Life Sciences (Biology)

BIOLOGY
- From Greek words “bios” and “logos”
- Literally means the “study of life”
- Aristotle – Father of Biology

Branches of Biology

1. Anatomy – the study of body parts and their location

2. Physiology – the study of functions o the body parts
3. Biochemistry – the study of chemical processes and transformations in living organisms
4. Biotechnology – a technological application that uses biological systems to modify and make products
5. Cell Biology – also known as cytology, the study of cells
6. Ecology – the study of ecosystems (interaction between an organism and its environment)
7. Evolution – the study of the changes in the inherited characteristics, or traits, of a population of organisms
8. Genetics – the study of genes and heredity
9. Gerontology – the study of aging
10. Histology – the study of tissues
11. Immunology – the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms
12. Marine Biology – the study of plants and animals, and other organisms that lives in the ocean
13. Microbiology – the study of microorganisms
14. Mycology – the study of fungi
15. Parasitology – the study of parasites and their hosts
16. Phycology -the study of algae
17. Taxonomy – the practice and science of classification and naming of organisms
18. Botany – the study of plants
19. Virology – the study of viruses
20. Zoology – the study of animals
a. Ethology – animal behavior
b. Herpetology – reptiles and amphibians
c. Ichthyology – fishes
d. Mammalogy – mammals
e. Entomology – insects

The Discovery of the Cell and Important Names to Remember

 In 1665 Robert Hooke used an early compound microscope to look at a non-living thin slice of a
cork, a plant material; termed them as cells, published in his book Micrograpia.
 1674, Netherlands: Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a single-lens microscope to observe pond water
and other things; termed them animalcules.
 Robert Brown discovered the cell nucleus in 1831.
 Felix Dujardin termed the living substance within the cell as sarcode in 1835.
 Later in 1839, Jan Evangelista Purkinje called sarcode protoplasm (cytoplasm).

The Development of the Cell Theory

 In the 1830’s Matthias Schleiden, a German lawyer turned botanist, concluded that despite the
differences, plants are made up of cells and that the plant embryo arises from a single cell.
 In 1839 Theodor Schwann, a German zoologist and a colleague of Schleiden, published a
comprehensive report on the cellular basis of animal life.
 In 1855 Rudolf Virchow, a German pathologist, proposed that cells can arise only by division of
the pre-existing cell, and coined the cell cycle/ cell division.

The Cell Theory

 Cells are the basic unit of life.

 Every organism is made up of cells (Schwann and Schleiden)
 Every cell comes with pre-existing cells (Virchow)
The Invention of the Microscope

Microscope – a tool that produces an enlarged image of something very small; it is thought to be the
scientist’s “magic tool”.

Who is acclaimed to be the inventor of the microscope?

In the 1590’s a Dutch lens maker, Zacharias Janssen invented the microscopes’ earliest prototypes.

Types of Microscope

1. Light Microscope (good for living cell) – one that uses a light beam; highest known magnification is
2000x.
i. Simple microscope have one lens.
ii. Compound Microscope have 2 or more lens.

2. Electron Microscope (good for preserved cell or non-living cell) – one that uses electron beam; up to 10,
000, 000x magnification.
i. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) – more on the surface scan.
ii. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) – more on inner structure.
iii. Scanning-Tunneling Electron Microscope (STEM) – a hybrid of the above EM’s.

Three Important Parameters in Microscopy

1. Magnification – the ratio of an object’s image to its real size.

2. Resolution – a measure of the clarity of the image.
3. Contrast – the difference in brightness between the light and dark areas of the image.

Overview of the Cell

What is a cell?
 Smallest unit of a living thing.
 Basic building blocks of organisms.
 Smallest unit of life.

Two Types of Cells

1. Prokaryotic Cells – cells that do not contain a nucleus, do not have membrane-bound organelles, small
in size. They have their DNA in a region called Nucleoid. Examples are bacteria and archaea (Unicellular).

2. Eukaryotic Cells – cells that contain a true nucleus, and have membrane-bound organelles, mostly
larger than prokaryotes. Examples are plants, animals, fungi, and protists (Unicellular, Multicellular).

Basic Features of All Cells

a. Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane)

b. Cytoplasm
c. Genetic Material
d. Basic Replicating and Protein-Making Machineries (Ribosomes)

Cellular Parts

1. The Plasma Membrane

- functions as a selective barrier (semipermeable)
- control the passage of nutrients and waste
- boundary between the inside of the cell and its external environment

2. The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell

- contains most of the genes (DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid) in the eukaryotic cell (command center
of the cell)
 - largest organelle in an animal cell
- it contains nucleolus inside which synthesize ribosomes

3. The Cytoplasm
- region between the nuclear membrane and cell membrane
- jelly like fluid (Cytosol)
- where most of life processes occur
- where organelles (little organs) are located
- compose of water, salts, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and other chemicals

4. Ribosomes: Protein Factories in the Cell

- carry out protein synthesis (protein factories)
A. Free ribosomes
- produce proteins needed in the cytosol
B. Bound ribosomes (in the RER)
- for proteins integrated in the membrane and for export outside the cell

5. The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory

- is continuous with the nuclear envelope
- folded membranes that serve as channels through which materials are transported in the cell

6. The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center

- manufacture, process, and package of certain macromolecules
- packaging factories of the cell

7. Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion

- Powerhouse of the cell
- converts food molecules into energy (ATP) through Cellular Respiration
- cellular Respiration is the process that releases energy from food (glucose)
- ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the energy currency of the cell

8. Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

- suicidal bag of the cell
- garbage collector
- is a membranous sac of strong hydrolytic enzymes
- digest bacteria, other foreign substances, and worn-out cell parts

9. Chloroplast: Capture of Light Energy

- contain chlorophyll (green pigment)
- found in plants NOT animals
- are sites of photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis – the entire process of food capturing light energy to produce food-energy-rich
organic molecules (glucose) from carbon dioxide and water
6CO 2 + 6 H 2O - + C 6 H 12 O 6 + 602
Needed Material: Sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide
Waste product: Oxygen
End Product: Glucose

10. Cell Wall

- located outside the cell membrane, the protective layer of the cell
- Plant Cell Wall: made up of cellulose
- Bacterial Cell Wall: made up of peptidoglycan
- Fungi Cell Wall: made up of chitin

11. Vacuoles
- are found in plants (central vacuole)
- hold reserves of important organic compounds and water
- can take up to 30% - 90% of plant cell’s volume
- also found in animal cells (food vacuole)
12. Cytoskeleton: Mechanical support, network of fibers
- Microfilament (Actin)
- Intermediate filament (Keratin)
- Microtubules (Tubulin)
- Microfilaments (Actin Filaments) are the thinnest part of the cytoskeleton, and are used to give
shape to the cell and support all of its internal parts. They are essential for cytokinesis, amoeboid
movement, and changes in cell shape.

13. Cilium
- hair-like structure
ex. cilia in paramecium, fallopian tube (oviduct), lungs

14. Flagellum
- whip-like structure
ex. flagellum in sperm cell, euglena, bacteria

15. Vesicles
- Carry materials in the inside and to the outside of the cell
 Transport vesicles – move materials within the cell
 Secretory vesicles – move materials outside of the cell, through a process called exocytosis

Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell

Plant Cell – no centrioles, no cilia, no lysosome, has cell wall, has central vacuole, and has chloroplasts
Animal Cell – has centrioles, has cilia, has lysosome, no cell wall, no central vacuole, and no chloroplasts

Cellular Transport

a. Passive Transport
- a diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment
- carbon dioxide, water, and oxygen easily diffuse across plasma membrane
- moves from high to low concentration (concentration gradient)
- can be diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or osmosis

1. Diffusion
- the tendency of molecules of any substance to spread out evenly into the available space

2. Facilitated Diffusion
- it is a type of passive transport aided by transport (channel) proteins.
- Transport proteins speed up the movement of molecules across the plasma membrane

3. Osmosis
- is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane
- affected by the concentration gradient of dissolved substances called the solution’s tonicity
- diffusion of water

Solution’s Tonicity

1. Isotonic solution
- the concentration of solutes (outside of the cell) is the same as it is inside the cell.
- there will be no net movement of water

2. Hypertonic Solution
- the concentration of solutes outside the cell is greater than inside the cell
- water will go out of the cell
- the cell will lose water ( mo hiyos)
- Clue: plasmolysis, shrivel, shrink, dehydrated
 3. Hypotonic Solution
- the concentration of solutes outside the cell is less than (lower) inside the cell.
- water will come inside the cell
- the cell will gain much water (swell/mo hubag) and may burst, lyse or become turgid plants.

b. Active Transport
- use energy to move solutes against their concentration gradient
- requires energy, usually in the form of ATP
- Examples: Ion pumps, cotransport, bulk transport (endocytosis, exocytosis)

Bulk Transport

1. Exocytosis
- secretory vesicles migrate to the plasma membrane, fuse with it, and release their content.
- is the release of the cellular substances contained in secretory vesicles to the exterior (outside of the
cell).

2. Endocytosis
- the cell takes in macromolecules by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane.
- It can be:
Pinocytosis – (big materials) solid particle
Phagocytosis – (small materials) extracellular fluid
Receptor-mediated – attachment site of the cell membrane such as signal cells

TAXONOMY
- The study of classification and naming of organisms
- Carolus Linnaeus (Father of Modern Taxonomy)
- Proposed the binomial nomenclature (two name system)

8 Levels of Taxonomic Classification

Domain Dear
Kingdom King
Phylum/Division Philpp
Class Come
Order Over
Family For
Genus Good
Species Spaghetti

Taxonomic Domains and Kingdoms

a. Domain Archaea

1. Kingdom Archaebacteria
- organisms that belong to this kingdom are all microscopic
- they live in various places, some even in the most severe environments
- ex. Methanogens, Halophiles, and Thermophiles

b. Domain Bacteria

1. Kingdom Eubacteria (Monera)

- organisms that belong to this kingdom are all microscopic
- they are referred to as the true bacteria and are usually called the “bacteria” group.
- their cell walls are made of peptidoglycan, a carbohydrate with protein
- ex. Streptococcus, Lactobacillus
c. Domain Eukarya

1. Kingdom Protista
- protist differ in size, movement and method of obtaining energy
- most protist are microscopic, some can grow to as high as several meters
- Protozoans, diatoms, various types of algae (green, brown, golden, red algae)
- ex. Entamoeba histolytica (Amoebiasis)

2. Kingdom Fungi
- all are heterotrophic
-- ex. fungi, molds, mushroom, yeast, mildews, microsporidia

3. Kingdom Animalia
- animals consist of two major groups, invertebrates and vertebrates.
- Invertebrates lack bone which is present in vertebrates
- all are heterotrophic

Invertebrates (no backbone)

a. Porifera (Phylum Porifera)

- pore-bearing, simplest animal (no tissues and nerves); body of calcium carbonate; aquatic
- ex. often called sponges

b. Cnidarians (Phylum Cnidaria)

- have stinging cells (nematocyst)
- ex. jellyfish, coral, hydra, sea anemone

c. Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda)

- jointed legs, segmented bodies
- ex. Insects: mosquito, butterflies, crustaceans
Arachnids: spiders, centipede, millipede
 Molting (Ecdysis) – insects shed off old cuticles to grow in size (mag luno)

d. Nematodes (Phylum Nematoda)

-round worms and unsegmented
-ex. pinworm, ascaris, hookworm, filarial worm (causes filariasis)

e. Plathyhelminthes (Phylum Plathyhelmintes)

- flatworms: have soft tissues; unsegmented
ex. flukes, tapeworms, planaria

f. Annelids (Phylum Annelida)

- segmented worms
- ex. Leeches, earthworms, bristle worms

g. Mollusk (Phylum Mollusca)

- with soft bodies (usually with shells)
- ex. squids, clams, snails, octopi

h. Echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata)

- spiny body
- ex. sea star, sea urchin, sand dollars, sea cucumber, brittle star

i. Chordata (Phylum Chordata)

 Fish (Pisces) – scales, gills, and fins
ex. shark, lampreys

 Amphibians (Amphibia) – part of their life cycle is in water

ex. frogs, caecilians, salamanders
  Reptiles (Reptilia) – lay eggs; scaly bodies, ectotherm (cold-blooded)
ex. crocodiles, snakes, turtles, lizard

 Birds (Aves) – scaly legs, wings, feathers, endotherms (warm-blooded)

ex. penguin, ostrich, duck

 Mammals (Mammalia) – mammary glands, hairs, milk

ex. human, platypus, marsupials
Walrus – marine mammals that have long ivory tusks and lives in the arctic environment

4. Kingdom Plantae
- they are multicellular and because they have chlorophyll, they can make their own food
- plants consists of two big groups: those which do not have tissues to transport water and food
(nonvascular) and those that have transport system (vascular)

a. Nonvascular Plants
- no vascular or conducting tissues
- found in moist places
- ex. mosses, liverworts, hornworts

b. Vascular Plants
- have vascular or conducting issues

Xylem and Phloem

 Xylem – conducts most of the water and minerals
 Phloem – distributes sugars, amino acids, and other organic compounds

- Vascular plants can be:

a. Seedless Vascular Plants
Includes:
- club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts
- ferns
- whisk ferns
-horsetail

b. Seed Vascular Plants

i. Angiosperms
- most abundant and widely distributed plants
- flowering plants
- flowers contain reproductive cells
- bears fruit to protect the seed

ii. Gymnosperms
- cone bearing plants
- have naked seed
- seeds are not enclosed by fruit
- the four groups of living gymnosperms are conifers (pine tree), cycads, ginkgoes,
and gnetophytes

Plant Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms

Flower – a reproductive organ of a flowering plant

 Pollination – transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the flower.
 Cross Pollination – from one plant to the other plant
 Self-Pollination – pollination from same flower or same plant
The Flower
 Sepals – collectively called the calyx, protect the flower bud before it opens
 Petals – collectively called corolla
 The petals often attract a particular pollinator
 Stamen – male part of the flower (has anthers and filament)
 Anther – a sac like container
 Filament – a slender stalk
 Pollen grains develop from microspores produced in the anther
 Carpel (Pistil) – female part of the flower
 Includes the Stigma, Style, Ovary, Ovule
 Ovule becomes the seed
 Ovary becomes the fruit
 Fruit is instrumental in the distribution of seeds

TERM TYPE OF FLOWER

Complete All four parts (sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels) are present.

Incomplete Lacks one or more of the four parts.

Perfect Has both stamens and carpel/s.
Imperfect Has stamens or carpel/s but not both.
Inflorescence A cluster of flowers.
Composite Appears to be a single flower but consists of a group of tiny flowers

Plant Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction of Gymnosperms

a. Female cone
 Female cones grow in the upper branches where they may be fertilized by pollen blown on the wind
from the male cones.
 Male cones grow in the lower branches.

b. Male cone
 A pollen tube forms, allowing the pollen to migrate towards the female gametophyte. Upon
fertilization, a diploid zygote form.
 Seeds are dispersed and grow into mature trees.

ANGIOSPERMS SIMILARITIES GYMNOSPERMS

Flowering plants Seed-bearing plants Non-flowering plants
Enclosed seeds Kingdom Plantae Exposed or ‘naked’ seeds
Possess ovaries with flowers that Vascular plants Possess cones, scales, or
can be unisexual or bisexual specialized leaves; generally
unisexual
Can be found in almost any Softwood trees or shrubs like
habitat juniper, pine, fig, and conifer

Plant Reproduction: Asexual Reproduction

 Asexual Reproduction – vegetative reproduction

 Vegetative Reproduction – a new plant grows from a fragment of the parent plant or grows from a
specialized reproductive structure.
o It could be a stolon, tubers, rhizomes, bulbs, corms, or undergrounds roots.

1. Runners
- also known as stolon
- horizontal stems
- new roots and shoots develop at the node
- ex. strawberry plant, Bermuda grass, bamboo grass
 2. Tubers
- underground stems that store for the plant, the ‘eyes’ are the stem’s nodes, and each eye
contains a cluster of bud.
- ex. potato

3. Rhizomes
- resemble stolons because they grow as underground horizontal stems from plant to plant
- some rhizomes are compressed and fleshy.
- ex. ginger

4. Bulbs
- shortened, compressed, underground stems surrounded by fleshy scales (leave) that
envelop a central bud at the tip of the stem.
- ex. onion and garlic

5. Corms
- underground stem
- shaped liked bulbs
- do not contain fleshy scale
- solid, swollen stem with dry scale-like leaves
- ex. Taro (Colocasia)

6. Undeground Roots
- ex. carrots, sweet potatoes, yam, cassava, and turnip

Animal Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction

 EARTHWORM
- Hermaphroditic/ Monoecious
o Both male and female organs are found in the same worm
- Clitellum – contain eggs
o During copulation, one worm passes its sperm into the seminal vesicle of another, at the same
time receives sperm into his own receptacle.
 FROG
- Non-amniotic eggs
- The eggs are fertilized in the water
o Amplexus – mating embrace of some amphibians

 CHICKEN
- The rooster (male) places the opening of his reproductive organ against the opening of the hen’s
(female) reproductive organ
- The hen drops the fertilized egg (surrounded by yolk) out of her body and incubates it.

Animal Reproduction: Asexual Reproduction

 BUDDING
- The parent organism produces offspring by growing a replica in the form of an outgrowth called
‘bud’.
- Ex. Hydra, Sponges, Yeast

 FRAGMENTATION/ REGENERATION
- Separated pieces of the parent organism can develop into an individual
- Ex. Sea star, flatworms

 BINARY FISSION
- The individual divides into two halves
- Ex. Paramecium and bacteria
HUMAN SYSTEMS

1. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Types of Digestion

a. Mechanical and Physical Digestion: mouth and stomach

 Peristalsis: wave-like muscle contraction that move food

b. Chemical Digestion: breakdown of large food molecules by enzymes

Parts of the Digestive System

1. Mouth – mechanical digestion
2. Pharynx – throat
3. Esophagus – peristalsis occurs
4. Stomach – chyme (mixed food and gastric juices)
5. Small Intestines – final place of digestion and absorption of nutrients
6. Large intestines – colon, water absorption, production of Vitamin K, ends in rectum
7. Anus – passageway in defecation

Accessory Organs in Digestive System

1. Salivary gland (salivary amylase)
2. Liver – creates bile
3. Gall bladder – stores and releases the bile
4. Pancreas – secrete pancreatic amylase for final digestion of starch

Ingestion (mouth)
Digestion (stomach)
Absorption (Small Intestine)
Elimination (Anus)
Peptic Ulcer (Digestive Disease) – ulcer is caused by helicobacter pylori

2. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM – transports blood from the heart to the lungs to oxygenate blood then to other
parts of the body.

Parts of Circulatory System

1. Veins – blood back to heart (deoxygenated blood)
2. Artery – blood away to heart (oxygen-rich blood)
3. Heart – pumps blood
4. Blood – contains blood cells (RBC, WBC, Platelets), plasma
o RBC (red corpuscles) is red because of hemoglobin
o Fibrinogen is a protein found in the plasma is responsible for blood clotting
o Vitamin K is a vitamin needed for blood clotting
o Calcium is the mineral needed for blood clotting
o Vitamin B12 is a vitamin needed for RBC production
o RBCs are made in the bone marrow
o RBC life span is 120 days
o WBC life span is 1-15 / 13-20 days
o Eyelash life span is 3-4 months

3. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM – supplies body with oxygen, and release carbon dioxide as waste

 Inspiration – inhale, takes oxygen in

 Expiration – exhale, releases carbon dioxide out

Parts of the Respiratory System

1. Nose – warms and moisten air, traps dirt
2. Pharynx (throat) – passageway for both air and food
3. Epiglottis – prevents the entrance of food to trachea
4. Larynx – (voice box) where the vocal cords are found. Adam’s apple in males.
5. Trachea – (windpipe) cartilaginous, traps and sweeps out dirt through cilia
6. Bronchi and bronchioles – pipes that branch off to each lung
7. Lungs – the main organ of respiratory system
8. Diaphragm – dome-shaped muscle beneath the lungs
o Inhale – contracts
o Exhale – relaxes

4. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM – regulates body temperature, metabolism, development, and homeostasis

through hormone. It also regulates other organs.
Example:
Pancreas releases insulin
The parathyroid gland regulates calcium level

5. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

MALE: penis, testes, vas deferens, epididymis, scrotum, prostate glands, seminal vesicles, bulbourethral
gland
FEMALE: ovaries, oviduct, uterus, cervix, vagina, labia

 Fertilization – union of sex cells (gametes), union of sperm and egg

 In vitro fertilization – sperm and ovum meets inside the test tube
 In vivo fertilization – sperm and ovum meet inside the body (fallopian tube)
 1 drop of semen contains an estimate of 5 billion sperms

6. NERVOUS SYSTEM
- regulates behavior, maintains homeostasis, controls sensory and motor functions
- memory and emotions
- spinal cord, brain
- Neurons – (Nerve cell) the basic unit of nervous system

a. Central Nervous System

 Cerebrum
- Voluntary activities, largest part of the brain
- Responsible intelligences, learning, and judgment

 Cerebellum
- Little brain, involuntary movement, balance, and coordination

 Brainstem
- Connects brain and spinal cord, involuntary
- Life sustaining activities: breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing
- Includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

b. Peripheral Nervous System – it consists of the nerves

7. SKELETAL SYSTEM
- protects and supports body parts
- framework of the body
- responsible for the blood production on bone marrows
- storage of calcium and phosphorous
- bones
o 206 bones in adults
o 300 bones in babies
Two Divisions of Skeletal System
1. Axial – central axis includes skull, vertebrae, and rib cage
2. Appendicular – arms and legs

8. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
- moves limbs and trunk
- moves substances through the body

Three Types of Muscular Tissue

 Smooth Muscle – located in various internal structures including the digestive tract, uterus and blood
vessels such as arteries. (involuntary, non-striated)
 Cardiac Muscle – the muscle specific to the heart. The heart contracts and relaxes without our
conscious awareness. (involuntary, striated)
 Skeletal Muscle – the specialized tissue that is attached to bones and allows movement. (voluntary,
striated)

9. EXCRETORY SYSTEM – removes metabolic waste from the body

 Lungs – water vapor and carbon dioxide
 Liver – urea
 Skin – sweat (water, salt, urea)
 Kidney – main excretory organ, excretes water, urea and other metabolic wastes
i. Nephron – functional unit of kidneys

10. INTERGUMENTARY SYSTEM

- body covering
- protects from loss of internal fluids and from UV rays
- body temperature regulation
- elimination of some wastes
- includes nails, skin, hair
- production of Vitamin D (skin)
- Skin is the largest organ in the body

11. IMMUNE SYSTEM

- defends the body against pathogens and diseases
- includes white blood cells, lymph nodes (lymphatic system), and skin

Death: Postmortem Changes

1. Livor Mortis
- known as Hypostasis
- the blood settles because of gravity
- skin becomes pinkish, bluish, blotchy
Note: the location of livor mortis can reveal the position of the body during the first 8 hours after death.

2. Rigor Mortis
- chemical changes because muscle mass to become rigid
- after Rigor Mortis, chemical breakdown and muscles become flaccid

3. Algor Mortis
- body cooling from normal internal temperature to the temperature of the environment

 Decomposition – is a process of autolysis and putrefaction

- Autolysis – self-digestion, refers to the destruction of a cell through the action of its enzymes
- Putrefaction – breakdown of tissues and liquefaction of most organ
GENETICS
- Genetic deals with heredity and variation of organisms
- Gregor Mendel – Father of Genetics

Important Terms to Remember:

 Phenotype
- Observable traits of an organism (green, tall, short, straight, kinky)
 Genotype
- Genetic construction of an organism with reference to a specific character (Gg, GG, gg,
HH, hh, Hh)
- Homozygous
 Gene combination having identical alleles for a single trait (HH, hh, TT, tt)
- Heterozygous
 Gene combination having two different alleles (Hh, Tt)

Mendel’s Law of Dominance

 Dominant gene (working gene)
o It prevents the expression of the other gene (recessive gene)
 Recessive gene (non-working gene)
o The expression is masked in the presence of a dominant gene
o It should be homozygous genotype for it to have phenotypic expression

Example:
S – straight hair (dominant)
s – kinky hair (recessive)
SS – straight hair
Ss – straight hair
ss- kinky hair

HUMAN BLOOD TYPES

 Type O is the universal donor

 Type AB is the universal acceptor

 Homologous structures – are organs having similar structure but different function
o Ex. human arm, cat leg, seal flipper, bat wing

 Analogous structures – are organs having similar functions but they have different structures and
different origin
o Ex. wings of birds, bats, and insects; fins of dolphins and sharks

 Vestigial Structures – are organs that no longer seems to have a purpose in the current form.
o Ex. hindlimbs of the snake and whales

BIOTECHNOLOGY
- Modification of biological processes through human intervention
- Can be done through genetic engineering

 Genetic Engineering
o The recipient becomes GMO (Genetically Modified Organism) or Transgenic Organism
o Ex. Bt Corn
- a variant of Maize that is genetically altered to express the bacterial Bt (Bacillus
thuringiensis) toxin which is poisonous to corn borer

 Bioremediation
- The use of biotechnology to solve environmental problems
- Ex. oil eating bacteria – used in cleaning up oil spill
ECOLOGY – study of ecosystems
 Ecosystem
- refers to the interaction of group of natural elements and the organisms in a given
environment
- relationship between the living things (biotic) and non-living things (abiotic)

Biotic Components of Ecosystem

 Producers
- Can make their own food
- Autotrophs (self-supplying energy)
- Ex. plants and other photosynthetic organisms (cyanobacteria, green algae, ect.)

 Consumers
- Obtain food from producers
- Heterotrophs
i. Herbivores – organisms that graze directly on producers
ii. Carnivores – feed on other animals
iii. Omnivores – animals that feed on both plants and animals
iv. Scavengers – feed on decaying and necrotic matter (ex. vulture)

 Decomposers/Saprophytes
- Breakdown dead organisms
- Ex. bacteria and fungi

NOTE: the producers is the first energy level or first trophic level. The primary consumer is the second
trophic level. The secondary consumer is the third energy level and so on.

Abiotic Components of Ecosystem

1. Sunlight – primary source of energy
2. Temperature – hotness or coldness
3. Water – universal solvent, basis of life
4. Wind – movement of air
5. Atmospheric gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas

 Food chain
- Series of organisms feeding on the one preceding it.

 Food Web
- Network of feeding interactions among species
- Feeding connection between all life forms

 Energy Pyramid
- A graphical representation, showing the flow of energy at each trophic level in an ecosystem
- 10% rule

 Biological Magnification
- Refers to the process where toxic substances move up the food chain and become more
concentrated at each level.
- These substances are often pollutants from industries or pesticides from farming.

 Eutrophication
- Excessive richness of nutrients (phosphate and nitrate from fertilizers) in a lake or other
bodies of water
- Causes algal bloom
ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS

 Competition
- The struggle between two organisms for the same resources within an environment.

 Predation
- An ecological process in which an animal or an organism kills and feeds on another animal or
an organism.
- The animal that kills another animal to feed on is called a “predator”.
- The one that is killed to be eaten is know as ‘pray’.

 Symbiosis
- A term describing any relationship or interaction between two dissimilar organisms. The
specific kind of symbiosis depends on whether either or both organisms benefit from the
relationship.

o Mutualism – is defined as interaction between organisms of two different species, in

which each organism benefits from the interaction in some way.
Example: A bee getting nectar from flowers and bee helps the follower to pollinate other
flowers.

o Commensalism – is a relationship between individuals of two species in which one

species obtains food or other benefits from the one without either harming or benefiting
the latter.
Example: relationship or orchids and tree

o Parasitism – is a symbiotic relationship between species, where one organism, the

parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is
adapted structurally to this way of life.
 Parasite: living organism that takes nourishment and other needs through contact
with another species
 Host: living organism that supports a parasite, and may later develop a disease.
 Example: Entamoeba histolytica derives nutrients from human host causing
intestinal ulcers and dysentery.

o Ammensalism
 One species is hurt but the other does not benefit ( -, 0 )
 No apparent coevolutionary relationship (one way process)
 Example: as wild pigs forage, they often disturb the upper layer of soil and many
organisms may be taken from their burrows and exposed predation by the action
of the pigs, although the harm that the burrowers suffer does not improve the
pig’s situation at all.

EARTH SCIENCE
- the study of earth, its life supporting properties, materials, and geologic processes occurring in
its layers

Major Branches of Earth Science

1. Geology
- the study of the materials and processes that operate beneath and upon the Earth’s surface.

2. Oceanography
- the study of composition and movements of sea water, as well as coastal processes, seafloor
topography, and marine life.

3. Meteorology
 - deals with the study of atmosphere and the elements that produce weather and climate

4. Astronomy
- the study the universe, our planet’s origin, and the members of the solar system
Origin of the Universe

 Big Bang Theory

- universe started with a small singularity, then inflating over the next 13.8 billion years ago.
 Oscillating Universe Theory
- the expansion of the universe will eventually come to halt
- it will collapsed and will return to its original form (big crunch)
- another big bang will occur (a cycle)
 Steady-State Universe
- the Universe has always existed, and that the universe is expanding and constantly creating
matters as the universe expands

Solar System: Planets

General Characteristics
- all revolve around the sun in the same direction
- revolves eastward: from west to east (counterclockwise)
- all rotate (spin on axis) in the same direction (except Venus and Uranus)
- rotates eastward: from west-east (counterclockwise)

Inner Planets/ Terrestrial Planets

1. Mercury
- 1 revolution: 88 earth days
- fastest revolving and orbiting planet
- closest planet to the sun
- very little atmosphere because of low gravity
- 315 degree Celsius (day time)
- -149 degrees Celsius (nigh time)

2. Venus
- the brightest planet in our solar system
- evening star (March April)
- morning star (September and October)
- twin planet of the Earth
- 1 revolution = 243 earth days
- hottest planet (up to 480 degrees Celsius)
- Earth’s closest neighboring planet

3. Earth
- blue planet
- 1 revolution = 365 days
- tilted axis 23.5 degrees
- located in the habitable zone
- the only planet with life
- its rapid rotation on its axis (equatorial bulge) makes the shape of the earth an oblate spheroid
- Moon is Earth’s natural satellite

4. Mars
- red planet
- 2 Earth years = 1 revolution
- 2moons: Phobos and Deimos

Asteroid Belt
- located between Mars and Jupiter
- failed to become a planet
- grain sized up to hundreds kilometers in diameter
- Ceres – largest asteroid (considered as dwarf planet by NASA)
- Hermes – closest asteroid to the Earth