clinker and dissolve by means of any medium upon 50 years, an eco-friendly application of RM has been carried out as an
initiation [188]. GGBFS can be utilized for refining the voids and economical alternative. Its application in the cement industry has been
increasing resistance to permeability, strength, and heat generation increased, and its utilization in cement increases the compressive
during the hydration process. Moreover, it also tends to increase the strength and setting time when used between 5 and 20%. Conversely, if
resistance of sulphate and alkali-silica reaction on concrete by reducing the specimen contains more than 20% RM, it imposes adverse effects on
the water demand [137]. Taking all these benefits under consideration, the properties of GPC. The small addition of RM in GPC as a partial
it serves as a major candidate for making GPC. Fig. 7a and Fig. 7b show cement replacement provides a useful effect on Young’s modulus,
XRD and SEM analysis about the amorphous nature of GGBFS with compressive strength, and failure strain of the GPs containing RM. The
irregular shape particles, showing its reactiveness as compared to FA. addition of RM provides more reactive Si to GPC, resulting in a major
The relatively broader hump, as indicated in the XRD micrograph, as influence to facilitate the geopolymerization reaction. Fig. 8a and
compared to FA indicates its higher reactivity as compared to FA. Their Fig. 8b show that the amorphous phase is missing or absent with
blends in cementitious enhance the mechanical properties [189]. While irregular particles with the presence of three minerals goosecrekite,
on the other hand, the irregular particle shape adversely affects the flow epistillnite, and gismondine (zeolite group). Their blends in cementi
properties of the cementitious composites. tious adamantly enhance the mechanical response of GP composites
[192–199].
2.2.4. Red mud as supporting material for geopolymer composite
Red Mud (RM) is a by-product of Bayer’s process for refining bauxite 2.2.5. Rice husk ash as supporting material for geopolymer composite
(Al2O3⋅nH2O) to alumina (Al2O3) with volume ranging from 55 to 65% Rice Husk Ash (RHA) is a secondary product obtained in the course of
of the treated bauxite, as a result, alumina is produced which serves as the burning of rice husk, mainly utilized as a fuel for the production of
the raw material for producing aluminium (Al) through Hall-Heroult electricity. It exists primarily in amorphous and partially in crystalline
process. RM contains a high amount of alumina (Al2O3) content and is phases and it contains a higher content of silica (greater than90–95 wt
classified as toxic industrial waste [190]. RM or bauxite contains a high %) which is further affected by the temperature and the period of
6
Fig. 9. (a) XRD of RHA [203], (b) SEM of RHA.
Fig. 10. (a) XRD of SF [207], (b) SEM image of SF [208].
burning [200]. The XRD and SEM graphs of RHA are illustrated in of Silicon (Si) and ferrosilicon (FeSi) alloy using an electric arc furnace.
Fig. 9a and Fig. 9b which show its amorphous characteristics but still the It is also commonly known as micro silica, volatized silica, and
phases of silica (SiO2) depend mainly upon the burning temperature condensed silica fume. It is a very fine powder having a diameter of 0.1
along with the method of ash production [202]. mm and is mainly utilized in high-performance concrete as a pozzolanic
RHA is an exceptional pozzolan that can be applied to produce material. The by-product obtained from the manufacturing of FeSi alloy
mixtures of special concrete [204]. This material may be utilized as an with 50% silicon (Si) comprises much less silica content and hence it is
alternate for cement in concrete production. A special cement is man not suitable for use as a pozzolanic material. A great quantity of SF is
ufactured by utilizing very fine amorphous silica present in the RHA. manufactured around the globe but due to its high purification cost, it
Moreover, it is also being used in low-permeable, high-performance, and contains less silica content and the product is normally disposed of in
high-strength concrete mixtures in the construction of bridges, marine open fields which leads to severe dust pollution and related health
environments, and nuclear power plants. One thousand kilograms of rice problems. Furthermore, SF with both low and high silica content has a
can produce almost 45 kgs of RHA which exhibits high surface area, nano-porous structure and is being utilized as supportive material for
significant pozzolanic properties, and high silica content (~95%) [205]. GPC in concrete. SF is an extremely reactive pozzolan depending upon
RHA mixed GPC could minimize the temperature effects that arise due to its physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics that might be
the hydration of cement. As compared to OPC, RHA mixed concrete can obtained from either artificial or natural sources. The silica (SiO2) in
increase the setting time of the cementitious paste and enhance the pozzolana reacts with portlandite obtained during the hydration of OPC
workability of concrete. Besides, RHA-based GPC can minimize the total and aids in the development of its strength. Moreover, this material
porosity of concrete, alter its pore composition, and significantly lessens gradually produces calcium silicate hydrate having the chemical
the permeability which reduces the effect of dangerous ions that composition of (CaH2O4Si), a binder that fills the empty voids in the
contribute to the reduction in the strength of the concrete matrix. RHA concrete materials and improves their durability, water-resistance, and
cement enhances the compressive strength and aids in increasing the strength. As compared to crystalline silica, amorphous silica reacts
initial age mechanical and long-lasting strength characteristics of GPC. quickly with silica. Fig. 10a shows the amorphous phase of SF with no
Explicitly, partial replacements of cement with RHA minimize the water definite crystalline peak and hence its uses in GPC give utmost me
dispersal into the concrete through capillary action and efficiently chanical properties [206]. Such difference mainly accounts for the
improve the resistance of GPC to sulphate attack. variations amongst active pozzolanas and materials having an identical
chemical composition that exhibit negligible pozzolanic activity.
2.2.6. Silica fume as supporting material for geopolymer composite Though, concrete-comprising SF can display high strength and dura
Silica Fume (SF) is a by-product obtained during the manufacturing bility. SF primarily contains amorphous silicon dioxide and very fine
7
Fig. 11. (a) XRD of MK [209], (b) SEM of MK [210].
from 10 to 70 range. SEM image reveals that MK has a plate-like

structure that helps in geopolymerization of GPC samples as shown in
Fig. 11b.
2.3. Properties of geopolymer composite
2.3.1. Compressive strength of GP composite

The compressive strength of concrete according to ASTMC109/
C109M is the most substantial physical property, where higher initial
strength is crucial for construction materials. Other properties that
include flexure strength, tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity
primarily depend on compressive strength. The strength of GPM is
affected by factors like calcium content, the molarity of NaOH, and the
ratios of binder/aggregate, solution/binder, Na2SiO3/NaOH, silicate/
Na2O, and silicate/Al respectively. Moreover, the development of the
compressive strength of GPC is notably influenced by the source mate
rial, adopted curing conditions, and particle-size distribution [211].
Heat-cured FA-based GPC achieves complete compressive strength after
1-day. Certainly, nearly 90% of the strength can be achieved within
Fig. 12. Compressive strength of FA based at different temperatures with limited hours if cured at a temperature ranging from 80 to 90 ◦ C.
curing time (CT) [222]. However, GPC cured in ambient conditions achieves strength with time
just as OPC. All the curing conditions result in long-term strength [212],
particles that are nearly 1/100, the size of an average particle of cement and curing temperature just triggers a change in time to achieve the
Fig. 10b. As SF has a large surface area containing fine particles and high ultimate compressive strength of a specific mix under consideration. The
silicon dioxide (SiO2) content, it is an extremely reactive pozzolan uti mechanical properties of GPC are significantly affected by source ma
lized in concrete. terials (AS) that are utilized for the proportioning and production of
GPC.
2.2.7. Metakaolin as supporting material for geopolymer composite Ismail et al. [213] utilized MK and FA as raw materials in the
The term ’Kaolin’ is derived from Kao-Ling (Gaoling), a Chinese manufacturing of GPC with different ratios of Na2SiO3 and NaOH so
town which is located in Jiangxi Province of Southeast China and is also lution to assess the initial compressive strength of GPC. The compressive
recognized as china clay. It is an earthen sciences term that refers to a strength of GPC is considerably influenced by composition, surface area,
rock that is affluent in Kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4). It is a layered mineral and particle shapes of FA, respectively [214]. Following these studies, it
of silicate containing a tetrahedral sheet of silica (SiO4) linked to an can be concluded that increasing the Al/Si ratio greater than 2 delays the
octahedral sheet of alumina (Al(O, OH)6) that shares the oxygen atoms. geopolymerization process and decrease the initial compressive strength
It has an extensive range of industrial uses predominantly in the paper of GPC [214]. Husein et al. [102] produced geopolymer mortars (GPMs)
and ceramic industry. Additionally, it is also being used in rubber and by replacing granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) with MK with varying
paints as filler whereas it also finds its major applications in concrete dosages ranging from 0 to 15% levels. The compressive strength of
and mortar to increase the durability and strength of the resulting resulting GPM at the curing of 28-days was observed to be increased
cementitious matrix. As reported by the British Geological Survey, the from 42 to 63.1 MPa with an increase in the concentration of MK up to
production of kaolin (KL) around the globe in 2011 was nearly 25.7 10–15%, respectively.
million tons with China, Korea, Iran, UK, Brazil, Germany, and the USA Various scholars have studied the mechanical properties of recycled
being the major producers. More than 19.0 million tons of KL was pro concrete aggregate (RCA) based GPC with 50% and 100% RCA content
duced by these countries representing around 75% of the world’s total and they observed that the compressive strength of GPC increases by
production. This makes them a vital candidate for making GPC. Fig. 11a nearly 10% from 7 to 28 days [73,215–217]. Petermann and Saeed
shows the XRD analysis of Metakaolin (MK) showing the presence of [218] observed that a favorable compressive strength can be achieved
alumina silicate composite with semi-crystalline phases. Three broad utilizing GGBFS and FA with MK in the manufacturing of GPC in suitable
crystalline peaks are observed namely as Quartz, Mullite, and Anatase proportions. Palomo et al. [59] deduced that using 8–12 M of NaOH to
activate various FA samples cured at 85 ◦ C for 1-day results in a material
8
448 Moreover, the liquid/binder ratio was kept to 0.5 as it is evident

that a greater liquid/binder ratio will result in lesser compressive
strength because of the evaporation of freely-moving water molecules.
With a suitable quantity of water removed from the AS matrix, it will aid
in the geopolymerization phenomenon to take place efficiently [226].
Tanakon et al. [227] assessed the effect of changing molarities of NaOH
to 6, 10, and 14 M on the compressive strength of GPC. They concluded
that increasing the molarity of NaOH will cause an increase in
compressive strength. Vasconcelos et al. [228] also examined the effect
of changing molarities of NaOH to 12, 14, and 16 M on the compressive
strength of GPM. He observed an increase in compressive strength after
7, 28, and 56-days when using 12–14 M while strength decreases beyond
14 M. At 16 M, the strength was noticed to be less as compared to that at
14 M as shown in Fig. 14. Moreover, increasing the molarity of NaOH
Fig. 13. Effect of waste material with activator on compressive strength [101]. signifies the augmentation of compressive strength in GPC as compared
to conventional concrete [73,216,229–231].
with a compressive strength ranging from 35 to 40 MPa. However, if Dai et al. [232] examined the effect of changing the ratio of SiO2/
sodium silicate is added to NaOH (SiO2/Na2O = 1.23), strength up to 90 Na2O to 0.96, 1.28, and 1.91 on the compressive strength development
MPa can be achieved. Moreover, SiO2/Na2O is not only an important of GPM. It was noted that an increase in CT causes an increase in me
factor but the water/binder ratio should also be taken under consider chanical strength. For the ratio of 0.96, the compressive strength of 47.1
ation in such cases [219,220]. Songpiriyakij et al. [221] recommended MPa was obtained. Moreover, with further increase in the ratio, strength
an optimal ratio of SiO2/Al2O3 as 15.9 to achieve the maximum decreases which are due to the presence of excessive Si+ ions in the
compressive strength in FA-based GPC. geopolymerization reaction. Also, at a ratio of 1.91, the lowest
Swanepoel and Strydom [222] carried out a study based on GPs compressive strength of 40.8 MPa is observed. Usually, the greater
prepared by mixing kaolinite, FA, NaOH, water, and sodium silica so strength of geopolymeric green cement is due to the formation of
lution. The compressive strength was not only affected by curing time alumina-silicate mono-polymer during geopolymeric reaction at an
(CT) but also by curing temperature as well. It was observed that the early age. At a lower ratio ranging from 0.96 to 1.28 greater compressive
optimal strength transpired when samples were cured at 60 ◦ C for 48- strength is observed due to increased termination of Al+ and Si+ ions and
hours as shown in Fig. 12. consequent formation of aluminate and silicate mono-polymer. Though,
Naskar and Chakraborty [223] carried out a series of experiments to at a comparatively higher ratio of 1.91, the geopolymeric reaction was
examine the development of the high compressive strength of GPC. The identical to the reaction of hydration of cement. The C-S-H gel can be
authors utilized 70% GGBFS and 30% FA mix proportion and achieved obtained besides the hydration reaction. For extended reaction time, the
the compressive strength of 66 MPa. oligomers are produced to provide strength to green-cement GP at a later
The compressive strength of several geopolymer pastes (GPPs) pri stage. Furthermore, adding slag by nearly 30% of the total binder results
marily depends on the nature of the binder as shown in Fig. 13. It was in compressive strength of about 55 MPa at 28-days. The setting time
observed that increasing GGBFS content will trigger an increase in reduced quickly with a higher volume of slag in the mix and as the slag
compressive strength for sodium silicate (NS), sodium hydroxide (NH), content increases, a decrease in the slump of fresh concrete is observed
and sodium hydroxide plus sodium silicate solution (NHNS) series. This [233,234]. GPC can produce greater compressive strengths with
increase is due to easily available free Ca2+ ions that react with alumina enhanced durability which makes it an appropriate choice to be utilized
and silica to form C-A-S-H gel and concurred with GP gels [224,225]. In in concrete applications that are vulnerable to the environment. Table 3
addition to that, the reaction of alkali solutions and GGBFS is an summarizes the effect of GP variables on compressive strength on paste,
exothermal reaction due to which heat is produced which assists in the mortar, and concrete.
geopolymerization process. Hence, an increase in the content of GGBFS The compressive strength of GPC is dependent on mixed design and
increased the compressive strength of GPPs [101]. parameters. Table 4 demonstrates the benefits and drawbacks of each
Fig. 14. Effect of molarities content on compressive strength of GPM [228].
9
Table 3 2.3.3. Thermal endurance of GPC

Compressive strength of GP composite with different variables. Concrete generally exhibits decent properties concerning fire resis
References Category Source M T ( ◦ C) CT* CS** tance. Though, it is well-known that heating OPC from 800 to 1000 ◦ C
materials (h) (MPa) will trigger the decrease in residual strength to 20–30%. It is usually due
[26] Paste FA 12 70 ◦ C 24 h 65.0 to the dehydration and obliteration of CSH, aggregates, and other
[235] Fluidized bed 10 40 ◦ C 24 h 72.0 crystalline hydrates. Fire provokes a high temperature-gradient which
FA-MK results in the separation of the cold inner layer and the hot surface layer
[236] FA and SD 10 40 ◦ C 24 h 67.0 and the hot layer tends to spall from the cooler layer [267]. Besides, GPC
[237] RHA and WTS 10 60 ◦ C 24 h 24.0
[238] FA and coir 8 75 ◦ C 24 h 31.4
exhibits different thermal properties as compared to OPC. In contra
fiber diction to this, GPs exhibit decent fire resistance properties at higher
[239] FA-MK- 10 20 ◦ C 24 h 52.0 temperatures due to the presence of dispersed nano-pores in micro-
Sepiolite structure which allows the evaporation and migration of water vapors
[161] FA and POFA 14 65 ◦ C 48 h 72.7
without any harm to AS network [268]. During heating, various events
[240] Nano TiO2 in 10 40 ◦ C 72 h 77.0
fluidized bed occurred like water adsorbed by N-A-S-H gel is evaporated, the forma
FA-MK tion of water-free products, melting, and crystallization of stable water-
[241] FA and IOT 10 7 thermal 36.0 free phases which lead to the destruction of the GP matrix. The phase
cycle at change of GPs during heating is illustrated in Fig. 15 below.
200 ◦ C
[242] Mortar MK with CG N/ 22 ◦ C 24 h 97.0
Kong et al. [269] observed an increase in residual strength of GPPs
A containing FA by 6% when exposed to 800 ◦ C while a decrease in
[243] GGBFS, MK 14 65 ◦ C 24 h 47.9 strength of GPPs containing MK was increased by 34%. As the perme
and RHA ability of GP containing FA is high it offers an exit path for moisture
[244] FA 16 65 ◦ C 24 h 56.0
during heating which results in less damage. The increase in strength is
[245] FA 14 75 ◦ C 22 h 80.0
[246] Concrete FA 12 75 ◦ C 24 h 62.30 also due to the sintering of unreacted FA particles. GPPs formed by
[247] FA 15 80 ◦ C 24 h 48.7 activator containing potassium and MK indicated an increase in per
[248] FA 16 60 ◦ C 24 h 53.56 formance after increasing the temperature as compared to activator
[147] FA 14 25 ◦ C 24 h 34.30 solution containing sodium. As the Si/Al ratio (greater than1.5) in
BA 14 25 ◦ C 24 h 0.60
creases the strength deterioration decreases [270]. Aggregates having a
FA and BA 14 25 ◦ C 24 h 8.40
[249] FA 14 46 ◦ C 24 h 42.50 size of greater than 10 mm, lead to a decrease in strength performance of
FA 14 46 ◦ C 24 h 40.60 both ordinary and higher temperatures. The loss in strength in GPC
[250] FA and LWA 12 70 ◦ C 24 h 17.0 containing FA at higher temperatures is due to thermal disparity among
[158] FA and KL 14 100 ◦ C 72 h 54.0
aggregates and GPP [271]. Zhao and Sanjayan [272] observed no
[71] FA and SF 14 100 ◦ C 72 h 51.2
[74] FA and nano- 12 25 ◦ C 24 h 46.43 spalling when GPC containing FA having a strength of 40–100 MPa was
silica exposed to a temperature of 850 ◦ C. Moreover, they observed that GPC
[251] FA and nano- 8 80 ◦ C 24 h 47.0 exhibited greater spalling resistance with the same level of strength
silica under fire as compared to OPC because of its enhanced porosity.
[22] FA and LS 8 60 ◦ C 24 h 32
Sarker and Macbeath [123] studied the fire-resistant performance of
[65] FA and 12 75 ◦ C 18 h 53.2
GGBFS GPC panels and observed that the rate of heat transfer of GPC panels was
[252] FA with SSD 8 60 ◦ C 24 h 62 greater than concrete panels containing cement when exposed to an
[161] FA, POFA, 14 65 ◦ C 48 h 30.1 elevated temperature (ET) of 1000 ◦ C. However, when the specimen was
and OPS
exposed to high temperatures the damage in the case of the GPC panel
[253] PCFA, 3 20 ◦ C 24 h 9.00
GGBFS, and
was less severe due to less temperature difference in concrete. This is the
LWA reason which resulted in a greater residual strength/original strength
[151] POFA, MK, 14 65 ◦ C 48 h 31.9 ratio for GPC panels 0.61–0.71 as compared to concrete panels con
OPS, and steel taining cement 0.50–0.53. Henceforth, it was concluded that GPC panels
fiber
have greater fire endurance in contrast to concrete panels. The tradi
[160] POFA, 14 65 ◦ C 24 h 41.5
GGBFS, and tionality of structural GPC panels to fire-resistance requirements in AS
MK 1530 [273] was also stated by Aldred and Day [274]. So, it can be stated
that GPC has far better fire-resistance as compared to OPC. The melting
*CT: curing time; **CS: compressive strength.
point of GPC is about 1200 ◦ C with no indications of spalling [275]. The
performance of GPC at higher temperatures was also examined by
influential parameter influencing the properties of GPC. The advantages
[276–278] and concluded that GPC indicates a better resistance to ETs
and the drawbacks of each significant parameter have been shown to
and fire as compared to OPC mortars. Mathew et al. [279] determined
help decide the various ratios of the ingredients of GPC.
that GPC containing FA activated by potassium-based alkaline solution
indicates preferable thermal resistance as compared to a sodium-based
2.3.2. Durability of GP composites
alkaline solution. FA-based GPC with sodium-based activators indi
The strength of any structural element is its resistance to weathering,
cated more cracking, shrinkage, and considerable strength loss at a
degradation, chemical attack, and abrasion. It is an essential component
temperature of 800 ◦ C in contrast to potassium-based activators because
in an adverse environment for structural integrity. Properties such as
of an increase in average pore size [280]. Wang et al. [281] stated that
sorptivity, submerged absorption, water absorption, a noticeable
GPC was produced utilizing MK, sodium silicate, and potassium silicate
amount of porous voids, chloride absorption, sulfate, or other acid at
decent fire-resistance and thermal stability to a temperature of 1400 ◦ C.
tacks may decide the stability of the GPC. Moreover, GPC usually has
Moreover, they stated that increasing the quantity of water and exposing
much more endurance than ordinary OPC. Table 5 summarizes the
sodium silicate to fire will result in a decrease in thermal resistance of
properties used to assess the durability of GPC. The effect of each
GPC. Additionally, they observed that GPs containing potassium silicate
property is analyzed and scaled between ‘too strong (5)’ and ‘strong (3)’
indicated thermal stability up to 1400 ◦ C. Furthermore, some major
and ‘normal (2)’.
outcomes at higher temperatures are enumerated in Table 6.
The thermal endurance of GPC meets the requirements as it is a
10
Table 4
Parametric properties affecting compressive strength.
Parameters Advantage Disadvantage Remarks Reference
Silicate/ Workable GPC composite can be achieved The optimal ratio of Silicate/hydroxide is The ideal amount of silicate/hydroxide ratio [254]
hydroxide together with enhanced mechanical found to be 1, any concentration higher than depends on the precursor type used in the GPC mix.
ratio properties by increasing the content of this results in porous microstructure and The precursor comprising more silica and alumina
silicate/hydroxide poor mechanical performance needs less silicate/hydroxide in the preparation of
the GPC blend and vice versa.
Curing Curing at higher temperature results in better Higher curing temperature ultimately results Depends upon precursor and reactants used. [255]
temperature strength at early ages in lower strength at later ages
Activator Direct relation with compressive and tensile Molarity higher than optimal value results in The most critical factor in the GPC design mix. The [174]
Molarity strength excessive shrinkage cracks and ultimately optimum amount of activator molarity in the mix
affects the durability of GPC composite. design is critical for adequate strength
development. Furthermore, the type and
molarities of the activator used, have various
impacts on GPC’s microstructural properties.
Silica/ The silica/alumina ratio is significantly – The silica-alumina ratio in the GPC mix depends on [256]
Alumina important as it decides the Si-O-Si bond and the type, structure, and contents of precursors and
ratio Si-O-Al bond concentrations that directly activators.
affect the mechanical properties.
Activator/ A workable GPC mix can be obtained by .Compressive strength is negatively affected In every GPC mix, the optimum ratio of activator/ [256]
binder ratio increasing the ratio of activator and binder if higher content is used binding depends on the used type of precursor and
activator.
Table 5
Durability properties of GPC.
Reference Durability Relationship with Impact on Remarks
Parameters Durability Durability
[257] Water Absorption Inverse 5 Lower durability results in higher water absorption which ultimately reveals the mechanism of
water transportation in GPC.
[258] Acid attack Inverse 3 Each kind of acid attack relies on GPC sample environmental conditions. The acid attack is also
influenced by the physical state and chemical structure of GPC.
[259] Sorptivity Inverse 3 Higher sorptivity ratios contribute to increased capillary water rise in the GPC mixture.
[260] AVPV Inverse 3 The same consequence as sorptivity and absorption of water in GPC. An increase in the
apparent volume of permeable voids (AVPV) would expose the GPC to deterioration and
negative environmental impacts.
[261] Strength degradation Inverse 3 The compactness of the GPC specimens, subjected to various chemical solutions, can be seen by the
extent of deterioration in the split tensile strength, flexural strength, and compressive strength.
[262] Weight loss Inverse 3 Increased weight loss in specimens contributes to damage and decreased durability, particularly
when specimens are submerged in a solution of sulphates of sodium and magnesium, sulphuric
acid, and NaCl. At first, the weight of GPC increases as these chemicals penetrate the concrete. It
also induces the expansion of the concrete volume that creates the micro-cracks in the GPC. The
expansion process would negatively influence durability.
[263] Chloride ingress Inverse 3 The inclusion of chloride in GPC is based on both the physical and chemical conditions of exposure
to GPC samples. Higher chloride ingress in GPC is the measure of the extent of wider micro and
macro cracks, which also affects GPC’s durability.
[264] Discontinuous pores Direct 3 Discontinuous air voids would increase GPC workability and resilience, especially under severe
and voids environmental conditions.
[265] Wetting-drying cycles Inverse 3 The heating and cooling, wet and dry cycles influence the microstructure of GPC and also affect the
mechanical properties. Higher weight loss will during these environmental conditions results in a
considerable decrease in the durability of GPC.
[266] Shrinkage cracks Inverse 2 Higher content of shrinkage cracks results in deterioration at a higher rate.
for conventional concrete at 400 ◦ C. Kareem et al [250] examined the

thermal effect at higher temperatures by integrating FA in the mortar,
paste, and in the production of LWAGC. Moreover, strength deteriora
tion was observed in the whole specimen. However, less loss in residual
strength was observed for LWAGC after 800 ◦ C. This is primarily due to
thermal disparity among LWA and pastes phases as both have different
thermal coefficients.
Kareem et al. [288] examined the influence of waste ceramic on GPC
when exposed to higher temperatures. The microstructure was primarily
homogeneous that proposes decent geopolymerization behavior indi
cating that waste ceramic can be utilized as alternate source material for
geopolymerization. When heated up to 100 ◦ C, several small cracks were
Fig. 15. The phase change of GP when exposed to temperature. observed in the transverse direction to the cross-section with varying
lengths from several hundred nanometres to several hundred microns.
Moreover, when the temperature was increased to 600 ◦ C, a decrease in
valuable choice for applications that need heat-resistance. GPC con
the number of cracks was observed however the observed cracks were
taining FA does not fail readily when exposed to higher temperatures
larger. Duxson et al. [290] indicated that a decrease in the number of
and indicates stable behavior whereas 90% of strength loss is observed
cracks of the micro-structure suggests that GP experiences healing of
11
Table 6 Table 6 (continued )

Elevated temperature (ET) effect on GP composite. Ref. ET Key findings
Ref. ET Key findings
strength when exposed to a temperature of 500 ◦ C in
[271] 800 ◦ C Loss of strength in GPC at higher temperatures was observed comparison to those samples that were not exposed to higher
because of thermal disparity between aggregates and GP temperatures. However, at 300 ◦ C maximum compressive
matrix. The strength at higher temperatures primarily strength is obtained when FA content is increased.
depends upon the size of GPP samples. Thermal cracking is Contrarily, maximum strength temperature faces a delay
induced because of substantial temperature differences when POFA content is increased. In the meantime, all
among the surface and core of the cross-section of the samples subjected to a temperature of greater than 500 ◦ C
sample. Hence, thermal disparity resulting from thermal indicate strength loss.
gradient is possibly the cause for size effects. Aggregates [287] 800- They examined the thermal stability of GP materials
having a size of greater than 10 mm lead to decent strength 1200 ◦ C containing FA at a temperature of 800–1200 ◦ C. Moreover,
performance in both ordinary and higher temperatures they observed an increase in compressive strength upon
respectively. heating utilizing potassium silicate however decrease in
[99] 200- GPC exhibits superior performance at higher temperatures. strength was noticed for temperature beyond 1000 ◦ C.
800 ◦ C As the polymer structure of alumino-silicate was steadily [250] 400- GP paste and mortar containing FA indicated exceptional
cross-linked so when BAG and OPC concrete were exposed to 800 ◦ C compressive strength when it was not subjected to any
higher temperatures respectively, BAG concrete indicated temperature due to the occurrence of high rates of GP
superior structural stability. The hairline cracks appeared in reactions at greater activator content while less strength is
BAG concrete at a temperature of 600–800 ◦ C while for OPC indicated by LWA as it has a porous structure. However, loss
they were observed at 200 ◦ C. At a higher temperature of in residual strength of LWC when exposed to 800 ◦ C is less as
200–800 ◦ C, the zeolite-like compound of NASH gel in compared to GP paste and mortar. Moreover, LWAGC
samples of BAG concrete reacted as thermally stable indicates a negligible loss in strength and decent thermal
structures like analcime and hydrosodalite. This resulted in stability when subjected to higher temperatures due to the
the improvement of the crystallinity of GP materials during microstructural properties of LWAs.
heating till 200–400 ◦ C and sustained its structure until [288] 100- The synthesized GPPs indicated the compressive strength of
800 ◦ C. 1000 ◦ C 71.1 MPa at 28-days and beneficial anti-thermal
[282] 200- Sodium silicate indicated more endurance to deterioration characteristics by indicating a compressive strength of 75.6
1000 ◦ C when exposed to elevated temperatures as compared to MPa when exposed to 1000 ◦ C. It was concluded that waste
Portland Cement. As the concentration of activator is ceramic might assist in the thermal stability of GPs as
increased it results in the decrease of thermal-shock substantial source material.
endurance and compressive strength. AAFA indicates more [289] 200- Strength loss for rubberized GPC at higher temperatures was
resistance to higher temperatures as compared to 800 ◦ C greater than control GPC to some extent due to the possible
conventional Portland Cement as it has greater residual divergence among coefficients of thermal expansion of
strength when exposed to 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 ◦ C. essential materials.
AAFA seems more beneficial as a fire-resistant binder than
OPC. Hence, it is concluded that for construction purposes
AAFA could be fabricated as it has a great ability to resist minor cracks and considerable thermal relaxation which is constant with
fire. the rise of compressive strength after exposure. When the samples are
[283] 800 C ◦
GPs indicated an increase in strength of nearly 53% when
heated up to 1000 ◦ C it shows a well-compacted and even surface
exposed to elevated temperature. However, mixtures
containing aggregate and GP having similar GP-binder indicating the softening of material and reduction in surface roughness
formulations resulted in a decrease in strength by 65% when which results in a decrease in compressive strength.
exposed to the same temperature. The authors state that this Zhang et al. [86] observed the spalling behavior of GPC by altering
is due to the increase in the combination of sintering and moisture contents, heat rates, and strength levels. Some burst bumps and
polymerization reaction at higher temperatures. As the
temperature increases, aggregate expands so at 800 ◦ C
white spots were noticed on the surface of the specimens. As the mois
expansion was about 1.5–2.5%. ture content increases it results in an increment of burst bumps and
[284] Up to All specimens experienced strength loss between ambient quantity of cracks because of higher vapor pressure that develops in GPC
800 ◦ C temperature and 200 ◦ C. The reason for this loss in strength samples. Even though various burst bumps were present on the surface,
could be water escaping from the GPC matrix. As water exits
no substantial spalling was observed. Besides, as the heating rate in
the mixture, it leaves behind plentiful voids hence
compromising the structural integrity of the mixture. creases, it increases the number of burst bumps. Moreover, it can be
Polymerization triggers an increase in strength at observed that samples having greater compressive strength indicate
200–400 ◦ C whereas the decrease in strength is observed at more thermal cracking, but no considerable spalling occurred.
800 ◦ C because of the breakdown of aggregate and gel.
[285] 23-680 ◦ C The strength of GP increases as the temperature increases
from 290 to 520 ◦ C attaining the maximum strength at
2.3.4. Freeze and thaw aspect of GPC
520 ◦ C which is nearly double of the initial strength at 20 ◦ C. Pilehvar et al. [39] investigated the influence of the freeze–thaw (FT)
However, between 520 and 575 ◦ C, a sudden loss in stiffness cycle on the mechanical properties of micro-encapsulated phase-change
and considerable visco-elastic behavior resulted in glass- material (MPCM)-based Portland cement concrete (PCC) and GPC as
transition behavior. Glass-transition temperature was
illustrated in Fig. 16. The influence of freezing and thawing was exam
observed to be 560 ◦ C. Moreover, the reduction in strength
occurs as the materials exhibit brittle behavior which results ined on the physical and mechanical behaviour of PCC and GPC con
in damage hence making it problematic to assist thermal taining two dissimilar kinds of MPCM Fig. 16(a-d). Microstructural
strain differences during cooling. investigations demonstrated the appearance of micro-cracks for PCC and
[280] 25- It was observed that concrete activated by a solution exhibits GPC respectively in the interface among the paste and aggregates as the
1100 ◦ C superior performance as compared to OPC. Moreover, they
found that the residual strength of FA/OPC and FA/GGBFS
capillary water expands during freezing and thawing which as a result
concretes at 1100 ◦ C are 5.5 MPa and 15 MPa respectively. will cause deterioration of concrete as shown in Fig. 16(b). Crystals are
Contrary to OPC in which 100% strength loss occurred. At produced in PCC when exposed to freezing and thawing as demonstrated
temperatures greater than 900 ◦ C the activated concrete in Fig. 16a and Fig. 16b. Moreover, the loss of mass was below 1% for
mixture becomes well-dense and crystalline phases like
every sample after 28 cycles of FT. The compressive strength of PCC and
akermanite, albite, nepheline, and sodalite are identified.
[286] 300- They utilized FA and POFA as source materials. GPMs GPC reduces when exposed to 28 cycles, but GPC indicates more
1000 ◦ C indicated the formation of increased micro-pores at higher endurance to FT as compared to PCC. In addition to that, an engaging
temperatures. GP mixtures containing FA/POFA attained observation was made that adding micro-encapsulated phase change
materials (MPCM) will result in a reduction of decrease in strength to
12
Fig. 16. Effect of PCM on GP matrix; (a) PCC 20% PE-EVA-PCM; (b) GPC 20% PE-EVA-PCM; (c) PCC 20% St-DVB-PCM; (d) GPC 20% St-DVB-PCM [39].
Table 7
Effect of SFRGPC on properties [292].
Batches Impact strength (N) Impact stiffness (N/ Impact toughness
mm) (mJ)
Before After Before After Before After

cycle cycle cycle cycle cycle cycle
FA0 429.6 442.1 749 1198 1833 1822

FA10 443.3 578.3 1007 786 2108 2216
FA30 290.0 345.0 665 658 1587 1939
FA50 268.8 332.4 456 600 1307 1828
2.5% for every sample after 28d when exposed to FT cycles which proves
that MPCM offers exceptional endurance to FT cycles. Frost-induced
stresses are reduced as the water expands to the free space offered by
air-voids and pores among micro-capsules and adjacent concrete.
Similarly, Topcu et al. [291] examined the durability and micro
structural properties of alkali-activated Coal Bottom Ash (CBA)-based
GC by fluctuating the proportion of SiO2 and Na2O. FT cycles indicate a Fig.17. Weight loss response of GGBFS with recycled aggregate (RA) against
reduction in compressive strength. As the ratio of SiO2/CBA is increased, FT cycles [295].
the resistance against FT increases. Yunsheng et al. [292] utilized the
extrusion technique to develop a Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) fiber rein
deterioration. (2) As the FT test is a time taking process (about 10d),
forced geopolymer concrete (GC). GPC, exposed to FT cycles and H2SO4
more GP products will be obtained. Short fiber reinforced fly ash-
attack indicates a loss of 1% in strength for 30 days. Moreover, it is quite
geopolymer composites SFRFGC indicates exceptional endurance to FT
an indistinction with the literature that the FT cycle decreases the
cycles depending upon the analysis and test results.
strength of polymeric concrete but the author stated incremental in
Zhao et al. [293] examined the resistance of class F FA-based GPC to
crease in impact resistance of short fiber reinforces GPC as shown in
FT by changing slag content. The results indicated that FT-resistance of
Table 7. The cause for this observation can be explicated through suc
FA-based GPC containing 10% calcium content is inadequate. Though,
ceeding facts: (1) as SFRFGC is well-compacted and dense so water
increasing the content of calcium from 10% to 50% will result in the
cannot percolate into the plates which will result in almost no FT
13
Fig. 18. Effect of NS and SBL with Na2SiO3/NaOH [296].
increased FT-resistance from 5 to 225 FT cycles which shows a signifi significant loss in the compressive strength of GPC and show good
cant improvement as GPC-50 fulfills the engineering requirement. resistance in these circumstances. The measured losses in the resistance
Specimen GPC 50 shows resistance to FT, however, a crack pattern in the and weight of the samples after 100, 200, and 300 FT cycles were 7%,
form of a network was also seen after 225 cycles. Similarly, Sun et al. 11%, 14%, and 2.1%, 4–5.5%, and 7.6% respectively as shown in
[294] examined the influence of FT cycles on FA-based inorganic mor Fig. 17.
tars including pore-forming agents. The author noticed a mass loss in the Ekinci [296] inspected the influence of FT on volcanic tuff-based GP
control sample after 300 FT cycles. Though, samples containing FA and utilizing nano-media and styrene-butadiene latex (SBL). The author
pore-forming agent under gain in mass. Moreover, using an entraining noticed considerable resistance to FT when utilized an alkaline solution
agent in an FA-based sample indicates no adverse effect on the strength. of Na2SiO3 and NaOH. Samples NS-1 and SBL indicate extreme resis
Henceforth, FA-mortars are more resistant to FT as compared to OPC- tance to FT as illustrated in Fig. 18. Utilizing nano-silica in GPC makes
mortars. the matrix denser, fills the void, and helps in geopolymerization
Hadi et al. [295] utilized GGBFS with recycled aggregate (RA) to showing its adamant side to use as in durability approaches.
examine the FT-resistance of specimens and concluded that they have a Slavik et al. [297] utilized fluidized bed combustion BA to study the
long-term resistance to FT cycles. The results of FT cycles indicate no influence of 50 FT cycles. It was observed that the compressive strength
14
Fig. 19. Effect of waste materials on GPC with mass loss and SEM analysis [302].
the termination of raw materials and geopolymerization methods during

Table 8 the synthesis of the sample which encourages the development of
Abrasion resistance of GPC. strength. Though, at a greater temperature of 80 ◦ C samples indicate
Mix Initial Final Weight Average Reduction in lesser compressive strength in comparison to 50 ◦ C. This might be
weight weight loss (%) wear(mm) wear with triggered by the cracks formed internally during curing and quicker
(kg) (kg) control
moisture evaporation, which as a result reduces the moisture content to
specimen (%)
aid geopolymerization at later stages. Similar conclusions were made in
GPC 0.846 0.844 0.24 0.171 27.50 other investigations [300,301]. Reliable with the alterations in their
SFRGPC1 0.881 0.879 0.18 0.091 61.40
mechanical strength during FT, the variations in porosity, mineralogy
SFRGPC2 0.872 0.871 0.12 0.087 63.13
SFRGPC3 0.879 0.878 0.09 0.075 68.20 and chemical bonding of sample cured for 14 days at higher tempera
SFRGPC4 0.891 0.890 0.05 0.063 73.30 tures exhibit substantial additional geopolymerization and the produc
CC 0.894 0.891 0.33 0.236 – tion of GP gels during the initial stages of FT-cycles whereas it also
SFRC2 0.904 0.901 0.33 0.216 8.00
shows partial termination of GP gels at the later stages of FT cycles.
Likewise, the results of porosity, mineralogy, and chemical bonding of
decreases though, it has not reduced below 80% of compressive values samples cured for 28 days propose the partial termination of GP gels
for all samples when compared to un-affected samples which indicate an during FT which approximately concur with the alterations in their
adequate FT-resistance. Shahrajabian et al. [298] inspected the influ mechanical strength. Li et al. [85] observed that RGM is durable and has
ence of nano-particles in AA slag concrete by carrying-out the long-term endurance to FT cycles.
compression test and mass loss test after FT cycles. An increase in Duan et al. [302] examined the influence of GP containing slag, FA,
compressive strength was observed with an increasing concentration and MK against 100 FT cycles and noticed that the final mass remaining
though, a decrease is observed in the control sample at zero cycles (FT). was yet greater than 80% as illustrated in Fig. 19. Initially, a minor loss
Zhao et al. [299] studied the response of the FT cycle on red mud slurry- with segregation of paste and aggregate took place on the specimen
Class F fly ash (RMSFASH) by altering curing temperature and CT surface for the first 25 FT cycles. Moreover, after completion of 50 FT
respectively. It was observed that 14 days CT and 50 ◦ C curing tem cycles, it was observed that the coating of paste around particles has
perature are more adequate conditions to synthesize RMSFFA-based GP deteriorated and some of the aggregates with enfeeble contacts were
to achieve greater mechanical strength initially and better FT-resistance. released from the mixture. Additionally, after the completion of 100
This is possible because 50 ◦ C is more commendable and facilitates both cycles, it was noticed that a huge number of particles were loosened, and
15
6 PC PG PGS
5
Depth of wear
0
3d 7d 28d 56d 90d
Days
Fig. 22. abrasion resistance of GPC with RA and nano-silica [176].
FT-resistance negatively. The reaction of Na2SiO3 with calcareous

compounds such as CaO, CaAl2Si2O8, and CaSO4) in FA source resulted
in Ca(OH)2 or C-A-S-H gel and as a result, it weakens the internal
structure and increases perviousness henceforth having a negative in
fluence on FT-resistance.
2.3.5. Abrasion resistance

The ability of concrete to withstand wearing away by rubbing is
known as abrasion resistance. Presently, ASTM Standards (C-994 1999),
BS-EN1338 2003, and IS1237 2012 are being utilized to study abrasion
resistance of GPC. Ganesan et al. [304] assessed the abrasion resistance
of GPC containing FA, OPC, and steel FRCs specimens by investigating
Fig. 20. (a) Depth of wear of cement repair, geopolymeric repair, and geo
the loss in weight. It was observed that weight loss in GPC was 0.24%
polmeric repair with steel slag; (b) abrasion resistance grades at various and that in OPC and SFRC is 0.33% indicating that GPC resists abrasion
ages [305]. action effectively as compared to CC. GPC suffered an average abrasion
of 27% which was less than CC. Moreover, adding fiber in both CC and
GPC resulted in increased resistance to abrasion. It might be due to the
1.4 increase in density of SFRGPC samples as shown in Table 8.
GC OPC Hu et al. [305] assessed the abrasion resistance of geopolymeric
Depth of wear at 28 days (mm)
1.2
materials in accord with GB16925-1997. The endurance of repair ma
1 terials to abrasion was assessed at 3, 7, 28, 56, and 90 days about the
depth of wearing as displayed in Fig. 20(a). It was observed that increase
0.8 in the age of material results in a decrease in depth of wear. The depth
0.6
(P) decreases by 48%, 44%, 29%, 28%, and 29% respectively for
increasing age when comparing PG with PC. Moreover, when the com
0.4 parison was made among PGS and PG the decrease in (P) was observed by
9%, 8.9%, 21.4%, 22.2%, and 22.5% respectively which indicated that
0.2
depth of wearing for PG is less than PC hence, PG exhibits better resis
0 tance to abrasion than PC. The extent of decrease in-depth for PGS and PG
0% 10% 20% 30% is less than that for PC which is identical to the relation in their
% of Rubber Fiber compressive strengths. The prime cause for this is that abrasion resis
tance is estimated through the denseness of the structure. PG can form a
Fig. 21. Abrasion resistance of geopolymer concrete (GC) with ordinary Port well-dense structure earlier than PC. The estimated value at increasing
land cement concrete (OPC) [310]. ages about the grade of abrasion resistance is demonstrated through a
graph in Fig. 20(b) indicates that increasing the age of materials grade
the coating of GPP has deteriorated as well as internal damages were also increases. Also, it can be observed that the grade of abrasion
observed. Increasing FT cycles results in a reduction of the mass of resistance (Ia) for geopolymer repair (PG) is greater than that of cement
samples. Initially, the loss of mass appeared imperceptible but after the repair (PC) but smaller than that of geopolymer repair with steel slag
completion of 75 cycles, a comparatively much quicker loss of mass was (PGS).
observed. Though the mass loss initially was negligible but still, losses Nuaklong et al. [77] concluded that loss in weight due to the wearing
could easily be observed after 75 FT cycles which exhibited the devel effect of NAGC was less as compared to RAGC. The limestone-based
opment of internal damages. Furthermore, a well-dense matrix with a mixture has greater compressive strength as compared to the RA-
dense transition zone leads to the improvement of overall response and based mixture which results in greater resistance to surface abrasion
is illustrated (see Fig. 19) through SEM images. FA-based GP exhibits of the limestone-based mixture [306]. Higher MK content resulted in
long-term endurance to FT as no damage was reported after 150 cycles. higher abrasion resistance. Also, the abrasion resistance of concrete
Temuujin et al. [303] utilized class F FA to prepare GP and was activated mainly depends upon its compressive strength [307–309]. Luhar et al
by a solution of NaOH/Na2SiO3 and cured for 22 h at a temperature of [310] utilized rubber in GPC to conduct an abrasion test at 28-days and
70 ◦ C. The FT cycles of GP were greater than 40 however adding made a comparison of results with OPC. It is exciting to see that in GP,
Na2SiO3 solution resulted in no improvement in FT durability of GP abrasion resistance decreases. However, the abrasion resistance of
containing FA. The presence of compounds like lime in FA affected the rubber-based GP increases when compared to the control specimen. But
16
Fig. 23. The average depth of abrasion of GPC by Taguchi method [313].
better resistance to abrasion [311]. The results of nano-SiO2 based RAGC

indicated that adding 1–2% NS results in no or minor resistance to
abrasion while using 3% NS resulted in the maximum weight loss of 3.7
g. The effect of using an excess amount of NS is less apparent in the
strengths than those of surface abrasion resistance. The inappropriate
use of SiO2/Al2O3 ratio led to a decrease in abrasion resistance. Chin
daprasirt et al. [312] stated that an increase in SiO2 content led to a
decrease in strength. They observed that using a 4.00–4.79 ratio of SiO2/
Al2O3 led to a decrease in strength by 50%. Hence, excessive use of
silicate content can be the reason for a decrease in abrasion resistance
and strength.
Mohebi et al. [313] utilized the Taguchi method of analysis to
examine resistance to abrasion of Na2SiO3/NaOH (AAS) concrete by
varying factors like NaOH molarity, AAS/slag ratio, CT, and NaOH/
Na2SiO3 ratio as displayed in Fig. 23. By taking average abrasion depth
after 3-days (72 h) under consideration, it was observed that AAS/slag
Fig. 24. Abrasion resistance of GPC containing FA-MK sepiolite [239].
content of 0.4 indicated maximum resistance to abrasion as illustrated in
Fig. 23(b). However, varying this factor had no significant effect on the
average depth of abrasion (ADAt). Identical to the results of compressive
with an increasing amount of rubber, resistance decreases yet it is
strength, it was noticed that using 6 M of NaOH and NaOH/Na2SiO3
greater than OPC as illustrated in Fig. 21. It was observed that the depth
ratio of 3 resulted in the highest abrasion resistance. Contrarily, at
of wear was inside the allowable limits for all mixtures. Hence, it is
elevated curing temperatures of 60 ◦ C to 95 ◦ C resistance to abrasion
stated that rubber tyre fibers can be utilized with FA or cement to
decreased while ADAt increases as compared to that at 25 ◦ C as shown in
manufacture floor tiles for general and heavy purpose.
Fig. 23(a). An increase of 35% in ADAt is observed as the temperature
Nuaklong et al. [176] examined the abrasion resistance of GPC with
increases from 25 ◦ C to 60 ◦ C whereas for 60 ◦ C to 95 ◦ C this increase
RA and nano-silica as shown in Fig. 22. The weight loss in RAGC
was observed to be only 1% which indicates the negative influence of
decreased as the amount of OPC is increased to 15% in the mixture. The
curing at higher temperatures on resistance to abrasion. It appears that
mixture containing 15% OPC indicated exceptional abrasion resistance
some water was quickly evaporated from the surface of cured specimens
with a weight loss of 2.1 g (36% loss) as compared to RAGC deprived of
and hence slag grains were partly hydrated. This might reduce the
OPC. The abrasion resistance and compressive strength of concrete were
abrasion resistance on the concrete surface. Depending upon the results,
related. The greater compressive strength of hardened concrete offers
a conclusion was made that the mixture containing AAS/slag ratio of
stronger bonding among the aggregates in the mixture which led to
0.4, 6 M NaOH, and NaOH/Na2SiO3 ratio of 3 cured at 25 ◦ C is an ideal
17
Fig. 25. Response of BAG and OPC against acid [322].
mixture to resist abrasion. GPP containing FA having a 0.60 ratio of I/s with no SF, SP, and sand
The abrasion resistance of a specimen is related to compressive offers maximum abrasion resistance. The magnitude of activation of GP
strength and internal microstructure. Yan et al. [239] examined GP containing FA is directly related to compressive strength where a pre
composite containing FA-MK sepiolite with changing dosage at different vious study indicated that a higher magnitude of activation results in a
curing days as displayed in Fig. 24. It was observed that all specimens higher compressive trend [315]. Thus, it can be stated that greater
indicate high resistance. This is primarily due to the formation of compressive strength results in better resistance to abrasion of GP con
excessive AS gels after curing which forms the key matrix and offers taining FA. Moreover, the outcome of this research is in accord with
inter-particle bonding. A noticeable reduction in weight loss was results of [316–318] in literature as they had also stated that an increase
observed for SP10 which indicates that it has maximum abrasion in compressive strength results in better abrasion resistance of FA-based
resistance. GP. Naik et al. [319] and Rashid et al. [320] stated that the abrasion
Lau et al. [314] predicted the optimal abrasion resistance of GP resistance of concrete primarily depends upon compressive strength.
containing FA by using an artificial intelligence technique namely an This outcome confirmed that the aptness with the nanoindentation
artificial neural network. The outcome of the research suggests that pure application in investigating abrasion resistance of concrete that is also in
18
Table 9
Durability properties of GPC.
Durability properties Source materials Alkali activators Author
Corrosion resistance FA NaOH and [345]

Na2SiO3
Carbonation Ground granulated NaOH and [346]
blast furnace slag (G Na2SiO3
GBFS)
Acid attack and sulphate FA NaOH and [344]
resistance Na2SiO3
Chloride penetration GGBFS Ca(OH)2 and [347]
resistance, porosity, Na2SiO3
carbonation
Acid attack FA NaOH and [338]
Na2SiO3
Drying shrinkage FA NaOH and [115]
Na2SiO3
Carbonation and sorptivity GGBFS and MK NaOH and [348]
Na2SiO3
Drying shrinkage GGBFS NaOH and [349]
Na2SiO3
Water permeability RHA and FA NaOH and [350]
Na2SiO3
Shrinkage strain GGBFS Ca(OH)2 and [351]
Na2SiO3
Sulphate resistance GGBFS NaOH and [352]
Na2SiO3
Porosity, water absorption, FA NaOH and [15]
and sorptivity Na2SiO3
Acid resistance FA NaOH and [118]
Na2SiO3
Corrosion resistance GGBFS NaOH and [353]
Na2SiO3
Chloride permeability and FA NaOH [354]
shrinkage
Carbonation GGBFS and FA NaOH and [355]
Na2SiO3
Acid resistance, sulphate RHA and FA NaOH, KOH, [356]
attack, and chloride K2SiO3, and
penetration Na2SiO3
Chloride penetration, FA NaOH and [357]
sorptivity, and corrosion Na2SiO3
resistance
Porosity, water absorption, GGBFS with POFA NaOH [358]
Fig. 26. Effect of acid on GPC as well as on PC [336].
and thermal resistance and RHA
accordance with the research carried out by David et al. [321] on the
abrasion resistance of polymeric automotive coatings. Moreover, stated that both have low Cl- perviousness. Mehta [326] observed the
Nuaklong et al. [77] examined the durability and mechanical properties formation of dissoluble products and decalcification when the cemen
of MK-FA-based GPC containing RCA. It was observed that replacing MK titious binder was exposed to an acid attack. Chindaprasirt et al. [327]
with FA enhances the permeability, pore structure, and abrasion resis exposed AA FA-SF to an acid attack and observed higher loss in strength
tance significantly. due to less initial strength of mortar and favourable termination of
greater amount of silica in acid solution. Though, Breck [328] observed
2.3.6. Influence of acids on GPC that acid simply attacks polymer structures having Si/Al fraction of 1 as
Arriffin et al. [322] examined the influence of sulphuric acid on compared to extra-siliceous polymers. Ismail et al [329] observed that
blended ash geopolymer (BAG) specimens and compared them with H+ ions from the ionization of H2SO4 can harm the alumino-silicate
control specimens. GPC was exposed to 2% sulphuric acid for more than network in GP and produced Al3+ ions and silicic acid H4O4Si from
365 days, it indicated better performance in comparison to OPC due to gel polymer. Partha et al. [233] noticed that a specimen containing GPC
the formation of steady cross-linked AS structure in GPC. The losses in with nano silica (NS) indicates resistance when exposed to sulphuric
mass and compressive strength for the BAG specimen were observed to acid. The outcome shows that as exposure time increases, the mass of the
be 8% and 35% whereas for OPC they were 20% and 68% respectively. specimen gradually decreases. It was observed that mass loss in a GPC
The SEM imagery (see Fig. 25) of the BAG specimen when exposed to specimen containing FA without NS was 5.41% whereas, for a mix
sulphuric acid indicated no considerable development of new different containing 2% NS, mass loss was 1.9% after 90 days of exposure to acid.
phases whereas soft white depositions were observed on the surface for Moreover, the mass loss for OPC blended (FA-GP) without NS was 6%
OPC and it became very porous when exposed to sulphuric acid for up to whereas for a mix containing 2% NS (FA-GP-NS2) it was observed to be
1.5 years. Similar observations were made by [258,323]. GPC resists 2.3% respectively after 90 days of exposure. Additionally, for GGBFS
acid attacks adamantly. Okoye et al. [70] utilized sodium chloride and blended (FA-GP-NS0) and (FA-GP-NS2) was observed to be 5.8% and
sulphuric acid to examine the endurance of GPC in the existence of SF. 1.5% respectively for similar days of exposure. In general, for all GP
They reported that losses in strength and mass of GPC were less than mixtures, mass loss ranges from 1.9 to 6.00%. The mass losses in FA-GP-
OPC hence; GPC indicates adamant resistance when exposed to acids. NS were observed to be very minor in comparison to cementitious ma
Bakharev et al. [258,324] carried out investigations and stated that terials containing OPC [330,331]. Previous investigations carried-out
GPC indicates superior resistance to acids and sulphates. Rajamane et al. concerning OPC-based binders indicated that sulphuric acid is excep
[325] inspected the chloride ion (Cl-) perviousness of CC and GPC and tionally harmful to mass loss [332]. This is primarily due to Ca(OH)2
19
Fig.27. XRD spectra of FA with OPC [369].
decomposition and formation of gypsum which weakens the matrix by a GP sample activated by FA and kept it in magnesium and sodium
softening and scaling. However, the penetrability of sulphuric acid can sulphate solutions for a longer period. They stated that GPs resist sul
be reduced, the formation of gypsum closer to the surface results in phates as there was no indication of sample deterioration. In comparison
gradual decomposition of the matrix [332]. Thus, it can be concluded to PC, no clear damage was observed in the sample if it was kept in the
that mass loss in GPC specimens with NS0 is less than OPC-based binders solution for almost 2 years continuously.
under similar exposure but adding 2% of NS in GPC specimens will The concrete deterioration was estimated concerning its weight loss,
further reduce the mass loss. compressive strength, and visual appearance [49,56,335]. Hardjito et al.
Peterman et al. [333] stated that sulphate attack causes the weak [56] observed no substantial influence of 5% Na2SO4 solution on weight
ening of PC due to the formation of ettringite (Ca6Al2( loss, dimensions, and compressive strength of FA-based GPC when
SO4)3(OH)12⋅26H2O) and excess gypsum which results in spalling and exposed for 90 days. Rajamane et al. [335] observed sulphate resistance
cracking in concrete. Geopolymeric materials when exposed to acids of FA-based GPC for 90 days in 5% MgSO4 and Na2SO4 solutions and
perform better due to the low calcium content of source materials. They stated that the weight loss was 2.4%. Moreover, a compressive strength
stated that, as ettringite and gypsum were not produced from GP cement loss of 2–29% was observed which was less as compared to 9–38% in
hence, no mechanism of sulphate attack in low-calcium, heat-cured FA- OPC. The deterioration of OPC is primarily due to the formation of
based GP cement was observed. Moreover, they reported that sodium ettringite and excess gypsum which results in spalling, expansion, and
sulphate exposure upon specimens till 1 year indicated no signs of cracking of concrete. Contrarily, GPC usually does not contain mono
spalling, cracking, or surface deterioration. Skvara et al. [334] prepared sulphoaluminate and Ca(OH)2 in the mixture to cause expansion. Aiken
20
Na2O results in greater residual compressive strength when exposed to

H2SO4 [339]. Lee and Lee [340] examined the resistance of slag and FA
based GPMs to 10% H2SO4. They observed that less amount of slag re
sults in greater resistance of mixtures which is attributed to properties of
blending gel. Contrarily, Lloyd et al. [331] stated that with the increase
in slag content, the resistance of GPP increases when exposed to 10%
H2SO4 with pH-controlled at 1.0. Allahverdi and Skvara [14] examined
the mechanism of H2SO4 attack on slag and FA-based GPPs which con
tains 50% of each. They stated an ion-exchange among H2SO4 and the
samples resulted in gypsum formation and shrinkage cracking. Low-
calcium alkali-activated materials have been frequently observed to
indicate higher resistance to acids [70,233,341–344] which makes them
an effective material to be utilized in the construction industry. Also,
these GPC have an adamant effect on corrosion resistance, carbonation,
porosity with different durable properties. Some of them are listed
below in Table 9 with source material with alkali activators.
3. Chemical characterization of GPC
3.1. XRD analysis of GPC
Fig.28. XRD spectra of GPC with molarities [370]. 3.1.1. Comparison with OPC
The OPC patterns indicated the presence of crystalline phase with
et al. [336] observed that with the increase in slag content of FA-based key components such as calcite, portlandite, and ettringite. The normal
GPs porosity decreases. However, reaction products obtained are more GP mixture deprived of OPC indicated primary peaks of crystalline
vulnerable to H2SO4 attack. Moreover, it was observed that increasing phases such as nepheline and ettringite as well as phases like calcite,
the dosage of alkaline activator results in a slight impact in resistance to mullite, and quartz. Moreover, including OPC in the GP mixture resulted
H2SO4. To conclude, GP binders indicated more resistance to H2SO4 in broader humps which indicated the existence of polymeric products
attack as compared to OPC concrete as illustrated in Fig. 26. along with hydrated OPC products in the same mixture which imparted
Rostami and Brendley [337] utilized SF to examine H2SO4 resistance a positive effect on strength characteristics of FA-OPC blended GPs
FA-based concrete and PC concrete. They observed a mass loss of 4% in [359]. Furthermore, due to the inclusion of OPC nepheline, mullite,
FA-concrete whereas for PC-based concrete it was 25% when exposed to quartz along portlandite were observed in the patterns for G90C10
20% sulphuric acid for 90 days. Likewise, Thokchom et al. [338] stated samples as shown in Fig. 27. Nepheline was analogous to N-A-S-H ob
that FA-based GPs indicate better performance concerning mass loss as tained by geopolymerization by alumina and silica in the presence of
compared to the extremely corroded PC when exposed to 10% of H2SO4. high-temperature curing and alkaline solutions [360,361]. As the
Moreover, when the dosage of Na2O is increased, it increases mass loss. amount of OPC increases, mullite and quartz decrease while products
Though, in future research, it was reported that the increase in dosage of like hatrurite, nepheline, and CSH were observed to be increased.
Fig. 29. XRD analysis of GPC with and without acid [76].
21
all specimens, precise diffraction peaks were observed for quartz at

21.72◦ , 26.1◦ , and 41.5◦ , 47.2◦ (2θ) respectively. Additionally, diffrac
tion peaks at 61.2◦ and 70.3◦ (2θ) planes of (Ca3Al2O6) tri-calcium
aluminate were observed. The ratio of amorphous silicates was
observed to be more in GPC containing 8 M NaOH which indicates that
at greater content of alccofine and alkaline-solution in GPC, extra
crystallinity is observed and is evident in XRD patterns as displayed in
Fig. 28. Prior studies on FA-based GPC indicate quartz, nepheline, and
mullite which are associated with N-A-S-H obtained by polymerization
[369]. Though, including alccofine in the GPC matrix results in C-S-H
compounds along with other compounds which aid in achieving greater
strength when cured at ambient temperature. In addition to that,
increasing NaOH concentration results in high peaks of mullite and
quartz. Moreover, as the percentage of alccofine increases it triggers an
increase in strength thus, it can be stated that with a greater concen
tration of alccofine a well-dense mixture is obtained with higher peaks of
quartz.
3.1.3. Effect of acid attack

Mehta et al. [76] carried out the XRD analysis on FA-based GPC. The
intense peaks indicated crystalline phases of quartz, mullite, and
nepheline as major components with a minor content of C-A-S-H. The
Fig. 30. FTIR spectra of FA-GPC with NaOH [371]. results illustrated high content of silica and alumina for FA whereas a
high amount of calcium was observed for OPC as it is a need for geo
Moreover, the increase in OPC content resulted in an increase in por polymeric reactions as shown in Fig. 30. Moreover, the sample exposed
tlandite content which reacted and formed added CSH just as traditional to sulphuric acid indicated a similar peak with smaller intensities [76].
concrete [362]. The coexistence of polymeric and hydration products This is due to the Al2SiO3 bond which aids in polymerization reaction
caused strength development [363]. Though, increasing the amount of however, samples exposed for 365 days indicated obstinate deteriora
OPC after a definite level resulted in strength loss due to less amount of tion effect on strength.
alumina and silica in the mixture which led to fewer polymerization
products. At 30% concentration of OPC, the primary polymeric products 3.2. FTIR analysis of GPC incorporating waste by-products.
such as nepheline and ettringite were observed to be decreased which
indicated less polymeric products at this replacement level. Previous Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is an analytical tool
researchers also reported the presence of C-S-H along with C-A-S-H and utilized to search for primary reaction zones of Al-O and Si-O of cement-
N-A-S-H [364–368]. free paste. Gum et al. [371] conducted FTIR analysis to ascertain the
structure of FA-based GPC with alkaline-activators as displayed in
3.1.2. Effect of molarity Fig. 30. It was observed that the Si-O-Si stretching vibration of FA
Parveen et al. [370] stated that XRD of GPC specimens having transpired at 1058 cm− 1, and in accordance to molarity stretching vi
different molarity (M) of FA-based GPC including alccofine cured at bration of the mixture seems to be shifted to frequencies of 994 cm− 1,
ambient temperature. The XRD pattern of pure GPC ranging from 995 cm -1, 998 cm -1 and 1001 cm -1. The replacement of Si4+ and Al3+
15◦ –70◦ (2θ) cured at ambient temperature for 28-days with 10% con includes reduction of T-O-T angle (T = Al or Si) and thus, the signal at
centration of alccofine utilizing diverse molarity of NaOH along with inferior frequency seems to appear due to less bonding. Moreover, the Si-
details of crystalline phases are shown in Fig. 29. Moreover, a non- O bond is smaller than the Al-O bond and Si-O-Si has a greater bond
crystalline phase was noticed apart from intense diffraction peaks. For force constant than that of the Al-O-Al bond [372]. In simple words, it
Fig. 31. FTIR spectra of control specimen [289].
22
Fig. 32. FTIR spectra of modified GPC [289].
Fig. 33. FTIR spectra of PFG specimen [161].
Fig. 35. FTIR spectra of C-class FA GPC [388].
Fig. 34. FTIR spectra of GPC [74].
can be stated that a greater concentration of molarity triggers a geo

polymerization reaction thus shifting the vibrations to inferior fre
quencies. This change causes an effect on compressive strength and
strengthens the FA structure.
FTIR spectroscopy is an analytical tool utilized to search for primary
reaction zones of Al-O and Si-O of cement-free paste. It was reported by Fig. 36. IR spectra of GPC [189].
Barbosa [373] that reactions generally occurred below a frequency
domain of 1200 cm -1. Additionally, Milkey studied the relationship geopolymerization and observed that peaks produced tend to shift to
between frequencies at which peaks occur and Si:Al ratio triggered by wards inferior frequencies with greater quantities of Al [374,375].
23
Fig. 37. IR spectra of RMFGC to various FT cycles [299].
Moreover, Chindaprasirt et al. [376] stated that while representing the and Al3+ ions and the obliteration of solid particles [379]. The presence
magnitude of geopolymerization, stretching vibrations of Si-O-Si must of Na2CO3 causes an absorption band at 1429 cm− 1 and it conforms to
be given preference over stretching vibrations of Si-O-Si. The stretching the stretching vibrations of the O-C-O bond [222]. Álvarez-Ayuso et al
vibrations of Si-O-Si are signified by a wave number varying from 950 to [380] proposed that the existence of Na2CO3 is due to the weathering
1200 cm− 1 and a slight change in peak specifies the chemical change of carbonation of alkaline media. The strongest band is observed at 989
the mixture [377]. cm− 1 for PFG specimen which conforms to non-symmetric stretching
FTIR spectroscopy of control and rubberized GPC carried-out by vibrations of Si-O-T (T = Al or Si). Fernández-Jiménez and Palomo [381]
[289] as displayed in Fig. 31and Fig. 32, respectively. The stretches in stated that the bond force constant is greater for Si-O-Si mode than Si-O-
Fig. 31 and Fig. 32 exhibit primary bands at nearly 3435, 1049, 777, Al due to the greater length of the Al-O bond as compared to Si-O bond.
458 cm− 1 and 3435, 1049, 458 cm− 1 for control and rubberized GPC Moreover, the modes of stretching are subtle to the Si-Al configuration
respectively. Also, two common primary bands were observed at 3435 of the framework and inferior frequency is attained with an increase in
cm− 1 and 1049 cm− 1. The H-O–H bond for both specimens is situated at tetrahedral aluminium atoms [258]. Muzek et al. [379] proposed that
1049 cm− 1 which indicates the existence of water molecules. The exis depolymerization and structural reorganization of amorphous phases in
tence of weakly bonded water molecules gives rise to the H-O–H bond GPP provokes the formation of amorphous AS gel in the phase.
following alkaline activation [99]. The OH bond stretches and bends at The bands ranging from 800 and 500 cm− 1 are inter-related with
peaks of 3435 and 1049 cm− 1 respectively. Hussin et al. [99] reported rubbles of AS and tetrahedral vibrations of the Secondary Building Unit
similar results earlier. The carbonation of un-reacted Na2SiO3 and NaOH [381]. The double bands are observed at 797 and 778 cm− 1 and are
causes the formation of Na2CO3 in the control GPC sample at nearly assigned as a crystalline phase to quartz in the original FA [381] while
1049 and 777 cm− 1. The chain length decreases as the bonding strength the band is situated at 566 cm− 1 specifies the existence of mullite.
of the sample decrease when treated at 200 ◦ C. However, as the tem Mollah et al. [382] found out that the band at 566 cm− 1 is due to
perature increases from 200 ◦ C to 600 ◦ C, no further decrease in chain symmetrical stretching of Al-O-Si. The bending vibrations for T-O can be
length was observed because all of the weakly bonded water molecules observed at 455 cm− 1 which indicates the extent of amorphization of
ejected at 200 ◦ C. Moreover, at temperatures ranging from 200 ◦ C to material as its intensity does not depend upon the degree of crystalli
600 ◦ C Si-O-Al and Si-O-Si bonds occurred which causes a slight zation [383,384].
reduction in peak intensity. However, over 600 ◦ C absorption con The infra-red spectral results of 12GC0H and 12GC6 are represented
forming to vibrations of the Si-O-Si region ensues due to polymerization in Fig. 34. The discrete intensity band observed close to 460 cm− 1 is due
of unreacted materials [378]. The peak intensity of control and to bending vibrations of Si-O-Si [385] whereas the band ranging from
rubberized GPC increases up to 1049 cm− 1 due to the formation of N-A- 750 to 800 cm− 1 is due to vibrations of AlO4. The peak of the strongest
S-H gel at all temperatures. The gel keeps its position because of albite band was located in 950–1050 cm− 1 for non-symmetric stretching and
which was noticed in literature [99]. vibrations of Si-O-T (T = Al or Si) [386]. Moreover, the position of Si-O-
The FTIR spectra of the PFG paste sample at the age of 28-days is Si (1420 cm− 1) in 12GC0H shifts to right (1485 cm− 1) in 12GC6.
shown in Fig. 33. It exhibits primary bands at 454, 566, 796–778 Additionally, a substantial band is also situated at 3450 cm− 1 for OH
(Double Band), 989, 1429, 1645, and 3297 cm− 1. The OH stretching stretching
vibrations and H-O–H bending vibrations are characterized by broader FTIR spectroscopy is well-known for its susceptivity in characterizing
bands at 3297 and 1646 cm− 1 respectively. This is due to the presence of materials with shorter-range structural order and aids in characterizing
weakly bonded molecules of water that occupy the surface or get stuck C-class FA GPC. As shown in Fig. 35, the stronger and weaker peaks were
in the larger voids [258]. Water plays a substantial part in the geo observed at 1036 and 1400 cm− 1 and are due to non-symmetric
polymerization process as it links with the hydrolysis of dissolved Si4+ stretching vibrations of Si-O or Al-O bonds whereas, the Si-O-Al or Si-
24
Fig. 38. SEM images of waste blended materials in GGPs [101].
Fig. 39. SEM images of waste blended materials in FA-GPC without SF and with SF [71].
O-Si bending bands can be observed at 747 cm− 1. These bands are common in-ring silicates and indicate amorphization of material as it
25
Fig. 40. SEM images of waste blended materials FA/GGBFS with different SS concentrations [411].
does not depend upon the degree of crystallization [222]. The rela = Al or Si) also known as “the main band”. As FT-cycles increased, the
tionship between Al-O, Al-O-Si. Si-O or Si-O-Si non-symmetric stretch major band of the 14-d cured sample becomes finer as shown in Fig. 37
peaks and magnitude of geopolymerization process is intricated how (a). This is possibly due to the replacement of tetrahedral Al or the
ever it assists in the study of geopolymerization process. The broader continuous rise of silicates in the structure of gel [377,393–395]. Also,
bands observed in the region of 1648–3466 cm− 1 categorize the the major band slightly shifts towards a comparatively greater wave
stretching and bending vibrations of O–H and H-O–H bonds from number which may be due to (i) more Si additions were formed and
weakly-bounded water molecules that occupy the surface or get trapped combined into GP gels, which was noticed in Catauro’s investigation as
in the large voids between the rings of geopolymeric products [387]. well [396] (ii) dealumination [391] and (iii) FT-cycles causes depoly
The FTIR results for GGBFS substitution with FA to 0, 10, 20, and merization processes [84]. After 10 FT-cycles, the major band slightly
30% at the age of 28-days is shown in Fig. 36. The stretching vibration of shifts back towards the inferior wave number. This shifting indicates (i)
FA was observed at 1062 cm− 1 which shifts towards inferior wave increasing replacement of tetrahedral Al in silicate network which
number as 1011 cm− 1 for 0%, 995 cm− 1 for 10%, 986 cm− 1 for 20% and resulted in the formation of more GP gels [389,392]. As the intensity
979 cm− 1 for 30% replacement of GGBFS respectively in GPC. The shift increases after 10 FT-cycles GP gels are formed, this was stated by
is ~ 51, 67, 76, and 83 cm− 1. The results indicate the formation of C-S-H Bakharev [258] as well (ii) rise in non-bridging oxygen on silicate sites
gel along with N-A-S-H gel with a decrease in Al due to an increase in [84,258,392–395,397,398]. Though, the spectra of samples cured at 28-
GGBFS content in GPC. This leads to variations in geopolymerization days indicate different trends during FT-cycles processes as shown in
and enhances strength properties. The larger bands at 3648–3852 cm− 1 Fig. 37(b). Compared to samples cured at 14-days, the major band of
are stretching vibrations of the H-O–H bond while the OH bond of samples cured at 28-days is finer before FT-cycling which signifies a
bending vibration of products from the hydrated reaction of water was greater magnitude of geopolymerization and is in accordance with the
observed at 1507–1540 cm− 1. In GPP, these bands indicate the reaction certainty that in 28-d samples greater un-confined compressive strength
of water and alkali-activated products [363]. was achieved. As the FT-cycles continued, the peak of the primary band
Zhao et al. [299] acquired FTIR spectral results of GP specimens varied by a minor range of 7 cm− 1 whereas the peak of samples cured at
when subjected to several FT-cycles to interpret the mechanisms that 14-days fluctuated by 12 cm− 1 and started with a lesser wave number of
cause deterioration during FT-cycles. The FTIR spectra of specimens 985 cm− 1. This is primarily due to partial termination and re-
cured for 14-days and 28-days after several FT-cycles are shown in organization of the structure of GP gel. Moreover, an identical trend
Fig. 37(a) and Fig. 37(b) respectively. As reported in the literature was observed in the FTIR spectra of samples cured at 80 ◦ C and RT.
[389–392] by various studies that the FTIR spectra in the region ranging Apart from the major band, the bands that occurred around 790, 760 ,
from 1300 to 900 cm− 1 are frequently utilized to categorize GP gels and 670 cm− 1 are due to AlO4 vibrations [258], crystalline phase of
which indicate a non-symmetrical stretching vibration band of Si-O-T (T quartz [286], and structural units [390] respectively. For samples cured
26
Fig. 42. SEM images of waste blended materials with HMNS [413].
at 14-days, the band around 790 cm− 1 faded away and a new band was AAR of 0.5 and 1.0 reacts completely. Regardless of having identical
observed around 670 cm− 1 which indicates the formation of GP gels microstructures for both the ratios, the compressive strength was
after 30 FT-cycles. Moreover, after 50 FT-cycles the band around 670 observed to be different i.e. 35 MPa for the ratio of 0.5 and 65 MPa for a
cm− 1 disappeared whereas the band around 790 cm− 1 re-appeared ratio of 1.0 respectively. Greater silicate content will aid in strength
indicating the partial termination of GP gels at later stages of FT- development as more of them will be at hand for geopolymerization
cycling. Both bands were observed for all samples cured for 28- [59]. Increasing the SS ratio content will impede the geopolymerization
d which proposes that samples cured at 28-d have completed most of process by restricting the contact between AAS and the binder [405].
the process of geopolymerization before FT-cycling and no significant The effect of alkaline solutions on the morphology of GPs containing
geopolymerization reaction occurs following FT-conditioning. FA and GBFS was investigated by Phoongemkham et al [101]. GPPs
fractured surfaces are expressed through SEM images as shown in
4. Microstructure of GPC incorporating waste by-products Fig. 38. The incorporation of FA particles yields a loose matrix. A loose
mixture having more voids was displayed utilizing FA pastes with NH
Researchers have been working on FA-based GPC and have reported and NS respectively. However, FA paste containing NHNS yields a
on it with different parameters comprising additional binder materials, denser matrix with fewer voids and a very less quantity of partially
molarity (M), alkali activator ratio (AAR), duration of casting, and reacted or unreacted particles. Similarly, in preceding observation
curing temperature [60,86,399–402]. Pavithra et al. [248] carried out showed that utilizing NH and NS as a combination can aid in acceler
research based on GPC containing amorphous FA and proposed a tech ating the process of geopolymerization [406]. A clear variation was
nique to acquire optimum mix design. Parameters like sodium silicate to observed with the FA-GGBFS mixture as compared to that of FA paste.
sodium hydroxide ratio (SS/SH), molarity (M), duration, and CT with The micrograph displayed a denser matrix having a less quantity of
temperature were kept constant while varying the AAR. The author unreacted FA particles for FA-GGBFS as compared to FA paste. FA par
observed 0.4 ratio as an optimum between alkali solution to FA (AAS/ ticles in the matrix react at a comparatively slower rate at ambient
FA) as it yields maximum strength enhancement of 53 MPA to the curing, whereas curing temperature was required to escalate the
controlled specimen. Further increase in ratio yield malignant effect on strength [228,407]. Increasing the quantity of GGBFS can increase the
strength as the majority of unreacted FA is observed by the author. A rate of reaction which helps in the geopolymerization chain. Moreover,
similar trend was also observed by Heah et al [403] and Arioz et al the reaction between alkali solutions and GGBFS is an exothermal pro
[404]. Abdul Kareem and Ramli [26] examine the influence of various cess due to which heat (H) is released, and additional CASH and CSH are
SS/SH ratio of geopolymers containing FA. It was observed that FA with formed inside the matrix. This ultimately leads to overall development
27
Fig. 41. SEM images of waste blended materials with chemical dosage on different days [412].
in strength [408–410]. The incorporation of GGBFS in the matrix with mixture containing NH as shown in Fig. 38. The reaction among calcium
using NS as activator yield a denser matrix than using NH. This is due to and silicate is improved due to the presence of silicates and as a result,
the formation of additional silicate in the matrix making a denser calcium silicate (CaSiO3 or Ca2SiO4) products were produced. Similarly,
configuration inside it as shown in Fig. 38. Okoye et al. [71] investigated the sodium silicate effect on FA/GGBS has also been studied by Oderji
the microstructure of FA and SF made GPC. The author’s observation in et al. [411]. The author observed that increasing the concentration of
line with previous studies that using FA in GPC yields fractured surface sodium silicate from 7% to 8% dense packing with homogenous
and particles formed a loose matrix containing more voids. However, microstructure is noticed as shown in Fig. 40.
replacing 20% of FA with SF in FA-based GPC results in a smoother It is well known that the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) is the
surface and has fewer voids as illustrated in Fig. 39. weakest in between the aggregate phase and paste phase. Embong et al.
The FA-GGBFS paste in conjunction with NHNS yields a denser [22] stated that an increase in the termination of FA particles and
matrix as compared to NS and NH respectively. As stated, the geo chemical condensation of AS (Al2SiO5) offer good bond strength among
polymerization of FA-GGBFS was enhanced through an activation with a matrix and aggregate. Moreover, chemical concentration has maximum
solution containing NHNS as compared to using one activator [367]. The influence on the GP matrix. Gunasekara et al [412] investigated the
overall strength achieved after 28 days was comparatively higher (114 chemical effect of sodium chloride (NaCl) on GPC at 28 and 540 days. He
MPa) for the FA-GGBFS mixture in conjunction with NHNS [101]. For observed an increase in quantity and width of cracks in the matrix by
GGBFS, the matrix seemed more homogenous and denser having fewer increasing the chemical dosage as depicted in Fig. 41. This led to a
voids as compared to the paste having 0% and 50% GGBFS respectively. decrease in compressive strength in the GP matrix due to adverse effects
As discussed before, an additional CSH gel was produced as a result of which ultimately trigger the ITZ [412].
the reaction between the alkali solution and GGBFS [224]. The adamant Microstructural analysis of GPC containing FA with GGBFS and high-
enhancement of CSH gel modifies the internal microstructure of GPPs. magnesium nickel slag (HMNS) was utilized by Bouaissi et al. [413]. The
Moreover, pastes containing NS and NHNS looked denser than the author observed that the obtained matrix was well compacted and
28
Fig. 43. SEM images of waste blended materials MK: RHA: GGBFS [243].
Fig. 44. Effect of nano-SiO2 MK with molar ratios [423].

29
Fig. 45. Effect of nano-SiO2 MK with 1.5 M ratios at different days [423].
Fig. 46. Effect of MK: BA on GPC [37].
cohesive as the mechanical aspect of the matrix was enhanced by using process [414].
70% FA with 20% GGBFS and 10% HMNS. However, some unreacted, GGBFS has a profound effect in concrete and their use will lead to a
hollow, lightweight spheres of FA were also noticed as shown in Fig. 42 decrease in porosity of the overall matrix with an increase in the long-
(a), Fig. 42 (b) and Fig. 42 (c) respectively represent the products of term strength effect, give better durability with resistance to chemical
geopolymerization and indicate the existence of A-S-H and C-S-H gel attack [137,415–418]. Though adding GGBFS might affect the reaction,
that is primarily formed due to the activation of 20% GGBFS which properties, and GPC matrix however, this effect is varied in terms of the
interact with FA. C-A-S-H is formed due to the presence of alumina sil amount of GGBFS added (5–50%). It was observed that GGBFS activa
icate and calcium in a greater amount in the mixture. Hence, GGBFS tion governs the reaction at 27 ◦ C. Besides, the reaction is carried out by
derived an extra quantity of calcium and served as a supplementary the dispersal of C-S-H gel because of the alkaline activator of GGBFS and
binder, and influences the setting time of the gel [142]. Furthermore, the precipitation [419–421]. Sharmin et al. [243] used a greater volume of
presence of HMNS in composite contributes to the formation of new gel GGBFS along with RHA and MK. It was observed that for MK: RHA:
as Na-Al (Mg)-Si-H due to high Mg2+ element. Moreover, a higher GGBFS using the ratio of 0.25:0.25:0.50, a well-compacted microstruc
concentration of solution yields a shape like a needle that surrounds the ture is formed as illustrated in Fig. 43. Adding slag in GPC will result in
FA as depicted in Fig. 42(a2). This unreacted alkali solution results as accelerating the reaction and setting behaviour [126].
micro-needle particles on FA in the mix during the geopolymerization The microstructure of the GPC matrix is densified by utilizing MK
30
which might result in a decrease in porosity [422]. The FA-based GP 5. Application of GPC in building sectors
blended with MK exhibits more cohesiveness in comparison to FA based
GP. Hence, as a result, a durable and improved microstructure is GPC has been used in various commercial applications due to its
observed [422]. The size of MK is very fine which plays a vital role in a rapid mechanical strength gain, thermal and chemical resistance,
micro aggregate and often fills the voids. Thus reducing the porosity and aggregate adherence, and enhanced toughness. Rapid strength gains up
densifying the microstructure [422]. Duan et al [235] studied GPC to 50 MPa and high resistance against sulphate attack has been GPC as
containing FA-MK after heating to different temperatures ranging from one of the substitutes to the OPC concrete. Concrete utilization in the
20 ◦ C to 600 ◦ C. Densified microstructure is observed with an increase in construction industry has been increased in recent years and it is posed
temperature as compared to OPC. Additionally, Si/Na ratio affects the that its use will be further increased in the future [134]. Development of
degree of polymerization of dissolved species. GPC by using industrial by-products is an environment-friendly means
Geo et al. [423] examined the effect of SiO2/Na2O ratio on me to achieve the increased demand for concrete in the construction in
chanical characteristics and the microstructure of GP containing nano- dustry. GPC has been used in various structural elements in the con
SiO2 MK. The results revealed that products obtained from geo struction industry (Table 10) and various researches have been
polymerization process fill pores with curing and as a result making conducted to fully understand the mechanics and other structural
microstructure denser. Furthermore, a GP sample comprising of nano- properties of GPC.
SiO2 MK with SiO2/Na2O proportion of 1.5 indicates more density, In this light, various researches have attempted to determine the
higher strength, and low porosity. The utilization of nano-SiO2 improves applicability of GPC into the structural elements to replace the ordinary
strength, cohesiveness, and compactness as demonstrated in Fig. 44. concrete. Wallah et al. [425] studied the flexural capacity and failure
Besides, microstructure indicated that various particles of KL were mode of beam elements made of GPC. Results revealed that the GPC
triggered by the alkaline solution at various ages making the product beam performed better, in terms of flexural load capacity and cracks, as
denser, compacted, and uniform with a rise in CT as shown in Fig. 45. An compared to OPC concrete. GPC can also be used as repairing material
identical trend was observed by [37] with BA and MK indicating the for retrofitting of the structural elements. Pacheco et al. [426] reported
compactness and denseness of the improved microstructure as demon that tungsten mine waste GP binder possessed much higher bond
strated in Fig. 46. SEM images at 1 and 90 days show that initially, strength than current commercial repair products.
cracks were there, but these cracks were filled by the gel structure of GP FA-based GPC showed a better response and fire resistance as
which ultimately enhances the mechanism of the composite. compared to OPC concrete. Due to the presence of industrial pozzolanic
The addition of MK in GP provided stronger Al-O-Al and Si-O-Al waste, GPC showed an increase in strength when exposed to elevated
bonds in comparison to Si-O-Si. However, using MK in a greater temperatures and GPC was found to be superior to OPC concrete in
amount is not suitable as it will result in the formation of zeolite. This terms of fire resistance. GPC can be applied in various applications that
causes a negative effect on the development of concrete properties due require thermal resistance. It was found that the spalling behavior of
to the extra amount of alumina from MK [424]. Moreover, it also causes GPC containing FA is much better than OPC concrete and it shows
hindrance in the process of geopolymerization as a greater amount of readily as table behaviour at elevated temperatures [427].
AAS is needed to trigger the solution. Hence, an appropriate amount of
MK is required to achieve the desired outcome.
Table 10
GPC in structural members.
Material Structural Variable Remarks Reference
member
FA Slab Type and volume fraction of Impact energy absorption capacity can be increased by 10 times by increasing the [428]
reinforcement volume fraction of reinforcement
FA Slab Type and volume fraction of Enhanced energy absorption capacity and improved ductility compared to slabs of [429]
reinforcement ferrocement.
FA Column Compressive strength and longitudinal Similar brittle failure by crushing [128]
reinforcement ratio
FA Column Compressive strength About 34% better ultimate strength compared to OPC concrete column. [430]
FA Column Confinement effect Confinement improved the ductility and load-carrying capacity. About a 30% [431]
increase in ultimate strength was observed.
FA Column Bi-axial load eccentricities and Similar failure as reinforced concrete column, by crushing on the compressive side. [432]
reinforcement ratio
FA/Slag Column Slenderness ratio and eccentricity FA/ granulated lead smelter slag -based GPC exhibits scaling issues to the structural [163]
level when cured at ambient temperature
FA Column Aspect ratio and volume of steel fiber Load carrying capacity increased by 56% by the inclusion of steel fibers. [433]
FA Beam Hybrid polypropylene fiber and steel fiber By the inclusion of hybrid steel and polypropylene fibers, strength was enhanced by [434]
proportions 30%.
FA Beam The ratio of fly-ash and slag Lower ductility [435]
FA Beam Reinforcement ratio Similar behaviour as conventional RC beam with increasing capacity as [436]
reinforcement increased.
FA Beam Content of glass fiber A maximum of 35% increase in capacity was observed by the inclusion of glass [437]
fibers.
FA Beam Shear span ratio Shear friction properties of GPC fall within the range of established shear friction [438]
properties of conventional OPC concrete.
FA Beam The ratio of tensile reinforcement Similar shear behaviour with no significant difference. [439]
FA Beam Recycled aggregate proportions. Better ductility and deflection with higher crack width. [440]
FA Beam Content of steel fiber Fiber cracks with delayed shear capacity. [441]
FA + POFA- Beam The ratio of FA and POFA Similar crack pattern. [442]
based
FA Beam Compressive strength and reinforcement Similar effect in terms of ductility and flexural capacity. [128,443]
ratio
31
Fig. 47. The analogy of GPC binders with OPC concrete in relation to the environmental effects.
Fig. 48. GPC binders with OPC concrete in relation to the other environmental effects.
6. Global warming potential of GPC et al. [46] reported that the GWP can be reduced up to 64 percent as
compared to OPC concrete by using alternates to NaOH sources such as
Global warming potential (GWP) is the perfect method to quantify from local solar salt. In Colombia, a life cycle impact assessment of the
the impacts of various gases on global warming. Generally, the emis natural volcanic cementitious material with 30 percent slag-based GPC
sions should be correlated with CO2 emissions over a given period. GWP was carried out [445]. Results revealed that GPC had about 44.7 percent
of GPC is a popular subject since it explains that GPC has less potential less global warming potential when compared to OPC concrete with
than OPC concrete to trigger global warming. The Intergovernmental similar compressive strength. Ng et al. [446] measured the global
Panel on Climate Change has confirmed that GPCs with a range of warming potential of GPC used in practical applications such as in
binders have considerably less GWP than OPC concrete [444]. Salas retaining walls and bridges. The GPC and reactive powder concrete
32
Fig. 49. GPC CO2 emission.
Fig. 50. Alkaline activator CO2 emission.
structures present less GWP along with more durability and design life results, in turn, rely on the selection of the binder and the activator.
when compared with OPC-made structures. While GPC demonstrates Researchers [46,50] examined various binders to determine which
less environmental impacts in terms of global warming potential, it also aluminosilicate has ecological consequences. The effect on the atmo
has other environmental consequences, such as ecotoxicity of fresh sphere depends on the chemical structure of the binder and the volume
water, aquatic toxicity, abiotic degradation, and eutrophication. These of silicate used. Given that, the binder with high sodium silicate
33
imposes a higher GWP effect [444,447]. Heath et al. [444] find that FA sulphate and sulfuric acid solutions when compared to concrete
and GGBFS release fewer CO2 and GWP than MK since MK uses more with OPC.
silicates. Abbas et al.[447] reported low GWP and better mechanical 9. A very few researchers have conducted experiments on structural
properties of GPC with 30 percent MK as a binder as compared with applications of FA based GPC. Thus, more intensive research is to
ordinary concrete. Fig. 47 and Fig. 48 describes the analogy of GPC be conducted in the area of various structural applications so that
binders with OPC concrete in relation to the environmental effects. the GPC applications can wide-spread in the construction in
Calculating the GWP of different types of GPC relies on the specif dustry. The use of GPC seems to be a promising technique toward
ic procedures and approaches used in different tests. Louise et al. [448] achieving sustainable construction in the construction sector.
examined GPC CO2 pollution by considering all GPC processing activ 10. The current study results indicate that the GPM has exhibited
ities from raw material collection to manufacturing, including trans significant feasibility and application prospect to be used as an
portation and other energy activities. GPC has been reported to have just environmentally friendly building material, which may be an
9% less CO2 pollution than ordinary concrete. The phases involved in appropriate replacement to the traditional cement mortar in the
measuring GPC and alkaline activator CO2 emissions are shown in future.
Fig. 49 and Fig. 50, respectively. 11. GPC is an eco-friendly building material that is more durable and
possesses better mechanical properties. It is considered a good
7. Conclusions substitute for OPC concrete, which would be feasible with
adequate availability of industrial and agricultural waste
GPC is a new sustainable material, made from waste materials with materials.
chemical activity. It can be used as an alternative construction material 12. Researchers compared the efficiency of typical aluminosilicates
to OPC due to its benefit in the environment as eco-friendly concrete. such as HCWA, FA, PFOA, MK, silica fume, GGBFS, or RHA
Furthermore, environmental and economic factors need improvements combinations. However, most research was performed on FA-
to existing concrete manufacturing materials. Using waste material in based geopolymer mortar and concrete as it offered better me
making GPC not only decreases the disposal issue but also gives adamant chanical properties than other aluminosilicate-based geo
properties by providing obstinate durability, ultra-high-strength, and polymers due to better physical and mechanical characteristics.
less CO2 emission as compared to OPC. The following conclusion has GPC’s most commonly employed activators are NaOH and
been made through literature studies. Na2SiO3, or a mixture. Several factors like volume, molar con
centration, and reactivity play a significant role in geo
1. The precast concrete industry utilizes the GPC due to the high polymerization reaction. To obtain better durability and
early strength gain. Moreover, the large-scale production of GPC mechanical properties, optimal activator dose in the geopolymer
can be attributed to its significant properties. blend is important. In comparison, the soluble silicates demon
2. The slag-based GPs reduce the workability of the mix given the strate a quick geopolymerization reaction relative to hydroxide-
irregular shape particles. The setting time of GP mix is quickened containing activators.
by the higher dosage of slag and ultimately give rise to 13. Microstructural, mechanical, and durability properties of GPC
compressive strength and durability aspects. depend on the quantity of each ingredient in the mix design.
3. A substantial increase in mechanical properties was observed for When deciding the mix design, all considerations responsible for
MK based GPC. Also, the finer MK particles fill the pores, thus improving mechanical properties should be perceived such as the
reducing the porosity and increasing the packing density. ratio of activator to the binder, the proportion of hydroxide sili
4. The production of OPC-based concrete and GPC with alternative cate, binder quantity, activator dosage and molar ratio, type and
cementitious and waste materials are linked with enhanced grading of aggregate, superplasticizer quantity, binder, water,
durability, economic viability, reduced greenhouse gas emis and sand ratio.
sions, enhanced service life for RC members, and reduced-sodium 14. The incorporation of OPC into GPC provides a compact and dense
silicate solution. Moreover, such materials are considered the microstructure, by including both C-S-H and geo
best substitute for conventional OPC. polymerization products. Therefore, durability, mechanical
5. The compressive strength of GPC with FA improved with the properties, microstructural behavior, and resistance to water
increase in alkaline solution concentration and temperature, but, absorption can be been enhanced.
decreased with the rise in alkaline to FA ratio. Further, the 15. Previous research has investigated numerous variables such as
strength improved up to 2.5 of the ratio of Na2SiO3/NaOH, but, the NaOH/Na2SiO3 ratio, ratio of NaOH/slag, a binding/acti
thereafter it decreases with a further rise in the ratio of Na2SiO3/ vator ratio, mix of different activators, curing environment,
NaOH. It was also observed that the samples kept at rest period duration, and temperature, type of aggregate, and inclusion of
for 1 day before heat curing were beneficial for the strength nanoparticles to improve mechanical, durability and micro
development. structural properties.
6. The GPs are considered thermally stable due to their ability to 16. Further in-depth study is required in recent GPC developments
withstand high temperatures. The expansion ratio, weight loss, such as 3D printing and GPC reinforced with fibers. Sustainable
and thermal conductivity of such materials are much lower than growth can be analyzed by global warming potential (GWP)
OPC and may be attributed to the ingredients of GPs. The estimation and life cycle assessment (LCA) techniques. Further
expansion of GPs can be enhanced by silicon-based fillers but investigations are however essential based on various forms of
with an adverse effect on thermal conductivity. aluminosilicates and activators.
7. Based on the SEM images, the binders made with a reduced ratio 17. It is advised to conduct experimental studies on generic mix
of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide i.e. ranging from 2 to 2.5, design development, newly compliant aluminosilicate and acti
tend to react vigorously because of more surface area and bind vators, microstructure, ductility, efflorescence, early age shrink
despite the presence of extra water. Though, a reduction in hy age, cost-effectiveness, ease of handling, and production of field-
droxyl groups was observed under high temperature. applicable GPC.
8. Limited studies have been conducted on the durability aspects of
GPC. The result shows that the GPC had good resistance against Considering the above discussion, there is a need to study the brittle
shrinkage and better performance against the magnesium behaviour of GPC accompanied by dense and packed microstructure.
Furthermore, the stiffness degradation, recovery, and multi-axial stress
34
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Construction and Building Materials 306 (2021) 124762

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

Geopolymer concrete as sustainable material: A state of the art review

based on different countries is also shown in Fig. 2.

Moreover, the cement industry as one unit generates high emissions of

Table 1 Table 1 (continued )

Fig. 4. Desirable properties governing the selection of geopolymer matrix.

2.1. Benefits of geopolymer Concrete.

The prime objective of sustainability is to meet the needs at present

Table 2 utilization in concrete offers an obstinate effect and is found to be a

Fig. 7. (a) XRD of GGBFS, (b) SEM of GGBFS [189].

Fig. 8. (a) SEM of RM [200], (b) XRD of RM [201].

Fig. 9. (a) XRD of RHA [203], (b) SEM of RHA.

Fig. 10. (a) XRD of SF [207], (b) SEM image of SF [208].

Fig. 11. (a) XRD of MK [209], (b) SEM of MK [210].

from 10 to 70 range. SEM image reveals that MK has a plate-like

2.3. Properties of geopolymer composite

2.3.1. Compressive strength of GP composite

448 Moreover, the liquid/binder ratio was kept to 0.5 as it is evident

Fig. 14. Effect of molarities content on compressive strength of GPM [228].

Table 3 2.3.3. Thermal endurance of GPC

for conventional concrete at 400 ◦ C. Kareem et al [250] examined the

Table 6 Table 6 (continued )

Before After Before After Before After

FA0 429.6 442.1 749 1198 1833 1822

Fig. 18. Effect of NS and SBL with Na2SiO3/NaOH [296].

the termination of raw materials and geopolymerization methods during

Fig. 22. abrasion resistance of GPC with RA and nano-silica [176].

FT-resistance negatively. The reaction of Na2SiO3 with calcareous

2.3.5. Abrasion resistance

better resistance to abrasion [311]. The results of nano-SiO2 based RAGC

Fig. 25. Response of BAG and OPC against acid [322].

Corrosion resistance FA NaOH and [345]

Fig.27. XRD spectra of FA with OPC [369].

Na2O results in greater residual compressive strength when exposed to

3. Chemical characterization of GPC

3.1. XRD analysis of GPC

all specimens, precise diffraction peaks were observed for quartz at

3.1.3. Effect of acid attack

Fig. 31. FTIR spectra of control specimen [289].

Fig. 32. FTIR spectra of modified GPC [289].

Fig. 33. FTIR spectra of PFG specimen [161].

Fig. 35. FTIR spectra of C-class FA GPC [388].

Fig. 34. FTIR spectra of GPC [74].

can be stated that a greater concentration of molarity triggers a geo­

Fig. 37. IR spectra of RMFGC to various FT cycles [299].

Fig. 38. SEM images of waste blended materials in GGPs [101].

Fig. 44. Effect of nano-SiO2 MK with molar ratios [423].

Fig. 46. Effect of MK: BA on GPC [37].

Fig. 49. GPC CO2 emission.

Fig. 50. Alkaline activator CO2 emission.

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can be stated that a greater concentration of molarity triggers a geo