THE CELL

- Brief History Cytology

- Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
- Cell Structure
- Mitosis

Zoo 100 – General Zoology

Prepared and Edited by: POMAR, P.J.
Brief History on Cell Biology:

before 17th century - no one knew that cells existed (most cells are too
small to be seen by the unaided eye).

until the discovery and invention of the microscope

Zacharias Jansen (1585-1632)

- spectacle maker in Holland

- Invented the first optical telescope and is
sometimes also credited for inventing the first
truly compound
 - Dutch drapery store owner

- 1st to describe microscopic organisms

and living cells.

Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

- Father of Microbiology
Robert Hooke (1665)
- observed minute partitions separating cavities
in the thin slices of cork.

cells

cork observed
by Hooke
 Mirbel (1808)
plants

Are formed by
membranous
cellular tissue.
Lamarck (1809)
animals
Robert Brown (1833)
- described the nucleus as the central feature in
plant cells.
Matthias Jacob Schleiden (1838) - German Botanist

did a collaborative study on the microscopic

investigations on the similarity of the
structure and growth in animals & plants.

Theodor Schawnn (1839) - German Zoologist

 Rudolf Virchow - induced that “the animal arises only from an animal
and plants arises only from a plant”.

Modern Cell Theory:

 cells are the basic unit of life.

 all organisms are made of one or more cells.

 all cells arise from preexisting cells.

 Jan Evangelista Purkinje (1840)
- named the cell contents as protoplasm.

Protoplasm - living substance within a cell.

Purkinje cell model

The Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
– Chemical level – atoms form molecules
– Cellular level – cells and their functional
subunits
– Tissue level – a group of cells performing a
common function
– Organ level – a discrete structure made up
of more than one tissue
– Organ system – organs working together
for a common purpose
– Organismal level – the result of all simpler
levels working in unison.
Levels of organization: cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism
Tissues - group of cells of similar structure and function.

Types of cells according to their structure:

1. Prokaryotic cells - lack a well-defined nucleus; no nuclear membrane
(bacteria and blue-green algae)
1. Eukaryotic cells - have definite nuclei nuclear membrane separates the
genetic material from the cytoplasm (protists, fungi, plants, animals)

Types of cells in multicellular animal

1. Somatic cells or body cells - constitute the individual animal thru-out its life.
2. Germ cells - having to do only with reproduction & continuance of the species.

A tiny cell is an amazing unit of complex organelles in which many chemical

substances undergo a wide variety of interaction and changes –

Organelles - discrete, membrane-bound, organized protoplasmic structures

where the actual metabolic processes in the cell occur.
REVIEW OF
ESSENTIAL
CELL
ORGANELLES
AND
COMPONENTS
Cell Biology [a.k.a. Cytology]
– Studies the anatomy (structure) and
physiology (function and behavior) of
cells.

CELL – “…is the basic structural and

functional unit of life.”
Protoplasm - living substance (semi-solid mass) within a cell.

1. Cytoplasm - between the nucleus and the plasma membrane.

2. Nucleoplasm – enclosed in nuclear membrane

Plasma membrane + Protoplasm = cell

cytoplasm

nucleoplasm
The Cell

– Stated in the Cell Theory:

1. The cell is the basic unit structure of living things. All living cells are composed of
cells or the products of cells.
2. The cell is the basic unit function of living things.
3. All cells come from preexisting cells.

2 distinct areas of cells

1. Cytoplasm – the major portion of the protoplasmic structure contained in
the cell membrane
2. Nucleus – the dark staining body within the cytoplasm
PROKARYOTIC CELL (Bacteria)
– Parts:

– A) Plasma (cell) membrane = encloses cytoplasm of

cell

– B) Nucleoid Region = where DNA is at (not a

nucleus)

– C) Ribosomes = assembles proteins with info from

DNA

– D) Bacterial Cell Wall = a rigid outer layer that

surrounds the cell membrane, protects the cell,
maintains shape.
– Parts (2):

– E) Capsule = a sticky outer layer over cell wall

– F) Pili and Fimbriae = numerous short projections

that
help with adherence

– G) Prokaryotic Flagella = longer projections that

help with
motility

– H) Plasmids = extra-chromosomal pieces of DNA

EUKARYOTIC CELL
ORGANELLES

– Found in the
cytoplasm
– Concerned with
active cell function
– Found only inside
eukaryotic cells
Mitochondria
– Found in eukaryotic cells
– Carry out cellular
respiration to produce
energy for the cell
– Cell's "power house"
– Composed of 2
membranes
– Cristae = folds of inner
membrane, site of
energy production
– Matrix = fluid inside
mitochondria
Golgi Apparatus
– Net – like staining
bodies commonly
found in cells
engaged in secretion
– Final modification of
proteins, lipids;
– Sorting and
packaging them for
use inside cell or for
export
 Vesicles

– Used to transport material from ER to Golgi Apparatus

– Transport of finished product from Golgi to Cell
Membrane for export (process reversed for import)
Endoplasmic Reticulum or
Ergastoplasm

– A.k.a. “ER”
– Connected with cell
membrane
– Highway of the cell
– Rough ER: studded with
ribosomes; initial
modification of proteins
– Smooth ER: no ribosomes;
for lipid synthesis
Ribosome

– Found attached to
rough ER or
floating free in
cytosol

– Site of protein
synthesis
 Centrosome & Centriole
– Aids in cell division
– Usually found only in
animal cells
– Made of
microtubules
– Duplicates itself and
shows continuous
inheritance between
cell generations
Cytoskeleton

– Protein cables
– Cell shape
– Protects the cell
– Cell motion (using structures such as flagella
and cilia)
– Intra-cellular transport (the movement of
vesicles and organelles)
– Eukaryotic cellular division
 Lysosomes

– Intracellular
digestion
– Contain digestive
(hydrolytic)
enzymes
– Breakdown cell's
food and wastes
Vacuoles
– Increases cell surface
area
– Storage container for
water, food, enzymes,
wastes, pigments, etc.
– Works with lysosomes
for digestion
Plastid
- where carbohydrate metabolism is localized.

A. Chloroplast – contain the chlorophyll

(green)
B. Chromoplast – with dominance of red &
yellow pigments
(carotenoids)
C. Leukoplast – colorless plastids that
function for storage and
synthesis of a variety
substances.
Cell Wall

– Found in plant and

bacterial cells
– Protection, structural
support
– Located outside of the
cell membrane
– Carbohydrate cellulose.
Cell Membrane
– Or Plasma Membrane
– Boundary of the cell;control of substances moving into and
out of the cell
– Made of a phospholipid bilayer
Fluid Mosaic Model
of the Plasma Membrane
– Hydrophilic – water loving;
water attracting
– Hydrophobic – water fearing;
water repelling
– Cell membranes are said to be
semi-permeable or
selectively permeable.
Cilia & Flagella
 Used in locomotion

Flagella - few, very long

whip-like structure

Cilia - numerous, very short,

Nucleus

– Physical separation
and organization of
DNA.
– Primary director of
cellular activity and
inheritance.
Nuclear contents
– Chromatin – DNA +
associated proteins

– Nucleolus – assembly
of subunits of
ribosomes
 DNA
– Deoxyribonucleic acid
– Encoding of hereditary
information

RNA
– Transcription, translation of
DNA messages into
polypeptide chains of specific
proteins.
 Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic cells

Structure cells Animal cell Plant cell
Cell membrane yes yes yes
Cell wall yes no yes
Nucleus no yes yes
Chromosomes one circular many many
strand of DNA
Ribosomes yes (small) yes (large) yes (large)
Endoplasmic reticulum no yes yes
Golgi apparatus no yes yes
Lysosomes no yes yes
Vacuoles no small or none yes
Mitochondria no yes yes
Chloroplasts no no yes
Cytoskeleton Flagella only yes yes
Universal Features
of
Cells on Earth
All cells store their hereditary
Information in the same linear
chemical code: DNA

– a long linear polymer found in the nucleus of a

cell and formed from nucleotides and shaped
like a double helix; associated with the
transmission of genetic information

– All living cells on Earth, without any known

exception, store their hereditary information
in the form of double-stranded molecules of
DNA—
All cells Replicate their hereditary
Information by templated
Polymerization

– Each nucleotide —consists of two parts:

– a sugar (deoxyribose)
with a phosphate group attached to it, and
– a base,
which may be either adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C) or thymine (T).
 All cells Transcribe Portions of Their
hereditary Information into the same
Intermediary Form: RNA – Ribonucleic acid.

All cells Translate RnA into

Protein in the same Way
 All Cells use proteins as Catalysts.
 All Cells translate RNA into Protein
in the same way.
 The Fragment of Genetic
Information Corresponding to One
Protein Is One Gene.
All cells Function as Biochemical
Factories dealing with the same
Basic molecular Building Blocks

– Because all cells make DNA, RNA, and protein, and these
macromolecules are composed of the same set of subunits in
every case, all cells have to contain and manipulate a similar
collection of small molecules, including simple sugars,
nucleotides, and amino acids, as well as other substances that are
universally required for their synthesis.
All cells Are enclosed in a Plasma
membrane Across Which nutrients
and Waste materials must Pass

– Plasma Membrane/ Cell Membrane

– Amphiphilic—that is, consisting of one part that is hydrophobic
(water-insoluble) and another part that is hydrophilic (water-
soluble)
The Cell Cycle
-- cells are born, live for a while and then reproduce --

I. Interphase
II. Mitosis
INTERPHASE: - period of growth and preparation for reproduction.
- internal and chemical changes occur.
- the longest part of the cycle.

G1 phase - the newly produced daughter cell

increases in size and undergoes
- internal chemical changes which
somehow prepares it for DNA
replication.

S phase - period that DNA replication or synthesis

occur.

G2 phase - preparatory stage prior to the beginning of

active mitosis.
- certain proteins are produced necessary
to cell division.
 - Final event in interphase occurs with the replication of the
centrioles and their movement to the opposite poles of the
cell.
- Appearance of the microtubules from the centrosome which
will form the spindle --
II. Mitosis
- reproductive period by which cells
actively divide.
- shows morphological changes.
- ensure the continuous succession of
identical cells.

- physically divides the cell into 2

daughter cells and ensure that each has
exactly the same complement DNA.
- cause morphological changes.
1. Prophase - condensation of the chromatin granules of the nucleus into
visible long threads called chromosomes.

colored body, composed of sister

chromatids that contain DNA.

guide the movement

of the chromosome

- appearance of centromere (kinetochore)

- nucleolei gradually disappear

- nuclear envelope breaks down, freeing the chromosomes

- complete formation of the spindle

2. Metaphase - chromosomes become aligned midway between the 2 poles
of the spindle so that they lie in the equitorial plate.

- chromosomes reached the maximum thickness

3. Anaphase - aligned double
chromosomes begin to separate
towards the
opposite poles.

4. Telophase - groups of daughter

chromosomes reach the opposite
sides of the cell.
- reappearance of nucleolus & nuclear
envelope.
- cytokinesis occur (cytoplasmic
division)
Significance of mitosis:
- it ensures a continues succession of
identical cells (duplication of DNA)
- produce two diploid daughter cells