Construction and Building Materials 382 (2023) 131356

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Construction and Building Materials

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Preparation of artificial aggregates from concrete slurry waste and waste

brick masonry powder: CO2 uptake and performance evaluation
Haibao Liu a, *, Qiuyi Li b
a
College of Civil Engineering, Qingdao University of Technology, Shandong, Qingdao 266033, China
b
College of Civil Engineering & Architecture, Qingdao Agricultural University, Shandong, Qingdao 266109, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In order to improve the reuse of solid waste generated in construction production, artificial aggregates consisting
Concrete slurry waste of 100% by weight of construction solid waste, including concrete slurry waste (CSW) and waste brick masonry
Waste brick masonry powder (WBMP), were produced. This study investigated the possibility of mixing CSW as a substitute for
Recycled water
commercial binder with waste brick masonry powder WBMP to prepare artificial aggregates, and studied the
Artificial aggregate
Curing conditions
effects of sedimentation time of CSW and aggregate curing methods on the properties of artificial aggregates. The
CO2 uptake results showed that sedimentation time had an important influence on the properties of CSW and granulation
effect of artificial aggregates, Long sedimentation time reduced the potential activity of CSW and its dispersion in
the artificial aggregate matrix, which had a negative impact on the compressive strength and other properties of
artificial aggregates. In addition, the artificial aggregates prepared using the combined air-CO2 curing method
(AC + CC) had the lowest water absorption and the highest aggregate crushing strength. The artificial aggregate
particles sequestered approximately 3% of CO2 under CO2 curing, which makes the CO2 curing method a sus­
tainable curing method with both engineering and environmental benefits.

1. Introduction materials, which account for approximately 90% of the total cost
[10,15]. The addition of cementitious materials, such as Portland
With the rapid increase in the cost of concrete caused by the cement, can effectively improve the performance of artificial aggregates;
increased consumption of non-renewable resources, the use of solid however, it also increases the cost and energy consumption, making
waste, such as construction and demolition waste, to produce recycled artificial aggregates less cost-effective. Therefore, the development of
concrete materials has become a important issue in the construction low-cost and low-energy binder to replace commercial ones is significant
industry [1–3]. To improve the utilization of solid waste in construction, for the production and application of artificial aggregates [16,17].
the method of using disc granulation for the preparation of artificial It has been reported that ready-mixed concrete plants generate large
aggregates instead of mineral aggregates for concrete has gained amounts of fresh concrete waste each year owing to construction delays
increasing attention [4–6]. It has been reported that artificial aggregates and overbooking [18,19]. Generally, after separating the mineral ag­
with excellent performance can be produced using red mud [7,8], bot­ gregates from the fresh concrete waste, the remaining concrete slurry
tom ash [9,10], and waste concrete powder [11,12]. The granulation of waste is disposed of as solid waste in landfills [18,20]. The alkaline
artificial aggregates consumes a considerable amount of solid waste, oxides produced by the hydration reaction of cement cause the pH value
thereby reducing the environmental burden caused by solid waste of concrete waste slurry to reach 12, and the leachate of concrete slurry
landfills, and effectively reduces the consumption of non-renewable waste leaches into soil and groundwater, which can pose a serious threat
resources such as sand and gravel, which has both economic and envi­ to soil and water safety. Some studies have shown that concrete slurry
ronmental benefits. waste containing C3S, C2S, and other unhydrated cement particles has
Studies have shown that a certain percentage of cementitious ma­ good residual cementitious properties, and hollow blocks and brick
terial is typically added in the production of artificial aggregates to products developed using concrete slurry waste satisfy the production
improve the granulation and aggregate properties [13,14]. The pro­ and environmental requirements [21,22]. Based on statistics, the pro­
duction cost of artificial aggregates is mainly attributed to cementitious duction of one cubic meter of concrete produces 0.03 tons of waste

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lhbhxw@163.com (H. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131356
Received 31 January 2023; Received in revised form 22 March 2023; Accepted 6 April 2023
Available online 8 April 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Liu and Q. Li Construction and Building Materials 382 (2023) 131356

slurry. China produced more than 1.5 billion cubic meters of concrete in waste with different sedimentation times on the granulation and engi­
2021, indicating that more than 0.5 billion tons of waste slurry was neering properties of artificial aggregates, (2) the influence of different
produced [23,24]. Therefore, using concrete slurry waste as replace­ curing conditions on the performance of artificial aggregates, (3) CO2
ment to cement and other cementitious materials in the production of absorption capacity of artificial aggregates under different curing con­
artificial aggregates does not only effectively reduce the environmental ditions, and (4) performance of light-aggregate concrete prepared from
pressure caused by waste disposal and landfilling but also improves the artificial aggregates.
recycling of construction waste [17]. It has been shown that the sedi­
mentation time of concrete waste slurry varies with the production tasks 2. Materials and methods
of different ready-mixed concrete production lines due to the influence
of over-ordering and incidental factors during building construction. 2.1. Materials
The settling time has an important influence on the potential activity of
unhydrated cement particles in concrete waste slurry, which directly Clay brick masonry waste was collected from a demolished factory in
determines the potential application value of concrete waste slurry Qingdao, China, which was built in 2001. The building was made of
[22,24]. In order to stimulate the activity of concrete waste slurry, bricks with a clay brick to masonry mortar volume ratio of 5:1. To
grinding treatment and addition of excitation agents are usually used to improve the utilization of the demolished brick masonry, the bricks were
treat concrete waste slurry to improve its activity. Relevant studies have crushed and ground using a cement mill for 15 min to produce waste
shown that treatments such as wet grinding method for concrete waste brick masonry powder (WBMP). The grinding changed the waste brick
slurry can effectively stimulate the hydration activity of residual cement masonry into a powder, which stimulated the potential pozzolanic ac­
particles and improve the mechanical properties of concrete prepared tivity of the WBMP. As shown in Fig. 1 (b), the main components of the
using waste slurry, but the effect of such treatments on improving WBMP included portlandite (one of the hydration products of Portland
cement properties still cannot offset the decrease in cement activity due cement), C3S (CaO⋅3SiO2, unhydrated Portland cement components),
to long settling time [25,26]. calcite (product of the carbonization reaction) and quartz (from waste
Another construction solid waste that can be used to produce arti­ clay brick and sand), indicating that the WBMP had considerable
ficial aggregates is waste clay-brick masonry blocks. As one of the most pozzolanic activity and potential hydration activity [35,36]. In addition,
widely used building forms, Masonry structures have been widely used as shown in Fig. 2 (b), the WBMP contained a large number of porous
in China for more than 2000 years; however, since the 1980 s, they have clay brick particles, which improved the porosity and thermal insulation
been gradually replaced by reinforced concrete structures [27]. With the properties of the artificial aggregate.
demolition of old buildings, the disposal of brick masonry waste and The CSW for the experiment was collected from a ready-mixed
other construction solid wastes has become an increasingly serious concrete plant in Qingdao, China. The production process is shown in
environmental burden. According to [28], recycled aggregates from clay Fig. 3. To minimize the effect of long transport distances on the granu­
brick waste do not satisfy the requirements for high-strength structural lation, the granulation tests of the obtained CSWs were conducted in the
concrete owing to their high porosity. In addition, the clay brick powder laboratory of the ready-mixed concrete plant. Because of the different
obtained by grinding has a lower pozzolanic activity than fly ash and tasks assigned to each ready-mixed concrete production line, the
finely ground blast furnace slag and does not show satisfactory appli­ composition ratio and sedimentation time of the CSW from each pro­
cation potential [29,30]. It is worth noting that the high porosity duction line were different. The CSWs used in the experiment were taken
properties of brick masonry waste are beneficial to improve the per­ from two different concrete production lines. The sedimentation times of
formance of artificial aggregates. Compared with mineral aggregates, the two CSWs were 3 and 6 h, and the CSWs obtained were called CSW-1
artificial aggregates are widely used in insulated walls owing to their and CSW-2. To determine the influence of sedimentation time and mix
high porosity and good thermal insulation properties [31–33]. Waste proportion of CSW on the granulation and properties of artificial ag­
clay brick masonry contains a large number of fine closed pores, which gregates, the mass ratio of fresh CSW to WBMP was set at 4:6 in the
reduce the compactness and mechanical strength of its matrix; however, granulation experiment.
the porosity of brick masonry waste improves the porosity of artificial In this study, two types of artificial aggregates were prepared: one
aggregates and increases the granulation efficiency. using fresh CSW (CSW-1, CSW-2) together with WBMP as the raw ma­
Curing methods for artificial aggregates usually include air curing terial (C1, C2), and the other was prepared by adding an additional 10%
and steam curing, where the hydration reaction of the cementitious of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) to the total mass of fresh
materials in the aggregates can be effectively promoted through steam CSW and WBMP (C1G, C2G). Compared to cement, GGBS has low en­
curing. In recent years, the CO2 curing method has been gradually ergy consumption and greenhouse gas emission and is cost-effective.
introduced for the preparation and curing of concrete products and The chemical compositions of all the raw materials are listed in
artificial aggregates owing to its excellent curing effect [34,35]. The Table 1. In addition, the crystalline phases of CSWs at different sedi­
carbonation reaction of carbon dioxide with alkaline mineral compo­ mentation times showed that CSW-1 and CSW-2 contained similar
nents, such as calcium hydroxide, in artificial aggregates not only im­ crystalline phases, that is, C3S, C2S, portlandite, and ettringite (Fig. 1 (a)
proves the properties of the aggregates but also captures a considerable and 2 (a)), which indicates that there was no difference in the type of
amount of carbon dioxide. Typically, the proportion of cement in con­ cementitious material used in the two types of concrete. However, the
crete slurry waste is the highest, which indicates that artificial aggre­ difference in precipitation time caused some differences in the crystal­
gates prepared from concrete slurry waste have high carbon dioxide line phase contents of the two CSWs.
absorption potential. Owing to the excellent CO2 absorption capacity of
concrete slurry waste [36], CO2 curing of artificial aggregates produced 2.2. Preparation of artificial aggregates
from concrete slurry waste has substantial environmental significance.
A brief review of the studies shows that the artificial aggregate The fresh CSWs were mixed using a mixer for 5 min to obtain a well-
prepared from waste concrete slurry can obtain excellent engineering dispersed fresh paste (Process II in Fig. 4), and then the WBMP (with or
properties, but the effect of the sedimentation time of concrete waste without GGBS) was added and mixed thoroughly. The mixture was
slurry on the engineering properties of artificial aggregates has rarely transferred to a disc granulator to achieve growth of the artificial
been reported. In addition, the performance of artificial aggregates co- aggregate particles (Process III in Fig. 4). The best pelletizing effect was
prepared using concrete waste slurry and waste brick masonry powder achieved with a pelletizer operating parameter of 45 rpm and an incli­
needs to be further investigated. Therefore, this study made innovative nation angle of 40◦ . Extra water was sprayed into the disc granulator in
attempts in the following aspects: (1) the influence of concrete slurry the first 3 min of the granulation to enhance the nucleation and growth

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H. Liu and Q. Li Construction and Building Materials 382 (2023) 131356

Fig. 1. X-ray diffraction patterns (XRD) of (a) CSW and (b) WBMP.

Fig. 2. Microstructure morphology of (a) CSW-1 and (b) WBMP.

of artificial aggregate particles. The particle size distribution curve is products of the artificial aggregates, the aggregates were ground to
shown in Fig. 5. produce powders and were examined using X-ray diffraction. In addi­
tion, the crushing strength of the aggregates was determined by taking
2.3. Curing methods the average of the crushing strengths of 30 aggregate particles. The
aggregate crushing strength was calculated using the following equation
The fresh artificial aggregate was divided into multiple batches for [37]:
curing under different conditions. The curing methods are presented in 2.8P
Table 2. There were four types of curing methods: air curing (AC), steam σ= (1)
πd2
conservation curing (SC), CO2 curing (CC), and combined air-CO2 curing
(AC + CC). A schematic of the CO2 curing system is shown in Fig. 6. where σ is the aggregate crushing strength (MPa), P is the peak force at
the compressive failure of the artificial aggregate particles (N), and d is
2.4. Test methods the distance between the loading points (mm).
The water absorption and bulk density of the artificial aggregates
The workability of the collected fresh CSWs (CSW-1 and CSW-2) was were determined following the methods specified in the Chinese na­
tested after thorough mixing with extra water (water–solid ratio of 0.8), tional standard GBT 17431.2. In addition, the pore distribution in the
which is recycled water generated by pressure filtration of concrete artificial aggregate matrix was determined using mercury intrusion
slurry waste. Subsequently, the fresh paste was cast into cubic specimens porosimetry. To determine the depth of carbon dioxide intrusion into
with side lengths of 20 mm and cured for 28 d for mechanical property the artificial aggregate, a 5 wt% phenolphthalein solution was sprayed
testing according to the Chinese standard GBT 17671. into its cross section.
To determine the differences in the compositions of the hydration To determine the CO2 uptake of the artificial aggregate under

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H. Liu and Q. Li Construction and Building Materials 382 (2023) 131356

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of CSW generation in a ready-mixed concrete plant.

Table 1
Chemical composition of CSW, WBMP, and GGBS.
Items Cao SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 K2 O MgO SO3 TiO2 Na2O Others

WBMP 1.67 67.83 16.2 7.55 – 0.94 – – – 2.33

CSW-1 35.42 28.77 9.67 4.6 0.93 1.72 2.61 – 0.24 16.06
CSW-2 35.03 26.56 9.33 4.47 0.91 1.7 2.59 – 0.26 18.88
GGBS 37.51 29.1 16.34 0.61 0.75 8.56 2.1 1.6 0.4 3.03

different curing conditions, it was ground into powder, one sample was 3. Results and discussion
heated to constant weight at 550 ◦ C and another at 900 ◦ C. The differ­
ence in mass loss between the two samples was considered as the CO2 3.1. Properties of concrete slurry waste
uptake [36]. In addition, the mortar in the brick masonry contained a
certain amount of calcium carbonate. The tests showed that the carbon As shown in Fig. 7 (a), the slumps of CSW-1 and CSW-2 were 165 and
dioxide content of the waste brick masonry powder per unit mass was 100 mm, respectively. Additionally, as shown in Fig. 7 (b), the
0.6%. The carbon dioxide absorption rate of the artificial aggregates per compressive strengths of the CSW-1 and CSW-2 specimens were 29.4
unit mass was calculated using Equation (2). and 17.7 MPa, respectively. The difference was caused by the different
sedimentation times of the CSWs. As shown in Fig. 1 (a), a considerable
ΔM(550− ◦
ηCO2 = (
900) C
− ηWBMP ) × 100% (2) amount of ettringite was produced in CSW-2 compared with CSW-1. As
ΔMd reported of [37], the early hardening properties of concrete prepared
using Portland cement are derived from ettringite and calcium silicate
where ΔM(550− 900)◦ C is the mass loss between 550 ◦ C and 900 ◦ C, ΔMd is
hydrate generated by the cement hydration reaction. A considerable
the dry mass of the artificial aggregate, ηCO2 is the amount of carbon
amount of ettringite formed a “skeletal” structure within the cementi­
dioxide absorbed by the artificial aggregate per unit mass, and ηWBMP is
tious matrix, which facilitated the setting and hardening of the cement
the carbon dioxide content of the raw material of the artificial aggregate,
paste [34]. However, this structure was destroyed by the filtration and
which had a value of 0.6%.
mixing process of CSW, resulting in the deterioration of the properties of
the fresh paste and hardened paste, which became more severe as the
sedimentation time increased.

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H. Liu and Q. Li Construction and Building Materials 382 (2023) 131356

Fig. 4. Preparation process of artificial aggregates.

bulk densities ranged from 921 to 1103 kg/m3, which satisfied the re­
quirements for loose bulk densities of light aggregates [38,39]. In
addition, the loose bulk densities of artificial aggregates prepared from
WBMP and CSW were comparable to those of artificial aggregates pre­
pared from industrial by-products, such as slag, apatite, and alkaline
slag [40–42]. The loose bulk densities of the artificial aggregates in the
CC group were the highest (up to 1103 kg/m3), owing to the additional
weight gained caused by the absorption of CO2 by calcium hydroxide.
The calcium carbonate generated by the carbonation reaction effectively
filled pores and cracks and optimized the compactness of the aggregate
matrix, which positively influenced the microstructure of the aggregates
[43]. In addition, the bulk densities of the aggregates under steam
curing conditions (SC group) decreased by 2.8%–3.5% compared to the
AC group, which is caused by the formation of a large number of closed
pores in artificial aggregate owing to the accelerated hydration of the
cementious materials [43].
Water absorption.
The water absorption of the artificial aggregates under different
curing conditions are shown in Fig. 9. Generally, the water absorption of
Fig. 5. Particle size distribution of artificial aggregates. the artificial aggregates was closely related to their pore distribution and
compactness. Compared with the AC group, the water absorption of the
SC group increased by 21.3%–28.9%, which was one of the main reasons
Table 2 for the lower bulk density and higher water absorption of the aggregates
Curing conditions of the artificial aggregates. under steam curing. In addition, the water absorption of the aggregates
Sample Curing condition of the CC group was comparable to that of the AC group, whereas the
label water absorption of the AC + CC group decreased significantly. As re­
AC Air curing at relative humidity of 60% and temperature of 20℃ for ported by [44], the artificial aggregate matrix was relatively compact
30 days after air curing for 28 d, calcium carbonate precipitates was formed on
SC Steam curing at 70℃ for 48 h the surfaces of the aggregates after CO2 curing, which further improved
CC CO2 curing for 14 days
the aggregate microstructure and substantially retarded the rate of
AC + CC CO2 curing for 14 days after air curing
external moisture penetration. A similar phenomenon was found by
Note: 1. Considering C1G-AC as an example, C1 indicates that the CSW used was [37].
CSW-1, G indicates that additional GGBS was added, and AC indicates that the It is worth noting that the water absorption capacities of C2 and C2-G
curing method used was air curing. were higher than those of C1 and C1-G under the same curing condi­
tions. As shown in Fig. 10, the C1 aggregate matrix was uniformly
3.2. Properties of artificial aggregates distributed, whereas there were multiple hardened CSW blocks in the
cross section of the C2 aggregate particles. CSW-1 was filtered from
Density. concrete slurry waste after sedimentation for 3 h, and a uniform fresh
The loose bulk densities of the artificial aggregates under different paste was obtained after thorough mixing with additional water. The
curing conditions are shown in Fig. 8. The results showed that the loose sedimentation time of CSW-2 was 6 h, which was nearly the same as the

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H. Liu and Q. Li Construction and Building Materials 382 (2023) 131356

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the artificial aggregates under CO2 curing condition.

Fig. 7. Workability and compressive strength of CSWs.

final setting time of Portland cement. The mixing treatment using a compactness of the aggregate matrix [45]. The aggregate crushing
mixer did not completely disperse the concrete waste slurry blocks; thus, strengths of the AC and SC groups were mainly attributed to the above
after the artificial aggregate was formed and hardened, the incompletely hydration reaction, whereas the CC and AC + CC groups benefited the
dispersed CSW blocks reduced the compactness of the aggregate matrix, secondary hydration reaction derived from the above hydration reaction
deteriorating its properties, such as the water absorption and crushing [46]. As shown in Fig. 12, the decrease in portlandite peaks and increase
strength. Therefore, for CSW with sedimentation times close to or in calcite peaks in both the CC and AC + CC groups indicate that calcium
exceeding the final setting time of cement, a more appropriate disper­ hydroxide, a cement hydration product, underwent a carbonation re­
sion method should be further explored to reduce the adverse effects of action during carbon dioxide curing. The calcium carbonate produced
uneven dispersion of CSW on the performance of aggregates. from this reaction improved the compactness of the aggregate matrix
Crushing strength. near the surfaces of the aggregate particles, as confirmed by [39]. In
The crushing strengths of the artificial aggregates are shown in addition, the crushing strengths of both C1-G and C2 prepared from
Fig. 11. Considering C1 as an example, the aggregate crushing strengths GGBS were higher than those of C1 and C2, indicating that GGBS
of the SC, CC, and AC + CC groups increased by 1.4%, 7.2%, and 8.6%, improved the crushing strengths of the aggregate particles [47].
respectively, compared with the AC group. The C3S in the artificial ag­ Pore size distribution.
gregates under steam curing was rapidly consumed, and the generated Fig. 13 (a) and (b) show the pore size distribution curves of the
hydrates, such as calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate, artificial aggregates under different curing conditions. The results
effectively filled the pores and cracks, which effectively improved the indicate that the pore size distributions of the aggregates were

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H. Liu and Q. Li Construction and Building Materials 382 (2023) 131356

Fig. 8. Loose bulk densities of artificial aggregates.

Fig. 9. Water absorption of the artificial aggregates under different curing conditions.

significantly affected by the curing conditions. The aggregates under air 3.3. Carbon dioxide uptake
curing (AC group) had the smallest average pore size, whereas the ag­
gregates under steam curing (SC group) had the largest average pore To evaluate the degree of carbonation of the aggregates under
size. Under steam curing conditions, the overlap between ettringite and different curing conditions, the cross sections of the artificial aggregates
calcium silicate hydrate produced by cement hydration formed a large were sprayed with a 5 wt% phenolphthalein solution to test the
number of closed pores inside the aggregates, and a considerable num­ carbonation depth. As shown in Fig. 14, the cross sections of the ag­
ber of large-sized pores remained after steam curing was completed gregates in the AC group (air curing condition) and SC group (steam
[39]. In addition, the addition of GGBS reduced the porosity and average curing condition) showed significant coloration, indicating that the
pore size of the artificial aggregates under the same curing conditions, carbon dioxide in air (0.04% mass fraction) did not effectively penetrate
which indicates that the calcium silicate hydrate produced by the hy­ the aggregates, and the carbonation reaction occurred only in the sur­
dration of GGBS and calcium hydroxide effectively filled the pores and face layer of the aggregates [39,48]. In addition, the cross sections of the
cracks of the aggregate matrix. The aggregates prepared from CSW-2 CC aggregates did not exhibit any red color, and only the core areas in
had higher porosity and larger average pore size compared with CSW- the cross sections of the AC + CC aggregates exhibited a red color,
1 because of the inhomogeneous dispersion of the CSW, which is sup­ indicating that carbon dioxide effectively penetrated the aggregates
ported by the change law of water absorption. under the CO2 curing condition (20%).
Fig. 13 (c) and (d) show the pore distributions in different sections of The artificial aggregate in the AC + CC group was obtained by
the AC + CC aggregates. The results show that the porosity in the core exposing fresh artificial aggregate to a curing environment with 70%
area of the aggregate was comparable to that of the AC group, and the relative humidity, 20 ◦ C and 20% carbon dioxide concentration for 14
porosity and pore size near the surface were effectively improved, which days. The low hydration degree of CSW in the aggregate made the
indicate that CO2 did not penetrate the core area, and the carbonation aggregate matrix loose, thus CO2 effectively penetrated into the core
reaction occurred only near the surfaces of the aggregates. area of the aggregates. The artificial aggregate in the AC + CC group was

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H. Liu and Q. Li Construction and Building Materials 382 (2023) 131356

Fig. 10. Cross section of (a) C1 and (b) C2.

Fig. 11. Crushing strengths of the artificial aggregates.

obtained by curing at relative humidity of 60% and temperature of 20 ◦ C respectively, for C1, indicate that the calcium hydroxide and residual
for 30 d, and then under CO2 curing for 14 d. The high hydration degree unhydrated cement particles in CSW make the artificial aggregates have
of the CSW in the aggregates made the matrix compact, and the calcium excellent CO2 uptake potential. In addition, the addition of GGBS
carbonate generated by the carbonation reaction on the surface of the resulted in a slight decrease in the CO2 sequestration efficiency of the
aggregate further hindered the penetration of CO2 into the core area of artificial aggregates under the same curing conditions because of the
the aggregates. consumption of calcium hydroxide by the “secondary hydration reac­
The CO2 curing not only improved the performance of the artificial tion” [47].
aggregates but also consumed a significant amount of carbon dioxide,
which reduced carbon dioxide stocks and achieved the “carbon peak and 3.4. Microstructure analysis
carbon reduction”goals set by the Chinese government. According to
previous studies [18,36], the hydrated calcium silicate and calcium To further understand the effects of curing conditions on the prop­
alumina in cement hydration products decompose at 300 ◦ C, calcium erties of the aggregates, the evolution of their microstructure was
hydroxide at 500–600 ◦ C, and calcium carbonate at 550–900 ◦ C. observed by scanning electron microscope. Fig. 16 shows that the mi­
Combining the XRD patterns of the raw materials and the artificial ag­ crostructures of the aggregates under different curing conditions varied
gregates (Figs. 1 and 12), it is concluded that these hydration products, significantly. The artificial aggregates under steam curing conditions
as well as the calcium carbonate, originated from the hydration of (SC group) had large closed pores and cracks inside, which was the main
cement in the CSW and from the cement mortar in the waste brick reason for their high water absorption. The higher curing temperature
masonry. Fig. 15 shows that the mass loss rate of artificial aggregates effectively promoted hydration, whereas the rapid temperature rise and
ranged from 550 ◦ C to 900 ◦ C, that is, the efficiency of the artificial fall processes during steam curing produced numerous cracks that
aggregates per unit mass for CO2 uptake. The CO2 uptake rates were caused deterioration in properties, such as aggregate porosity[49].
0.58%, 1.73%, and 3.03% for the SC, AC + CC, and CC groups, The microstructure of the aggregate particles in the AC + CC group

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H. Liu and Q. Li Construction and Building Materials 382 (2023) 131356

Fig. 12. X-ray diffraction patterns of the artificial aggregates.

Fig. 13. Differential and cumulative intrusion volumes of the aggregates.

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H. Liu and Q. Li Construction and Building Materials 382 (2023) 131356

bulk density of artificial aggregate in the CC group (Fig. 8).

3.5. Properties of the artificial aggregate concrete

Compared with mineral aggregate concrete, concrete buildings

constructed using artificial aggregates with high porosity have high
Fig. 14. Phenolphthalein solution spraying test on C1 under different building energy efficiency [50]. To study the differences in the me­
curing conditions. chanical and thermal insulation properties of concrete prepared from
different aggregates, concrete was prepared using mineral aggregates,
(CO2 curing for 14 d after air curing) showed that the area near the commercially available sintered fly ash aggregate (SFAA), and artificial
surfaces of the particles was more compact than the core area (Fig. 17). aggregates with similar mix proportions. The specific densities of the
A large amount of rod-shaped ettringite in the core area of the aggregate raw materials and mix proportions are shown in Tables 3 and 4.
increased the porosity of the aggregate, which then increased the water Fig. 18 (a) shows the compressive strengths of concrete mixed with
absorption. The calcite agglomerates produced by the carbonation re­ different types of coarse aggregates. The results show that the
action with calcium hydroxide in the aggregates formed a dense “shell compressive strengths of the artificial aggregate concrete at a 28
structure” on the surfaces of the aggregates, which resulted in lower d curing age satisfied the requirements for light aggregate structural
water absorption in the CC and AC + CC groups than in the AC group concrete [51]. Compared to fly ash sintered aggregate concrete, there
(Figs. 9 and 13). was a 1%–5.8% increase in the compressive strength of concrete pre­
In addition, the carbonization reaction caused the aggregates to pared using artificial aggregates, with the largest increase in C1-AC +
absorb additional carbon dioxide, which led to an increase in the loose CC. The carbonation reaction effectively improved the compactness of

Fig. 15. CO2 uptake of the artificial aggregates.

Fig. 16. Microscopic morphologies of the artificial aggregates under different curing conditions.

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H. Liu and Q. Li Construction and Building Materials 382 (2023) 131356

Fig. 17. Microstructural morphologies of the artificial aggregates of AC + CC group.

Table 3
Specific densities of concrete raw materials.
Materials NA SFAA C1-AC C1-SC C1-CC C1-AC + CC Sand Cement

Specific gravity 2.65 1.6 1.84 1.78 1.86 1.88 2.67 3.1

conjunction with previous studies, the production of artificial aggre­

Table 4 gates from solid waste requires the additional binder materials to
Mix proportions of concrete with different coarse aggregates.
improve their granulation [4,35]. The use of additional commercial
Samples Mix proportion(kg/m3) binder materials for the production of artificial aggregates not only in­
Coarse aggregates Sand Cement Mixing water creases the manufacturing cost of artificial aggregates significantly, but
1 NA 1196 689 400 200
also reduces the environmental friendliness of artificial aggregates due
2 SFAA 722 689 400 200 to the high energy consumption and CO2 emissions of commercial
3 C1-AC 831 689 400 200 binder materials, which is a potential factor limiting the widespread use
4 C1-SC 804 689 400 200 of artificial aggregates in engineering. In this study, the effects of CSW
5 C1-CC 840 689 400 200
sedimentation time and aggregate curing conditions on the physical
6 C1-AC + CC 849 689 400 200
properties of artificial aggregates were investigated. In addition, the
Note: The volume ratio of coarse aggregate to fine aggregate to cementitious primary concrete mix proportions for preparing CSW had a non-
material was 3.5:2:1, and the mass ratio of mixing water to cementitious ma­ negligible influence on the granulation efficiency and performance of
terial was 0.5:1.
artificial aggregates, which is a key issue that requires further research.
In addition, the influence of artificial aggregates replacing mineral ag­
the edge area of the artificial aggregates, resulting in a stable “shell gregates in concrete on concrete properties requires further study.
structure” on their surfaces and improving the mechanical properties of
the artificial aggregate concrete. In addition, the thermal conductivity of 4. Conclusions
the concrete prepared with artificial aggregates were lower than that of
the concrete prepared with mineral aggregate and comparable to that of In this study, concrete slurry waste produced by a concrete ready-
the sintered fly ash aggregate concrete, indicating a high potential for mix plant and waste brick masonry powder obtained from a demol­
building energy savings. It is well known that the thermal conductivity ished building were reused to prepare artificial aggregates using gran­
of air is extremely low compared with that of mineral aggregates. The ulation technology, and the effects of CSW sedimentation time and
large number of closed pores formed in the artificial aggregate matrix different aggregate curing conditions on aggregate properties were
during the formation and hardening processes not only effectively evaluated. The conclusions are as follows:
reduced the concrete density but also provided the concrete with good
thermal insulation properties [39]. 1. Sedimentation time had an important influence on the properties of
These findings suggest that the technical pathway of using CSW and CSW and artificial aggregates. A long sedimentation time was not
WBMP to produce artificial aggregates is feasible and promising. In

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H. Liu and Q. Li Construction and Building Materials 382 (2023) 131356

Fig. 18. (a) Compressive strength and (b) thermal conductivity of concrete.

conducive to the dispersion of concrete waste slurry into fresh paste, Acknowledgements
which deteriorated the properties of the artificial aggregates.
Therefore, for CSW with sedimentation times close to or exceeding The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of Project
the final setting time of cement, a more appropriate dispersion Numbers 52078261 from the National Natural Science Foundation of
method should be further explored to reduce the adverse effects of China.
uneven dispersion of CSW on the performance of aggregates.
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