CHAPTER 3

THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE

 A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of organisms.

 Cells can only be observed under microscope
 In the late 1600’s, Robert Hook was the first to observe plant
cells with a crude microscope.

 Almost a century and a half later, in the 1830’s two German

scientists proposed that all living things are composed of cells
(Mathias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann)

 A German pathologist, Rudolph Virchow extended this idea by

contending that cells arise only from other cells
Cell Theory  Malthias Schleiden (1838) observed
that plants are composed of cells.
 Theodore Schwann (1839) reported
that cells had a thin outer layer (plasma
membrane).
 He also found that plant cells have cell
wall.
 He proposed a hypothesis that animals
and plants are composed of cells and
products of cells.

Schleiden & Schwann formulated the Cell Theory.

 The Cell Theory
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells (continuity of life from
one generation to another has a cellular basis).
 The cell theory (proposed independently in 1838 and 1839) is a
cornerstone of biology. Accordingly,
1.. All organisms are composed of one or more cells
2. Cells are organisms’ basic units of structure and function; that
means cells are the smallest living things.
3. Cells arise only by division of previously existing cells.
All organisms living today are descendents of an ancestral cell.
 Types of Cell
PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL

 1. Genetic material or structures  1.Genetic material is in a structure

are not surrounded by membranes enclosed by its own membrane ( have
nucleus)
2. No or few internal structures(
organelles)  2. Contain organelles surrounded by
membranes
3. Are always one-celled organisms
such as bacteria  3. Ex. -Most living organisms
Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
Features held in common by prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
 Plasma membrane of similar construction.
 Genetic information encoded in DNA using identical genetic
code.
 Similar mechanisms for transcription and translation of genetic
information, including similar ribosomes.
 Shared metabolic pathways (e.g., glycolysis and TCA cycle)
 Similar apparatus for conservation of chemical energy as ATP
(located in the plasma membrane of prokaryotes and the
mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes).
 Similar mechanism of photosynthesis (between cyanobacteria
and green plants).
 Similar mechanism for synthesizing and inserting membrane
proteins.
 Proteasomes (protein digesting structures) of similar
construction (between archaebacteria and eukaryotes).
A 8typical eukaryotic cell has 3 major parts:

1. Plasma membrane: the outer boundary of the cell

2. Cytoplasm: the intracellular fluid packed with organelles,

small structures that perform specific cell functions

3. Nucleus: an organelle that controls cellular activities.

 Typically the nucleus resides near the cell’s center.

There are some striking differences between animal and plant

cells.
Plant cell vs animal cell
 Cell organelles on the basis of membrane covering
10

1. Membranous organelles: E.g. Endoplasmic reticulum (Rough

and Smooth), Golgi bodies, mitochondria, chloroplasts,
nucleus, lysosomes, peroxisomes and vacuoles.

2. Non-membranous organelles: E.g., ribosomes (70S and 80S),

centrosomes, cilia and flagella, microtubules, basal bodies and
microfilaments
 Nucleus
 The nucleus is the largest organelle in the eukaryotic cell.
This is a cell with membrane bounded or clearly defined
nucleus.
 The nucleus includes the nuclear envelope (membrane) the
nucleoplasm, and nucleoli.
 Nuclear envelope is a double membrane with perforated
nuclear pores approximately 9 nm in diameter.
 Nucleolus

Are an assembly site for ribosome sub units or they are centers
of ribosome synthesis.
Cell may have 1 to 3 nucleoli inside nucleus.
Disappears when cell divides
Makes ribosomes that make proteins

 The nucleoplasm includes the chromosomes and

nucleolus.
Endoplasmic reticulum(ER)
• It is a network of hollow tubular or flattened sacs extending
from the outer membrane of the nuclear membrane of the
nuclear envelope.
 Its main function is to synthesize and transport proteins and
lipids. It contains rough and smooth.
 The rough ER (RER) is usually studded with ribosomes.
 The more tubular ER usually lacks ribosomes and it is
described as smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
 Golgi Complex /Golgi bodies
 Contains sets of flattened, curved, membrane- enclosed sacs, or
cisternae, stacked in layers
 Number of stacks vary in cells
 Have a shipping side & a receiving side
 Receive & modify proteins made by ER
 Transport vesicles with modified proteins
pinch off the ends
 The majority of newly formed
molecules budding off from the
smooth ER Transport
vesicle
 It performs the following important functions:
15

 Processing the raw material into finished products

 Sorting and directing finished product to their final destination

 Responsible for the detoxification and inactivation of drugs

 Stores Ca2+ to be released for muscle contraction

Responsible for labeling, sorting
and packaging chemicals (proteins)
and secreting (releasing) them from
the cell.
Ribosomes
 They are granules which consist of two sub-units (RNA and
protein)
 Ribosomes are synthesized by the nucleoli.
 Ribosomes are not surrounded by membranes.
 ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis under the direction
of the DNA.

 Ribosomes are found in three places of eukaryotic cells.

 Freely suspending in the cytoplasm.

 Attached to the surface of the ER.

 In the chloroplast’s and the matrix of mitochondria.

 Lysosomes
They are membrane bounded sacs found in animal cells.
 They are commonly absent in plant cells.
 They contain different powerful hydrolytic enzymes.
 They breaks down food particles, invading objects, or worn out
cell parts.
 They are also called suicidal bags of the cells
 Programmed for cell death (lyse & release enzymes to break
down & recycle cell parts or components
18
 Ways of lysosome engulfing particles
19
1. Pinocytosis: fluid is internalized by endocytosis

2. Phagocytosis: large multimolecular particles are internalized

by endocytosis
 Centrioles
 Are paired barrel-shaped organelles located in the cytoplasm
of animal cells near the nuclear envelope.

 Centrioles play a role in organizing microtubules that serve

as the cell's skeletal system.

 They help determine the locations of the nucleus and other

organelles within the cell.
 Vacoules
• They are sacs bounded by a single membrane called tonoplast.
 Even though vacuoles are present in protozoans they have their
greatest development in plant cells.
 Plant cells, have a large vacuole which may occupy 30% to
90% of cell volume.
 Vacuoles called Contractile vacuoles play an important role in
expelling excess water from the cell.
 Vacuoles play different, crucial roles in the life of a plant.

 Vacuoles are storage sites for water, ions, organic and

inorganic substances, pigments, metabolic wastes and toxic
products.

 are membrane bound organelles that have no specific shape

and contain water with a number of different compounds
within it.
Microbodies
 A microbody (or cytosome) is a type of organelle that is found
in the cells of plants, protozoa, and animals.
 Organelles in the microbody family include peroxisomes,
glyoxysomes, glycosomes and hydrogenosomes.
Peroxisomes
 Peroxisome is membrane-enclosed sacs containing oxidative
enzymes and catalase that detoxify various wastes.
 It is found in both plant and animal cells.
 Contain enzymes that can convert toxic peroxides into harmless
or even useful products.
• Eg. peroxismes of potato cells are rich sources of the
enzyme Catalase.

• This enzyme converts hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which is

toxic and a common product of cellular respiration, into
water and oxygen.
ii. Glyoxsomes:- are found only in plant cells.
 They are more abundant in the cells of young plants and
serve as sites where stored lipids are converted into
carbohydrates.
 The glycosome is a membrane-enclosed organelle that
contains the glycolytic enzymes.

 The main function that the glycosome serves is of the

glycolytic pathway that is done inside its membrane.

 hydrogenosome, membrane-bound organelle found in the

cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.

 It releases molecular hydrogen (H2) as a by-product of

energy generation under anaerobic (oxygen-deficient)
conditions.
 Mitochondria
• It is called power house because a large amount of energy is
harvested from food in the form of ATP inside the mitochondria.

 Mitochondria are rod or oval shaped

 Each is enclosed by a double membrane

 Outer smooth, an inner folded called cristae, which project

into an inner cavity filled with a jelly-like matrix.
 Mitochondria are unusual organelles in two ways:

 1. have their own unique DNA called mitochondrial DNA

 2. have the ability to replicate themselves even when the

cell to which they belong is not undergoing cell division.
 Makes Energy for Cell, and energy is called ATP

 Site of Cellular Respiration

 It takes in oxygen and glucose and releases Carbon

dioxide , water and ATP .

 Found in both plant and animal cells.

Plastids
 Are spherical bodies bounded by a double membrane.
 They are found in all plants and plant-like protists.
• There are 3 major types of plastids performing specific
functions.
i). Chloroplasts:- are the most familiar of the plastids.
 They are sites for photosynthesis.
 They contain the green pigment chlorophyll which enables
them to absorb sunlight.
ii). Chromoplasts:- are plastids that contain red, orange and
yellow pigments which are derived from carotenoids.
• They are common in fruits and flowers. For example, they give
color to petals which help flowers to attract insects
(pollinators).
iii). Leucoplasts:-are colorless plastids which serve as a storage
depots for starch and fats.
 Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a complex protein network that act as the
“bone and muscle” of the cell
It Provides intracellular scaffoldings supports
 it organizes cellular components arrangements to control
their movements
gives distinct shape, size to the cell
This network has at least four distinct elements:
microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments and
microtubular lattice
i. Microfilaments:- are long, narrow and helically intertwined
polymers made up of many molecules of protein called actin.
 Its function:
 Change cell shape, including cell length as in the
contraction of muscle.
 Take in part in cytoplasmic streaming (a flowing
movement observed in lower organisms).
 Radiate as spindle fibre which is essential to a separate
duplicated chromosomes during nuclear division.
 iii. Microtubules:- are long structures with a wider diameter.

 They are formed from a chain of protein molecules called

tubulin.

 Microtubules play an important role in the structure and

movement of cilia and flagella.

 Such as in paramecium and Euglena respectively.

iii. Intermediate filaments:- are made up of fibrous proteins

organized into tough, rope like assemblages that stabilizes a cell’s
structure and maintain its shape.

 Some intermediate filaments hold neighboring cells together.

 33
Plasma/cell membrane
 Is semipermeable membrane, extremely
thin layer of lipids and proteins forming
outermost boundary of living cell and
enclosing the intracellular fluid (ICF).
 Cell membrane separates the components of a cell from its
environment-surrounds the cell.
 “Gatekeeper” of the cell-regulates the flow of materials into
and out of cell-selectively permeable
 Cell membrane helps cells maintain homeostasis-stable
internal balance
 Functions of cell membrane
 Acts as semi permeable barrier –(selective)

 Maintains difference in composition of ICF & ECF & fluid

in various organelles

 Protects cell from toxic substances

 Excretion of waste products

 Transport of nutrients

 Receives signals from the outside

Chemical signals

Electrical signals, Site for attachment to the neighboring cells

 Cell wall
 Cell wall is found in green plants, algae, bacteria and fungi.

 However, the cell wall of these groups of organisms differs in

consumption.

 For example, the cell walls of most bacteria are made up of a

polysaccharide called peptidoglycan.

 In plants and algae, the cell wall is made up of mainly cellulose.

 It Provides additional structure and support for cells.

 Moreover, It gives a regular (fixed) shape, strength and support

to the plant.
Summary
Cellular diversity
37

Cells are found in different organisms, and are very diverse

in their size, shape and their internal structure.

This diversity is influenced by their roles and function within

organism’s body.

Cell Shape

 Cells have different shapes due to appropriate function

 Cell Size
38

 Some cell can be seen without using magnification

instruments as they are enough to be seen by the naked eye.

 Example, egg of birds/reptiles and a neuron cell of giraffe,

which is 2 meters in length
Transport across the cell membranes

 The cell membrane acts as a barrier between the interior of

the cell and its surrounding.

 Materials move into and out of the cell across this membrane.

 This characteristic of a membrane is called permeability.

 The plasma membrane is selectively permeable

 Lipid-soluble substances and small ions can passively

diffuse through the plasma membrane down their electro-
chemical gradients
 Permeability of a membrane depends on:

 The structure of the membrane, and the size and charge of the
molecule.

 Cells absorb from ,or exchange substances with their

environment by five processes:

 Diffusion

 Osmosis

 Active transport

 Bulk transport ( endocytosis and exocytosis)

41Two forces are involved in facilitating movement across the
plasma membrane:

1. Forces that do not require the cell to expend energy for

movement – passive force

2. Forces requiring energy (as ATP) to be expended to transport

across the membrane - active force
Transport across the cell membranes
1. Diffusion
43

 is the net movement of molecules (or ions) from a region of

their high concentration to a region of their lower concentration.

 The molecules move down a concentration gradient

 Molecules have kinetic energy, which makes them move about

randomly.

 All molecules in liquid and gases are in continuous random

motion in any direction as they have more room to move before
colliding with another
 Diffusion is the movement of small particles across a selectively
permeable membrane like the cell membrane until equilibrium
is reached.
 These particles move from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration.
 Factors affecting rate of diffusion
• Lipid solubility
• Molecular size & wt. Molecular
• Temperature
• Thickness of membrane
Membrane related
• Surface area
• Concentration gradient
• Pressure gradient
Gradients
• Electrical gradient
Note:- If distance and thickness of the membrane increase.
 They decrease the rate of diffusion; and
 if molecular weight is increased, rate of diffusion is decreased
Osmosis
 It is the net diffusion of water down its own concentration
gradient.

 The driving force for diffusion of water is its concentration

gradient from area of higher water concentration (low solute)
to the area of lower water (high solute) concentration.
 The classic example used to demonstrate osmosis and
osmotic pressure is to immerse cells into sugar solutions of
various concentrations.
 Hypotonic Solution: The solution has a lower concentration
of solutes and a higher concentration of water than inside the
cell (Low solute; High water)

 Hypertonic Solution: The solution has a higher concentration

of solutes and a lower concentration of water than inside the
cell. (High solute; Low water) :

 Isotonic Solution: The concentration of solutes in the solution

is equal to the concentration of solutes inside the cell.
Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic
 Facilitated Diffusion

 is the movement of larger molecules like glucose through the

cell membrane with the help of transport proteins.

 Hydrophilic molecules, charged ions, and relatively large

molecules such as glucose all need help with diffusion.

 There are two types of proteins that assist the passage of

particles from one side of the membrane to the other.

 These are:-

 Channel proteins and Carrier proteins

 Channel protein:-are proteins that can generate hydrophilic
holes in cell membranes, allowing molecules to go down a
concentration gradient.

 Carrier proteins:-are integral proteins that can transport

substances across the membrane, both down and against the
concentration gradient.

 It bind with specific ions or molecules, and in doing so, they

change shape.

 Then, they carry the ions or molecules across the membrane.

  Carrier-mediated transport is an energy-dependent pathway
53
generally used by small hydrophilic molecules.

 There are specific receptors on the membrane of carriers that

recognize the target molecules and transport them across the
cell.

 This transport displays three characteristics:

a. Specificity: each cell possesses protein specified to transport a

specific substance or few closely-related chemical compounds
amino acid cannot bind to glucose carrier, but similar amino
acids may use the same carrier
b. Saturation: in a given time only a limited amount of a substance
54

can be transported via a carrier.

 This limit is known as transport maximum (Tm).

 The substance’s rate of transport across the membrane are

directly related to its concentration.

 When the Tm is reached, the carrier is saturated, and the rate of

transport is maximum

c. Competition: Several closely related compounds may compete

for ride across the plasma membrane on the same carrier.
Active Transport

 Active transport is the movement of molecules from low to

high concentration.
 Energy is required as molecules must be pumped against the
concentration gradient.
 Proteins that work as pumps are called protein pumps.
 Ex: Body cells must pump carbon dioxide out into the
surrounding blood vessels to be carried to the lungs for exhale.
Blood vessels are high in carbon dioxide compared to the cells,
so energy is required to move the carbon dioxide across the cell
membrane from Low to high concentration.
Primary active transport

 One of the most important pumps in animal cells is the sodium-

potassium pump, which moves Na+ out of cells, and K+ into
them. Since the transport process uses ATP as an energy source,
it is considered as a primary active transport.

 Sodium-potassium pump maintain correct concentrations of

Na+ and K+ in living cells.

 It also plays a major role in generating the voltage across the

cell membrane in animal cells.
• Pumps like this, which are involved in the establishment
and maintenance of membrane voltages, are known
as electrogenic pumps.
 Secondary active transport

 The electrochemical gradients set up by primary active

transport store energy, which can be released as the ions move
back down their gradients.

 Secondary active transport uses the energy stored in these

gradients to move other substances against their own gradients.

 Eg. suppose we have a high concentration of sodium ions in the

extracellular space.

 If a route such as a channel or carrier protein is open, sodium

ions will move down their concentration gradient and return to
the interior of the cell.
 In secondary active transport, the movement of the sodium
ions down their gradient is coupled to the uphill transport of
other substances by a shared carrier protein (a cotransporter).

 The carrier protein uses the energy of the sodium gradient to

drive the transport of glucose molecules.

 In secondary active transport, the two molecules being

transported may move either in the same direction (i.e., both
into the cell), or in opposite directions (i.e., one into and one
out of the cell).
Endocytosis
 is the transport into the cytoplasm of substances which are too
large to be transported by protein carriers.

 In humans, Cholesterol is one of the most common substances.

 Endocytosis can be of two forms:-

 Phagocytosis

 Pinocytosis

 If the substances taken up are solid, for example, particles of

debris or entire cells, the process is known as phagocytosis (Cell
eating).
 If the substances taken up are liquid or colloid, the process is
termed as pinocytosis (Cell drinking),

 Pinocytic vesicles are often formed at the end of the

pinocytic channel.

 Significance of endocytosis:

 Pinocytosis occurs in many protozoans, in certain cells of the

liver and kidneys, and in some plant cells.

 It is the main mechanism of feeding in amoeba and other

members of protozoa.
 White Blood Cells, which are part of the immune system,
surround and engulf bacteria by endocytosis.

 Disposal of damaged cells and cell debris in mammals.

 Exocytosis
 is the fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane
and results in the discharge of vesicle content into the
extracellular space. E.g. Wastes are moved out of the cell by
Exocytosis
 Review questions
1. What is the main difference between passive and active
transport?

2. Summarize three different ways that passive transport can occur,

and give an example of a substance that is transported in each way.

3. Explain how transport across the plasma membrane is related to

the homeostasis of the cell.

4. Why can generally only very small, hydrophobic molecules

cross the cell membrane by simple diffusion?

5. Explain how facilitated diffusion assists in osmosis in cells.

6. Imagine a hypothetical cell with a higher concentration of
glucose inside the cell than outside. Can the glucose simply
diffuse across the cell membrane? Why or why not?

7. What are the similarities and differences between channel

proteins and carrier proteins?

8. Controlling what enters and leaves the cell is an important

function of the_____________

A. Nucleus

B. Vesicle

C. Plasma membrane