How To Enable Electric Bus Adoption Cities Worldwide

HOW TO ENABLE
ELECTRIC BUS
ADOPTION IN CITIES
WORLDWIDE
A Guiding Report for
City Transit Agencies
and Bus Operating Entities
XIANGYI LI, CAMRON GORGUINPOUR,

RYAN SCLAR, SEBASTIAN CASTELLANOS
WRIROSSCITIES.ORG How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide i

ABOUT THE AUTHORS CONTRIBUTORS
Xiangyi Li is a research analyst with the A number of individuals conducted interviews and were coauthors on the case studies,
Ross Center for Sustainable Cities program which serve as the foundation for the report. They include Cristina Albuquerque, Berta
at WRI. Pinheiro, Virginia Tavares, and Eduardo Henrique Siqueira from WRI Brasil for their work
on the case studies of Belo Horizonte and Campinas, Brazil, and Bogotá, Colombia;
Contact: xiangyi.li@wri.org Lulu Xue from WRI China for her work on the case studies of Shenzhen and Zhengzhou,
China; Anusha Chitturi and Pawan Mulukutla from WRI India for their work on the case
Camron Gorguinpour is the senior global studies of Ahmedabad, Bangalore, and Manali, India; Jone Orbea from WRI Mexico and
manager for electric vehicles with the Ross Ana Alcantara and Rafael Diaz who worked as consultants at WRI Mexico for their work
Center for Sustainable Cities program at WRI. on the case studies of Mexico City, Mexico; Madrid, Spain; Quito, Ecuador; and Santiago,
Chile; Celal Tolga Imamoglu and Tugce Uzumoglu from WRI Turkey’s Sustainable Cities
Contact: camron.gorguinpour@wri.org
Program for their work on the case study of Izmir, Turkey; Gail Jennings, an independent
Ryan Sclar is a research analyst with the researcher based in Cape Town, South Africa, for her work on the Cape Town case study;
Ross Center for Sustainable Cities program and the team from Lucy Partners, a consulting firm based in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, for
at WRI. their work on the case study of Addis Ababa.
Contact: ryan.sclar@wri.org
Sebastian Castellanos is an associate

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
with the Ross Center for Sustainable Cities This report was developed under the project “Transitioning to a zero-emission transport
program at WRI. world through bus electrification” along with its sister report, Barriers to Adopting
Electric Buses. We are grateful for the financial support of Germany’s Federal Ministry for
Contact: scastellanos@wri.org Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) for this project.
We would like to express our gratitude to the many people whose ideas and
contributions were invaluable to the structure and content of this report. Several staff
contributed to its creation. Emma Stewart was instrumental in helping to structure and
initiate the report. Our internal reviewers at WRI helped guide the direction of the report:
Anne Maassen, Eric Mackres, Michael Westphal, and Lihuan Zhou. We would particularly
like to acknowledge Renata Marson, Laura Malaguzzi Valeri, Maria Hart, and Emilia
Suarez for their dedication and support in the research and review process. We also
thank Emily Matthews and Sarah DeLucia for timely and crucial editorial support. We
would like to thank the communications team—Romain Warnault, Jenna Park, Schuyler
Null, and Tini Tran—who provided support in editing, graphic design, and outreach.
We would like to thank the following external reviewers, whose expertise in transport
electrification were invaluable to the report: Arturo Ardila-Gomez (World Bank), Caroline
Watson (C40), Daniel Moser (GIZ), Sudhir Gota (SLoCaT), and Nikola Medimorec (SLoCaT).
We are also grateful to the local stakeholders who participated in the case studies
research and helped improve the credibility of this report.
The research underpinning this publication also received support from the “Climate
Technology Transfer Mechanisms and Networks in Latin America and the Caribbean”
project. The project, implemented by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and
financed with resources from the Global Environment Facility (GEF), promotes the
development and transfer of technologies to contribute to the reduction of greenhouse
gas emissions and vulnerability to climate change in Latin America and the Caribbean.
The project prioritizes the topics of mitigation and adaptation to climate change in the
sectors of energy efficiency and renewable energy, transport, forest monitoring, and
resilient agriculture. WRI is the project executing agency for the transport component of
the project.
We are pleased to acknowledge our institutional strategic partners, which provide

core funding to WRI: Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Royal Danish Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency. We are
also pleased to acknowledge the Stephen M. Ross Philanthropies for its support of WRI’s
Ross Center for Sustainable Cities program.
Design and layout by:

Jenna Park
jenna@flotation9.net
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Foreword
3 Executive Summary
9 Introduction
15 How to Plan for E-Bus Adoption
41 How to Reach Mass E-Bus Adoption
51 Key Actions to Accelerate E-Bus Adoption
54 Appendix A
55 Appendix B
59 Endnotes
60 Glossary
61 References
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FOREWORD
Imagining the world in 2030 can be a dangerous on track towards sustainability. In case studies
thing. But it can also help us plot how to achieve the of 16 electric bus projects in 16 cities, we analyze
net-zero carbon world we need to survive. Large- different pathways cities have taken toward electric
scale electrification is a necessary step down this bus adoption, the enabling conditions for success,
road, and bus fleets are an opportunity to make an and common problems.
outsized impact on air pollution and greenhouse
gas emissions in dense urban environments. Based on the observed successes in our case studies
and through other literature, we identified common
One way to do this is demonstrated by cities enabling factors, including structured and flexible
like Shenzhen, which have been ambitious and pilot programs; well-informed and methodical
aggressive, adopting large-scale fleets with the help cost-benefit analyses; and actionable and time-
of multiple incentives. Other cities have been more bound targets for scaling-up adoption from a small
cautious, piloting electric buses but hesitating to number of buses to entire fleets.
scale beyond a few dozen vehicles. Most cities have
been holding back, making no immediate plans and The report utilizes in-depth case studies, clear
no progress toward integrating electric buses into steps, and illustrative adoption paths, to provide
their existing, largely fossil-fuel-based fleets. not only a compelling vision of the future, but also a
clear pathway to harnessing the air quality, climate,
Electric buses could pioneer a new age of clean and other benefits of electric buses for a more
and efficient urban transport and put cities on sustainable future.
track toward sustainability. But adoption is not
accelerating fast enough for the world to meet The revolution is underway!
transport-related global climate objectives and limit
global temperature rise to below 2 degrees Celsius.
Those reading this report – especially transit

practitioners, city employees and on-the-ground
technical staff – will find practical solutions to
adopting electric buses. Its precursor report, Andrew Steer Ani Dasgupta
Barriers to Adopting Electric Buses, is a high-level President Global Director
document that focuses on the current obstacles to World Resources Institute WRI Ross Center
adopting electric buses. In these two sister reports,
WRI aims to tackle several pressing questions to
help change the trajectory of cities and put them
How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide 1

2 WRIRossCities.org
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Electric buses (e-buses) have zero tailpipe emissions and lower
operational costs, can help cities address local noise and air
quality issues, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions when the
grid is clean enough. However, the process of transitioning to
electric transportation poses many significant challenges that
must be addressed through careful planning and coordination.
This report is based on lessons learned from 16 cities that are
working toward electrifying their bus transit fleets. It provides
background information on e-buses and offers a planning and
implementation framework for cities with varying levels of
experience in e-bus adoption.

HIGHLIGHTS It is an exciting time for clean energy technologies,
and the transport sector is undergoing a particularly
important transformation. As part of this revolution,
▪▪ Electric bus adoption projects should be planned and cities around the world have begun to consider
carried out in a thoughtful way. For initial planning and integrating electric buses into their transit fleets.
small-scale projects, five steps should be followed: E-buses have been tested and adopted in several
consider the existing policy landscape; conduct major metropolitan areas in the past decade.
However, nearly all the cities adopting e-buses
an initial analysis to understand costs, benefits,
are located in China, Europe, and the United
stakeholders, and constraints; plan and launch a States. Challenges exist to expanding the adoption
structured pilot project; collect local data, update the of e-buses around the world, especially in the
initial cost-benefit analysis, and explore financing global South. In general, the barriers lie in three
options; and set actionable and time-bound targets for major categories—technological, financial, and
long-term and large-scale adoption. institutional—and deal with issues related to
vehicles and batteries, operations, and charging
▪▪ For the mass adoption of large-scale electric infrastructure. However, a systematic review of
bus projects, at least four components should be potential solutions and an adoption framework are
considered: formalizing and implementing a long-term seldom provided for cities that need help adopting
infrastructure plan for large-scale electric bus fleets; electric buses.
formalizing and implementing e-bus procurement
About This Report
plans adjusted to city conditions, and financial
The aim of this report is to fill in knowledge gaps
instruments to reduce costs and risks; providing
and provide actionable guidance for transit agencies
training to bus operators based on international best and bus operating entities to help them overcome
practices and local experiences; and planning for the the most common and debilitating barriers to e-bus
end-of-use of the buses, especially their batteries. adoption. We analyzed e-bus activities in 16 cities1 as
▪▪ Cities adopting electric buses can be categorized case studies to ensure that all recommendations are
rooted in real-world experiences. The case studies
into five development stages, depending on policy
were selected to reflect a wide range of geographies
readiness and on-the-ground implementation level, and levels of experience in e-bus adoption, with
and cities may take different actions depending on a focus on the global South. The research was
their development stage to ensure quality adoption completed through a literature review of academic
and enhancement. papers and reports, interviews, and on-the-ground
▪▪ Transit agencies and bus operating entities play a key

gathering of information from primary sources.
role in electric bus adoption. They should be actively We focus on two key questions: What pathways have
involved at the planning and analysis stages of a cities taken toward electric bus adoption? And what
are the enabling conditions for electric bus adoption
city’s electric bus adoption projects, together with city
in cities? These questions helped us identify key
policymakers and utility companies; be serious about actions that cities have taken to adopt e-buses under
piloting and testing projects, using them as valuable different circumstances.
learning tools to improve planning and operation;
and consider the long-term environmental and social This report may be read in conjunction with
Barriers to Adopting Electric Buses, a sister
benefits of clean technology.
publication produced by World Resources Institute
(WRI). That report, based on the same 16 case study
cities, identifies and elaborates on the main barriers
that cities face when implementing e-bus projects,
especially in the global South. The barriers outlined
in that report are meant to serve as cautionary tales,
helping officials anticipate the challenges they may
face and plan accordingly to avoid costly mistakes.
4 WRIRossCities.org
Different Stages of E-Bus Adoption was evaluated to place each city into one of five
categories, called Stages 0 to 4. Cities can use this
Based on city actions taken to date, we developed a
evaluation system as a guide to determine where
categorization system to assess the relative progress
they stand in terms of their stage of electric bus
made by each of the 16 cities toward mass e-bus
adoption.
adoption. The cities are predominantly from the
global South but two cities from the United States
Solutions to Enable E-Bus Adoption
and Europe (Philadelphia and Madrid) are also
included because their advancement in e-bus adop- in Cities
tion can provide some useful information for other Transit agencies and bus operating entities are
cities. Specific city-level actions were also categorized encouraged to maximize electric bus adoption
as either policy- or implementation-based actions: targets based on local conditions, and to develop
▪▪
a responsible strategy for implementation. This
POLICY-BASED ACTIONS: The city government has report provides step-by-step guidance to establish
considered or is actively considering specific and achieve e-bus adoption targets using concrete
e-bus policies or adoption targets. and diverse real-world experiences. We define nine
▪▪ IMPLEMENTATION-BASED ACTIONS: The city (or some
operators) has procured and is operating
steps to be taken by stakeholders interested in
moving toward full e-bus adoption (Figure ES-1).
e-buses either as a pilot or as part of its public The first five steps cover initial preparation and
transit operations. planning, and the next four steps address how to
scale up to reach mass e-bus adoption.
The extent to which each of the 16 cities has taken
concrete policy and/or implementation actions
Figure ES-1 | Enabling Factors and Actions in the Planning and Scaled-Up Lifecycle of E-Bus Adoption
PLAN FOR E-BUS ADOPTION MASS E-BUS ADOPTION
Formalize and implement

long-term infrastructure plan
Policy landscape
Structured pilot Actionable and time- Formalize and implement Large-scale adoption
bound targets procurement plan
Initial analysis of costs and

benefits, technology,
stakeholders, and constraints Training on operation and
maintenance
Cost-benefit analysis and

financing planning Plan for end-of-use of bus
Source: Authors.

Initial preparation and planning for have a flexible planning process that takes into
account emerging results and lessons learned
e-bus adoption
through trial and error and that supports
Perhaps the most difficult step toward any bold information sharing and peer learning.
transformation is making the decision to get
4. Update the cost-benefit analysis and
started. Information provided in this section is
explore financing options. Based on the
intended to make that decision as easy as possible.
initial analysis and operational data collected,
Five major steps are described in this report for
a more advanced cost-benefit analysis of
building an actionable e-bus adoption plan:
the project should be conducted. Different
1. Consider the policy landscape. Before financing options should also be researched and
starting any project, transit agencies and analyzed to ensure the electric bus adoption
bus operators should review existing policies plan will be sustainable over the long term.
in the country and city, either supportive Considering that transit agencies and bus
of, obstructive to, or indirect to electric bus operating entities normally do not monetize the
adoption; analyze the potential impact of their environmental benefits of reduced pollution
adoption of e-buses; and analyze the potential from the public transport sector, the results
impact if the policies were to change. City of the cost-benefit analysis and financial
officials who want to increase the e-bus fleet size analysis may differ, leaving room for innovative
of the city should also consider the potential to financing mechanisms.
use different policy instruments to incentivize 5. Set actionable and time-bound targets.
adoption, and coordinate between sectors to Targets are easy to set but hard to follow if they
facilitate effective policy implementation. are not analysis-based, actionable, and time-
2. Perform an initial analysis. When the bound. Stakeholders should work together to
project is starting from scratch, questions that reduce duplicative efforts or miscommunication
arise should be answered based on concrete and define a reliable electric bus adoption
analysis. It is key for transit agencies and bus target for the city based on the city’s ambition
operating entities to conduct an initial analysis and information collected. This can also
to understand the following: the total cost of improve the actionability of the project and
owning electric buses; the environmental and help ensure the targets are achieved.
social benefits generally and in the local context;
the existing and potential new stakeholders; Reaching mass e-bus adoption
the constraints of adopting electric buses in the Scaling e-bus implementation is a fundamental
city; and any potential solutions to address the challenge to fully adopting e-bus fleets, but is often
constraints. If cities lack sufficient capacity to given too little attention at the outset of an e-bus
conduct any part of this analysis, they can reach program. While many cities around the world have
out to peers or research institutes for help. successfully initiated e-bus pilot programs, very
3. Launch a structured pilot project. Cities few2 to date have been able to move e-buses to the
should avoid “analysis paralysis” by taking mainstream and position them as a substantial
action and gaining practical experience. Pilot percentage of their entire bus fleets. Four major
projects are a low-barrier opportunity for cities steps are described in this report for expanding the
to test ideas and learn by doing. A good electric scale and quality of an e-bus fleet:
bus pilot project has clear definitions on the
1. Formalize and implement a long-term
scale and timing, specifies the data needed,
infrastructure plan. Charging infrastructure
includes data collection mechanisms, and plans
is one of the most important features of electric
ahead for charging infrastructure regardless of
buses that conventional buses do not share.
the scale of the current e-bus fleet. In addition,
Having sufficient infrastructure is paramount to
choosing more than one bus model to test can
the success of large-scale electric bus adoption
reduce the vulnerability of the project and
due to the increased complexity of an e-bus
give more flexibility for the city to adapt to
network. A few aspects should be planned ahead
technology upgrades. Lastly, it is important to
by the transit agency and bus operating entity
6 WRIRossCities.org
together with the utility and urban planning efficiency of buses, extend the life of batteries,
sectors: creating a site plan to address the reality and reduce the need for maintenance.
of land scarcity; analyzing and defining the These can help decrease the operation and
technical specifications of charging stations; maintenance expenses for the operators
exploring innovative charging mechanisms, 4. Plan for end-of-use for each e-bus. E-bus
such as smart charging; and developing plans batteries can be harmful to the environment
to deal with power outages. In addition, if they are not handled responsibly at the end
infrastructure-related expenses, which are often of their lifespans. Meanwhile, the residual
underestimated, should be carefully evaluated. value of e-bus batteries is poorly defined due
2. Formalize and implement an e-bus to the evolving nature of the technology. This
procurement plan. As e-buses use a relatively potential environmental harm and economic
new technology with limited operational uncertainty for electric buses requires the
experience, transit agencies and bus operating transit agency and bus operating entity to
entities should integrate the technological carefully craft a responsible retirement plan
uncertainties into formalized procurement for each electric bus and explore innovative
plans. Specific technical details should be bus and battery scrappage mechanisms with
defined in the procurement plan, which could be other stakeholders, especially bus and battery
customized to assure the public transport service manufacturers, to reduce the total costs and
of the city. Since the technology is evolving risks. This, in turn, can help incentivize the
quickly, future technology advancement should adoption of electric buses and reduce the
be considered. The procurement models that negative impacts on the environment.
work for the city should be carefully studied and
analyzed and, ideally, should help incentivize Recommended Key Actions for Cities at
electric bus adoption and reduce the costs and Different Development Stages
risks for bus operating entities.
Based on the enabling conditions identified in our
3. Train bus operators—a necessary but analysis of the 16 case study cities, we recommend
often overlooked step in electric bus that in addition to following our general guidelines
adoption. Training can help improve the for e-bus adoption cities emphasize the key actions
operation behavior of drivers, increase the described in Figure ES-2.
Figure ES-2 | Key Actions for City Stakeholders at Different Development Stages
STAGE 0 STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3 STAGE 4

City leaders City leaders Transit agencies Transit agencies Transit agencies
Stakeholders
Research institutes Transit agencies Bus operators Bus operators Bus operators
Public Bus operators City leaders Utility companies Research institutes
Research institutes Utility companies City planners
Research institutes Research institutes
• Understand local needs • Evaluate project and
Public
• Conduct feasibility improve operation
• Develop actionable • Build a network
analysis plans and time-bound • Initiate a well-designed • Increase project
• Explore innovative and
Key actions
targets pilot project replicability

sustainable financial
• Adopt a flexible • Adopt a flexible mechanisms
planning process planning process
• Develop long-term plans
Initiation Pilot Breakthrough Scale-up

8 WRIRossCities.org
INTRODUCTION
This report fills in knowledge gaps and provides actionable
guidance for electric bus adoption. It offers a framework that
can be used by cities at all stages of developing e-bus transit,
and is primarily intended for use by transit agencies and bus
operating entities.

It is an exciting time for clean mobility technolo- Electric buses have been tested and adopted in
gies, and the transport sector is undergoing a par- several major metropolitan areas in the past
ticularly important transformation. One aspect of decade, with a dramatic rise starting in 2014
this transformation is that cities around the world (BNEF 2018). However, nearly all the cities
have begun integrating electric buses (e-buses) into adopting e-buses are located in China, Europe,
their transit fleets (Li et al. 2018). E-buses reduce and the United States (Figure 1, blue dots)
local air pollution, limit greenhouse gas emissions, (Li et al. 2018). E-buses have a smaller market
and are typically much quieter and more comfort- share and narrower geographical coverage than
able than conventional diesel buses (USDOT 2016). other low-emission vehicle technologies, such as
Some cities have already taken bold steps toward hybrid electric buses (Figure 1, orange dots).
the mass adoption of e-buses (SLoCaT 2019), and
a few cities—like Shenzhen, China—have already
completely transitioned their transit fleets to
e-buses (Xinhua News 2017).
Figure 1 | Electric Bus and Hybrid Electric Bus Adoption Worldwide
Hybrid Bus
Battery Electric Bus
Note: Blue dots represent e-bus adoption; orange dots represent hybrid electric bus adoption. The data are illustrative of general trends, don’t show the size of the fleet in the
city, and are not exhaustive. They were compiled by Li et al. (2018) before October 2016. Currently, more than 99 percent of electric buses are in China; by the end of 2018, cities in
India and Latin America had adopted more e-buses than shown on the map (IEA 2018).
Source: Li et al. 2018.
10 WRIRossCities.org
However, the process of transitioning to electric transit. It aims to fill in knowledge gaps and
transportation poses many significant challenges. provide actionable guidance for cities to help
Some difficulties—for example, unavailable them overcome the most common and debilitating
financing for vehicles (FSCI 2018), rigid procure- barriers to e-bus adoption. The report is based on
ment models, lack of information—are already our analysis of e-bus activities in 16 cities (Figure
relatively well-known. A companion report to this 2). These case studies support the information
publication, Barriers to Adopting Electric Buses provided and ensure that all recommendations
(Sclar et al. 2019), elaborates on these challenges are rooted in real-world experiences. The case
and others that have received less attention, study cities were selected to reflect a wide range
including space limitations at depots, the effects of geographies and development stages in e-bus
of public perception, and the hidden complexi- adoption, but the primary focus is on cities in the
ties in planning grid infrastructure. Scaling e-bus global South, though cities in China, Europe, and
operations from pilot routes to mainstream the United States are, in many cases, at a more
operation presents a slew of challenges, all of advanced stage of e-bus adoption. The research
which must be addressed through careful plan- involved a literature review of academic papers,
ning and coordination. We encourage interested reports, city strategic plans, and governmental
stakeholders to read the Barriers report as part of or corporate websites; interviews conducted with
their preparatory planning for e-bus adoption. stakeholders; and on-the-ground collection of
primary data and operating experiences when
1.1 About This Report quantitative and qualitative information was
This report offers a framework that can be lacking. A full description of our methodology is
used by cities at all stages of developing e-bus provided in Appendix B.
Figure 2 | Distribution of Case Study Cities
Stage 0
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Source: Authors.

1.2 Limitations of the Study plug-in hybrid, trolley bus, fuel cell, or battery
electric bus. The bus technology could be chosen
Cities are likely to encounter barriers that this
before using this document or after piloting
report does not address due to the limited
different bus technologies, depending on the city’s
number of case studies in our research. Cities are
policymaking process.
encouraged to explore innovative options to solve
these issues. We anticipate the following challenges A few factors can influence the decision-making
could become the focus of further research as process, such as service quality (which is important
we continue to research and develop innovative for bus operators and public satisfaction),
solutions to the barriers to e-bus adoption: technology availability domestically, fuel price,
▪▪ LAND RIGHTS: Land rights problems are seen in

several cities, such as Shenzhen, China, and
and fuel availability. However, these should not
be the only factors that determine the choice of
technology. The total cost of ownership (TCO) and
Campinas, Brazil. They usually arise due to a
environmental impacts of different technologies
lack of space to establish new infrastructure
could also be key considerations. The ways to
(such as charging stations, transformers,
compare the TCO and environmental benefits of
and substations). Local situations, such as
the various technologies are discussed in Sections
land prices and ownership, also complicate
2.2 and 2.4 of this report. In addition, based
this problem. Cities should evaluate land
on real-world analysis, factors such as industry
acquisition issues before adopting large
development, mayoral determination, future
numbers of e-buses.
▪▪
trends, and technology tests may also impact the
UTILITY AND INFRASTRUCTURE: Grid and charging decision-making process of adopting a certain
infrastructure are generally important technology. Therefore, this report does not aim
components of e-bus projects that are not well to provide guidance on how to determine which
understood by planners and policymakers. technology to choose or which is the best for a
While the issue is discussed in this document, city, but rather on how to start and formalize the
more research is needed, together with adoption of battery electric buses, and encourage
continuous coordination among infrastructure- users to analyze the pros and cons of electric buses
related stakeholders. compared with other technologies.
▪▪ POTENTIAL BENEFITS AND OBVIOUS COSTS: The

environmental benefits of e-buses are not 1.3 Structure of the Report
normally monetized or listed in a company’s We developed a methodology to categorize the
financial spreadsheet, and they are often relative progress made by each of the 16 cities
neglected or not well-represented when making toward mass e-bus adoption. Specific city-level
decisions. City governments and bus operators actions were first broadly categorized as either
should calculate the monetized value of avoided policy- or implementation-based actions:
▪▪
pollution due to e-bus adoption, and fully weigh
the potential benefits along with the obvious POLICY-BASED ACTIONS: The city government has
cost and operational factors. considered or is actively considering specific
e-bus policies or adoption targets.
It is also worth mentioning that this report does
not aim to provide guidance for how a city, transit ▪▪ IMPLEMENTATION-BASED ACTIONS: The city (or some
operators) has procured and is operating
agency, or bus operator should choose between
e-buses either as a pilot or as part of its public
different bus technologies; our guidance begins
transit operations.
after a city, bus operator, or transit agency has
already decided to adopt e-buses, no matter the Based on the extent to which each of the 16 cities
scale (e.g., pilot test, small-scale operation, or has taken concrete policy and/or implementation
mass-scale adoption). Today’s choices for bus actions, we placed them into one of five categories
technologies include but are not limited to fossil (called Stages 0–4). The criteria used to determine
fuels, such as diesel, gasoline, CNG, or liquefied each city’s stage of action were based on the
natural gas (LNG); biogas; and buses using a authors’ experiences in bus procurement and
certain level of electric component, such as hybrid,
implementation projects. Table 1 summarizes the The next two sections of this report present an
findings and categorization of each city evaluated enabling strategy comprising two main steps:
for this report. Other cities can use this table as a planning and scaling up. The strategy is designed
guide to determine their own stage of adoption for to enable electric bus adoption from scratch and
electric bus development. then to scale up to mass adoption, regardless of the
different operational and governance structures
Transit agencies and bus operators play a central that exist in cities around the world. Section 2
role in enabling large-scale e-bus adoption (planning) is more applicable to cities that identify
and are the primary audience for this report. with Stages 0, 1, and 2 of e-bus adoption. Section 3
The information provided is intended to fill (scaling up) is more applicable to cities that identify
in knowledge gaps especially relevant to these with Stages 2, 3, and 4.
organizations and suggest a program of action on
the basis of international experiences.
Table 1 | Stage of Electric Bus Adoption in the 16 Case Study Cities Based on Actions to Date
STAGE DEFINITION CASE STUDY CITIES
0 No substantial planning. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

▪▪ There have been no substantial official talks or discussions on e-buses.
▪▪ No official research has been conducted.
▪▪ Noe-busprivate parties have been formally contacted regarding providing capital or services for an
program.
▪▪ There is no actual implementation of an e-bus program.
1 Talks and plans, but no pilot tests. Ahmedabad, India;
▪▪ There have been formal discussions about e-buses. Bangalore, India;
Cape Town, South Africa;
▪▪ Initial research has been conducted. Mexico City, Mexico;
▪▪ Initial policies, targets, and/or tenders may have been released. Quito, Ecuador
▪▪ No e-buses have been tested by the transit agency/operator.

2 The city is running an initial pilot program. Belo Horizonte, Brazil;
▪▪ E-buses have been procured. Bogotá, Colombia;
Madrid, Spain;
▪▪ E-buses have been tested (with or without passengers) by the transit agency/operator. Manali, India;
▪▪ Tests have offered some information on the operational performance of the e-buses (although
these data may have severe limitations).
Philadelphia, United States
▪▪ A pilot program is underway, but further expansion has not been planned.
3 The city has gone past an initial pilot program. Campinas, Brazil;
▪▪ The city is expanding the number of e-buses and/or starting a second e-bus procurement. Izmir, Turkey;
Santiago, Chile
▪▪ There are plans in place to substantially grow the number of e-buses in the near future.
4 Mass adoption. Shenzhen, China;
▪▪ E-buses account for a substantial portion of the municipal bus fleet. Zhengzhou, China
▪▪ The city is at or approaching its long-term e-bus target.

Source: Authors.

HOW TO PLAN FOR
E-BUS ADOPTION
Perhaps the most difficult step toward any bold
transformation is making the decision to get started. The
information in this section is intended to make that decision
as easy as possible. Information is organized into five major
steps for building an actionable e-bus adoption plan. These
steps will not necessarily be executed in sequence; the goal
here is to offer a complete view of the actions that should be
taken to successfully prepare for mass e-bus adoption.

2.1. Consider the Policy Landscape In general, there are three categories of policies
to explore:
Transit agencies and other government entities ▪▪ Policies and targets specifically related to
electric buses
▪▪
involved in the transportation sector usually have
lead responsibility for planning and implementing Supportive policies and financial assistance
e-bus projects. Taking stock of the policy landscape programs
can help avoid or overcome institutional barriers
related to interagency coordination, financing, and ▪▪ Other policies with environmental or economic
considerations
infrastructural requirements. For further information,
A city or country may have specific targets,
see Barriers to Adopting Electric Buses.
roadmaps, or plans to create incentives for electric
bus adoption (SLoCaT 2019). If the plans are
progressive, actionable, and accompanied by
Before starting to plan or implement a project, supportive policies, they can serve as the most
transit agencies and bus operators should review direct enabler for transit agencies and bus operators
related national and local policies to assess to proceed. This section provides examples of
their potential impact on e-bus adoption. For current national and city policies that may have
example, agencies and operators should ask the had a positive impact on e-bus adoption. While not
following questions: What are the supportive every city will have policies like these in place, they
and obstructive policies? What policies can be may help city officials think through which policies
leveraged to make a greater impact? What would to look for, and, as appropriate, advocate for.
the potential consequences be if the policies were
to change?
Identify policies and targets specifically related 2016, a 12-meter electric bus could receive a 1
to electric buses million RMB (US$150,000) government subsidy,
which accounted for more than half of the vehicle’s
China’s Policies and Subsidies for Electric Buses price (Lu et al. 2018). This large subsidy was one
The Chinese national government began to of the major drivers for accelerated adoption in
promote electric bus adoption in 2009 with large Shenzhen.
demonstration projects and multiple supportive
policies (Lu et al. 2018). Many Chinese cities However, whether subsidies in China can be a
have developed electric bus adoption targets sustainable funding source or sustain longer-term
or roadmaps since then. Shenzhen, the most adoption of electric vehicles is unknown. In China,
advanced city for electric bus adoption, has set the subsidies have been gradually declining since
progressive targets since 2009 in line with national 2017. Compared with 2016, the national subsidy
policies, and has shown flexibility in adjusting for vehicle procurement was reduced by 20 percent
the targets according to technology maturity and in 2017–18 and will be reduced by a further 40
adoption status. percent in 2019–20 (Ministry of Finance 2015). As
a result, a surge of adoption took place in Shenzhen
For many Chinese cities, national and local policies in 2016 (Figure 3) before the subsidy decreased.
and incentives play a key role in reducing the
up-front procurement cost of electric buses. Before
Figure 3 | Progress of E-Bus Adoption in Shenzhen
Joined the Thousands of Vehicles, Tens of Pilot Cities (TVTC) project

2009 Issued Shenzhen New Energy Vehicle Promotion Work Plan (2009-2012) with a target of 4,000 new energy buses by 2012
Adopted the first electric bus fleet

2011
Issued Shenzhen Urban Transport White Paper with a target of 7,000 new energy bus stock by 2015
2012 Reduced the target to 4,500 due to technology immaturity
4,877 electric buses were adopted

2015
Targeted 7,700 buses by end of 2016, and 100% electric buses in three years
2016
Targeted 100% electric buses by end of 2017

2017 Achieved 100% bus electrification with a total of 16,359 e-buses
Source: Compiled by the authors, based on information from the Shenzhen Municipal Transport Commission through interviews and desktop research.

Figure 4 | Number of Electric Buses Operating in Shenzhen, 2012–17
18,000
16,359
16,000
14,603
14,000
12,000
Number of Vehicles
10,000
8,000
6,000 4,877
4,000
2,000 1,277
277 697
0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Source: Lu et al. 2018.
Although electric vehicle–related subsidies FAME Scheme in India

in China are declining (for both buses and
In 2015, India initiated the Faster Adoption and
passenger vehicles), the country is planning
Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles
to issue a new credit system called the Parallel
(FAME) program (Ministry of Finance 2015) to
Management Regulation for Corporate Average
increase the supply of hybrid and electric buses.
Fuel Consumption and New Energy Vehicle
FAME also stimulated the demand side with
Credits (“Dual Credits”) (Ministry of Industry
allocated funding to procure hybrid and electric
and Information Technology 2017). Currently,
buses. On September 12, 2017, the national
these schemes apply only to passenger vehicle
Department of Heavy Industry (DHI) amended
manufacturers as a starting point, with the
FAME and increased the demand incentives
potential to expand to other modes, such as electric
available for fully-electric buses (DHI 2017). The
buses. The Dual Credits scheme sets targets for
new incentive scheme (often referred to as “FAME
fossil fuel–vehicle fuel efficiency and the percentage
II”) (PTI 2019) includes two levels of subsidies that
of electric vehicles the manufacturers produce,
depend on the percentage of localized production—
with criteria determining how many credits each
the percentage of the total cost of bus components
manufacturer can earn. The system also establishes
that are locally or domestically manufactured
how manufacturers can deal with the credits
(Table 2).
earned, including a platform for manufacturers
to trade surplus credits.
Table 2 | FAME Incentive Scheme for Battery Electric Buses
BUS INCENTIVE LEVEL 1 INCENTIVE LEVEL 2
Fully battery If the localized production is between 15 and 34%: If the localized production is 35% or higher:
electric bus Subsidy equals 60% of the procurement cost of a bus Subsidy equals 60% of the procurement cost of a bus
or Rs. 85 lakhs (about $120,000), whichever is lower. or Rs. 1 crore (about $140,000), whichever is lower.
FAME has initiated the electric bus tendering variances. Cities have also developed a few
process in 10 cities3 in India, providing subsidies procurement models and financing methods under
for 40 electric buses for each city4 with regional this national scheme (Table 3).
Table 3 | Procurement Models Adopted by Indian Cities under the FAME Scheme
CITY/ NUMBER OF DRIVING KEY PLAYERS FINANCING

REGION BUSES FACTORSa
Bangalore 80 electric Technology Department of Heavy Industry Department of Heavy Industry (central
buses adoption (central government); Goldstone- government) funding; gross cost
BYD (manufacturer); Bangalore contract model proposed
Metropolitan Transport Corporation
(local operator)
Ahmedabad 100 electric Technology Department of Heavy Industry (central Originally FAME, but after missing a
buses (most adoption government); Ahmedabad Municipal submission deadline, AMC is now looking
recent) Corporation, AMC (state government) to access state government funds
Delhi 1,000 electric Air pollution Supreme Court; No DHI FAME funding—
buses High Court of Delhi; 100% state government funding;
Delhi government; funded using the Environmental
Delhi Transport Corporation Compensation Charge, a type of green
tax collected in the state
Manali- 25 electric Ecological National Green Tribunal; 75% DHI FAME funding;
Rohtang Pass buses conservation National government (DHI and others); 25% state government funding
(midibuses) Himachal Pradesh state government;
Himachal Road Transport Corporation
Pune 500 electric Technology State government Not known yet

buses adoption
Kerala 10 in various Technology State government Gross cost contract model

regions of the adoption and
state ecological
conservation
Note: a. The driving factors section aims to capture only the explicitly mentioned factors the cities considered when adopting e-buses. Hidden factors—such as reduced
cost of operation or national subsidies—may exist in cities globally but are not the focus of this table.
Source: Compiled by the authors.

U.S. Federal Transit Administration’s Low or No Emission mobility can be incentivized. In Campinas, Brazil,
Vehicle Program the city government offers a reduced corporate tax
for bus businesses located in the city. This attracted
The U.S. Federal Transit Administration (FTA)
a bus manufacturer to establish a new factory,
established the Low or No Emission Vehicle (LoNo)
which largely advanced the development of electric
Program as a discretionary funding program that
buses in the city and provided on-site support for
provides capital funding for acquiring low- or
local bus operators. This latter example shows how
zero-emission buses (FTA 2014). In Philadelphia,
potential enablers may not be self-evident from the
United States, the transit agency received $2.6
outset but can prove helpful—in this case by helping
million through this program for electric buses
to create a local market for e-buses coupled with
in 2016 (FTA 2015), an amount approved in 2015
technical capacity-building.
and used to purchase 25 Proterra buses. Six other
agencies in the country have received funding Environmental Policies
through the program. In 2018, a new LoNo grant
of $1.5 million was offered to Philadelphia’s Electric buses have zero tailpipe emissions. They
public transit agency to procure an additional 10 can help reduce urban greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-
electric buses from New Flyer, as well as associated sions—as long as the electricity grid has a relatively
charging equipment (FTA 2018). low carbon intensity with more renewable energy
generation—as well as other emissions, thereby
FTA LoNo grants have enabled the adoption reducing pollution and improving local air quality
of most e-buses currently operating in the in cities. Many environmental policies and targets—
United States (FTA 2019). Now, more funding such as urban air quality standards, urban emis-
opportunities are slowly becoming available and sions reduction plans, and climate-related targets
more test data are being collected from pilot in nationally determined contributions under the
projects. Other general funding for U.S. public Paris climate agreement—can serve as enablers for
transit agencies to procure electric buses comes electric bus adoption. The following examples are
from the Environmental Protection Agency and just a few among many city initiatives.
state-level energy and environment authorities
(Casale and Mahoney 2018). In Santiago, Chile, one of the reasons the city
government decided to consider electric bus
Identify other indirect but supportive policies adoption was to meet the commitments the
country had made under the Paris Agreement and
Along with targets and direct subsidies, many
Atmospheric Decontamination Plan to reduce GHG
other supportive policies and financial assistance
emissions 30 percent below 2007 levels by 2030
programs at the national or local level can
(Herrera 2015). In Izmir, the city municipality
accelerate e-bus adoption.
signed agreements to reduce GHG emissions by
Tax Benefits at least 20 percent by 2020 (Covenant of Mayors
2016), which led to the establishment of an
In Izmir, Turkey, electric vehicles enjoy signifi-
emissions reduction target for the transport sector.
cantly lower private consumption tax (PCT) and
Similar considerations are seen in Shenzhen,
motor vehicle tax (MVT) rates, as specified in
China, where tailpipe emissions from vehicles
national law amendments (Resmi Gazete 2011).
account for nearly 50 percent of particulate matter
The PCT is 2–15 percent for electric vehicles and 84
emissions (PM 2.5) in the city (Guangzhou Daily
percent for gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles;
2015). More than 20 percent of vehicle carbon
the MVT for electric vehicles is 25 percent of that
dioxide (CO2) emissions come from buses, which
of gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles—before
account for only 0.5 percent of vehicles in the
2018, there was no MVT for electric vehicles.
city (Lu et al. 2018). Thus, bus electrification is a
Even though these benefits were not implemented
promising way to achieve the city’s environmental
specifically for e-buses and the rate has increased
targets through a relatively small number of
over time, this example shows one way electric
vehicles and transactions.
In some cases, e-buses have been adopted to 2.2. Perform an Initial Analysis
address urgent environmental needs. Located in
the Himalayas, the Manali-Rohtang Pass is a major
tourist destination and an ecologically sensitive place Key stakeholders may lack basic information
with a heavy carbon footprint from vehicles. To tackle relating to the up-front and long-term cost
this issue, the national tribunal for environment- implications of introducing an e-bus fleet, the range
related cases issued an order on February 6, 2014, of actors that need to be involved, and the technical
that put daily restrictions on the number and fuel performance and requirements of e-buses. Early
type of vehicles that can enter this area (National and thorough analysis will help avoid many pitfalls
Green Tribunal 2014). This led to the adoption of caused by the knowledge barrier. For further
25 electric buses to deal with the pollution issues information, see Barriers to Adopting Electric Buses.
generated by vehicles (The Hindu 2017).
Table 4 | Question Template for Initial Analysis of Electric Bus Adoption
KEY QUESTIONS THINGS TO CONSIDER
What are the costs and benefits of 1. Are electric buses cheaper to procure and operate than traditional buses?
adopting electric buses in your city? Potential data can be collected on annual distance traveled, fuel economy, bus life, residual
value, down payment, cost of labor, fuel cost, and maintenance cost, among others.
2. What is the air quality and general environmental quality in your city?
3. What are the environmental benefits of using electric buses in your city compared with
operating the same number of traditional buses?
Potential data can be collected on annual distance traveled, fuel economy, bus life, and
emissions factors for key air pollutants, such as CO2, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and
particulate matter. Some data may not be available at first, but can be collected during a
pilot project, which will be discussed in Section 2.3.
Who are the stakeholders that may 1. Who are the stakeholders involved in the policy landscape analysis? What are their roles?
potentially be involved? 2. D oes the city have any e-bus–related manufacturing facilities? If so, who are the
manufacturers? If not, are diesel buses manufactured in the city or country? If not, from
where are they sourced?
3. Who is involved in the utility sector in your city?
4. Are there any research institutes or organizations you could ask for help regarding the
latest technology status, and specifically, electric bus adoption? Are there any institutes at
the local, national, or international level?
5. What is your current financial or business model? Who is involved?
What is the landscape of existing 1. Who are the mainstream electric bus and battery manufacturers around the world? What is
technology and technical players? available in your local market?
2. What are the technical specifics of these available e-bus technologies?
3. What are the performance needs in your city for public transit?
What are the key constraints that could 1. What is the grid and utility capacity in your city? Can the capacity carry the extra demand
delay adoption? that will result from e-bus adoption?
2. W
hat is the infrastructure construction process in your city, especially regarding electricity
network expansion and new depot construction, and what are the related costs?
3. What are the basic land rights regulations in your city? What do you need to do to acquire
new land? What are the potential problems and costs to procure new land?

Table 4 presents some questions that deserve con- for the transit agency or bus operator, if it needs
sideration before moving forward with the adoption to pay for the additional infrastructure needed
of e-buses. The list is not exhaustive but can help to accommodate the new buses. For example,
initiate the analytical process. conventional buses (except for some natural gas
buses) may not need specific fueling equipment
Detailed guidance on how to conduct the initial on-site. But most electric buses benefit from having
analysis, which can be used to help answer these charging facilities established in the depot (as in
questions, is provided in this section. Shenzhen) as they help save time and energy
and increase the useful range per charge since
Understand the costs and benefits of e-buses trips to charge at public charging facilities are not
Analyzing the costs of e-buses compared with those needed. Whether the bus operator needs to pay for
of conventional buses requires considering the the additional cost of installing charging facilities
buses’ total cost of ownership (TCO). TCO refers depends on the specific business model used (see
to the overall costs of procuring and operating a Section 3.2) and the charging pattern. Therefore,
bus over its useful lifespan, and is a reasonable infrastructure-related costs may be part of the TCO
metric to compare the costs of different bus for bus operators if they need to install the charging
technologies. Usually, it is presented in the form facilities at their own cost. Another example is
of present value (PV) to capture the time value of the potential road and pavement requirement for
money using a discount rate (Cooper et al. 2019). buses—especially low-floor buses, which require
TCO generally includes two components: capital higher-quality pavement—to reduce damage on the
expenditure (CapEx) and operational expenditure bus body. If bus operators need to contribute to this
(OpEx) (Cooper et al. 2019). CapEx includes type of infrastructure, it should be included in the
the procurement costs (including financial cost TCO analysis as well.
of buses) and OpEx includes operational and
maintenance (O&M) costs, labor costs (details may The benefits of electric buses can come from either
differ by place), fuel costs, and regular maintenance a reduced cost of ownership or reduced emissions
costs (e.g., for body, tires, engine). (local air pollutants and GHGs). In the case of
Izmir, the operating costs for 20 e-buses led to an
Under some conditions, infrastructure-related 84 percent reduction in fuel costs and a 60 percent
costs may be considered capital expenditures
reduction in total maintenance costs5 relative to In practice, because bus procurement involves
conventional buses. Izmir’s use of a solar power significant initial capital investment and the costs
plant to provide electricity to charge the buses has and environmental benefits are highly localized, the
resulted an annual avoidance of around 420 tons environmental benefits are not usually monetized.
of CO2 emissions. In Shenzhen, the TCO over eight However, the costs and benefits of technology
years (including bus procurement cost, CapEx, fuel conversion should be carefully evaluated before
cost, and OpEx maintenance costs) for e-buses in initiating the procurement.
2016 was almost the same as a diesel bus’s TCO (Lu
et al. 2018). And according to the Shenzhen munici- Fortunately, tools exist to make cost-benefit
pal transport bureau (Shenzhen Transport Bureau analyses easier. For example, WRI is working
2017), switching to e-buses could result in 62.4 tons with the support of FedEx6 philanthropic grants
of CO2 reduction per bus, which could lead to about to develop and validate a tool (Cooper et al. 2019)
one million tons of CO2 reduction annually. that allows transit bus operators to compare the
total cost of ownership and environmental benefits
For the comparison between e-buses and other (in terms of emissions reduction) for multiple bus
types of buses to be valid, they should have similar technologies, including e-buses. Inputs of the tool
characteristics. For example, the buses compared include fleet-specific, O&M, and emissions-related
could have the same physical specifications, such as data, among others. Outputs of the tool are the
seat configuration, door and window arrangements, costs and emissions of different bus technology
and suspension systems. Some existing e-bus mod- combinations. The full list of input variables
els have fewer seats and heavier weights due to the (all are not necessarily required) can be seen in
batteries. It is important to consider the impact of Figure 5. Figure 6 illustrates one possible result
these features. Also, if it is hard to get these physi- of the tool, which can compare the unit cost and
cal specifications comparable (e.g., given the fewer emissions for a certain bus type based on local
seats on e-buses), the public transit services should operating data. When agencies or bus operators
be held at the same level, such as total vehicle are considering fleet upgrades to achieve certain
kilometers traveled, passenger load profiles, and the emissions reductions, they can use the tool to
features of the bus route. compare the costs and emissions reductions
of different combinations of bus technologies,
including e-buses.7
23
Figure 5 | Sample Input Variables for WRI’s Costs and Emissions Appraisal Tool for Transit Buses
INPUTS
General Fleet-Specific Data Operations/Maintenance Data Overhaul Data Infrastructure Data Emissions Data
Economic Data • Fuel type, technology • Total cost of driver labor ($/year/bus) • Engine overhaul ($/bus); • Depot/fuel station • CO exhaust (g/km)
• Country • Number of buses • Fuel economy (L/100 km) frequency (years) construction ($); bus • THC exhaust (g/km)
• Discount rate (%) • Transmission overhaul ($/bus); quantity
• Annual (individual) bus • Fuel cost ($/L) • NOx exhaust (g/km)
distance traveled (km/year/bus) frequency (years) • Depot/fuel station
• Fuel cost projection (%/year) retrofit($); bus quantity • PM exhaust (g/km)
• Bus life (years) • CNG fuel system overhaul
• Fuel station operation costs ($/y) ($/bus); frequency (years) • Special tools ($); • CO2 exhaust (g/km)
• Bus length (m) • Insurance ($/year/bus) bus quantity • GHG/ CO2e exhaust (g/km)
• Hybrid system overhaul ($/bus);
• Final purchase price for a • Additional operational costs to frequency (years) • Upstream CO2 (g/km)
single bus ($/bus) include ($/year/bus) • Battery replacement ($/bus); • Upstream PM (g/km)
• Residual value (% of final • Fixed annual maintenance costs frequency (years)
purchase price) ($/year/bus) • Vehicle retrofits ($/bus);
• Down payment (% of total cost) • Total cost of maintenance labor frequency (years)
• Loan interest rate (%) ($/year/bus)
• Loan lifetime (years) • Brake reline ($/bus); frequency (years)
• Tires ($/bus); frequency (years)
• Battery conditioning ($/bus);
frequency (years)
• DPF cleaning ($/bus); frequency (years)
• Fuel station maintenance ($/bus);
frequency (years)
• Additional maintenance costs to
include ($/year/bus)
Capital and
Financing Operational
Costs Costs
Cost Output Emissions Output

Detailed Output
Graphical Summary
(By fleet and by bus type)
Source: Cooper et al. 2019.
An analysis of the TCO and environmental benefits analysis, thus providing more useful information
is a necessary part of the initial project scoping for project implementation. In addition, an initial
process, and a more detailed discussion is included financial feasibility analysis and plan should be
in Section 2.4. This report encourages agencies and done based on an analysis of costs, benefits, and the
operators to use pilot projects as an opportunity to policy landscape to understand the potential need
collect data that can be used to update the initial for financing and prepare for future planning.
Figure 6 | Sample Output Graphic from WRI’s Costs and Emissions Appraisal Tool for Transit Buses
Exhaust Co2 Vs. Cost
1,400
1,200
1,000
Exhaust CO2 (G/km/bus)
800
600
400
200
0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50
Unit Annual Cost ($/km/bus)
Bus type 1 Bus type 2 Bus type 3 Bus type 4 Bus type 5 Bus type 6
Source: Cooper et al. 2019.
Identify stakeholders experts in sectors such as transportation, electricity,

and urban planning with responsibility for differ-
Transit agencies and bus operators play a key
ent aspects of an e-bus project. Other stakeholders
role in electric bus adoption in cities, but their
may be parties directly affected by the project, such
influence and capacity are typically not sufficient
as passengers and landowners. Because stakehold-
to implement an entire project alone. Enabling
ers may have different opinions, all voices must
measures such as national guiding policies,
be heard at an early stage and potential conflicts
supportive financial regulations, and city-level
resolved or at least addressed. The pathway for
strategies for electric vehicle adoption led by
engagement will be specific to each city, but stake-
other stakeholders can all be helpful. But it is
holder engagement should always be a part of e-bus
important to identify potential stakeholders early,
strategies and action plans.
and to proactively work to establish collaborative
relationships that will last for the duration of the Some of the stakeholder groups most likely to be
project (Buckingham et al. 2018). involved in electric bus planning and adoption are
shown in Figure 7.
Stakeholders are parties with an interest in the
project. They may be government officials and

Figure 7 | Major Stakeholders Who Are Likely to Be Involved in Electric Bus Adoption
Research institutes
Academia
Multilateral organizations
Charging infrastructure
and service providers
Manufacturers National-level
officials
Financiers
Transit agencies /
bus operating entities
City leaders Utility companies

City planners Public
Electric bus
adoption
Primary Stakeholders Secondary Stakeholders Tertiary Stakeholders
Source: Authors.
Primary stakeholders:
▪▪ Transit agencies and bus operators,
▪▪
which provide public transport services,
City leaders, who are responsible for making procure and operate electric buses, and
policies, developing city-level adoption determine public transit operations in the city.
▪▪
strategies, and allocating financial budgets.
They may work in sectors ranging from trade Utility companies, which are in charge
and industry to environment or energy. of planning city power distribution and
▪▪
constructing facilities.
▪▪
City planners, especially the land use
planners or land development agency in The public, who use the e-buses and are
the city, who oversee the planning of urban critical players because public opinion can
infrastructure. affect the success of an e-bus project.
Secondary stakeholders: procuring diesel buses or new players in
▪▪
the field.
▪▪
Officials at the national, state, provincial,
and regional level, who regulate the e-bus Charging infrastructure and service
industry and may develop supportive policies providers, which are involved in the
for electric bus adoption. They may work in construction, operation, and maintenance of
different sectors, such as trade and industry, the e-bus charging facilities. The role can be
environment, or energy. shared with other stakeholders in some cases.
▪▪ Manufacturers, which produce electric buses

including batteries (Box 1).
Tertiary stakeholders: This category includes
other stakeholders who are involved in, are
▪▪ Financiers, who are responsible for providing

funding and financial products for bus
influenced by, or may impact electric bus adoption
projects.
procurement. They may already be involved in
BOX 1 | The Role of Manufacturers
Manufacturers have played an important role where conduct independent research to determine the full
e-bus technology has been introduced in cities with range of supplier options. More than 30 companies
limited knowledge of and experience in e-bus adoption. worldwide now manufacture e-buses, though many
For example, in Shenzhen, Izmir, and Campinas, have limited production and distribution capacities. City
manufacturers were actively involved in promoting officials who are uncertain about procurement decisions
e-bus adoption and offered assistance to the transit can find suggestions on how to find help in Section 2.2
agencies and operators. However, cities should of this report.
Table B-1 | Top 10 Manufacturers of E-Buses Based on Estimated Total Number of E-Buses Produced
MANUFACTURER ESTIMATED UNITS SOLD PRIMARY MARKET(S)
Yutong 35,000 China
BYD 20,631 China and International
Zhongtong 20,000 China
Solaris 103 Europe
Proterra 100 North America
Optare 82 Europe
VDL Bus and Coach 67 Europe
Volvo Bus 50 Europe
Van Hool 40 Europe
Bolloré Group 23 Europe
Source: BNEF 2018.

Engage with stakeholders ▪▪ INFRASTRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION: Officials need to be
knowledgeable about what types of permitting
Effective stakeholder coordination and
and planning are required and how much
cooperation can leverage different expertises,
the overall construction of charging facilities
improve communication and efficiency, and avoid
will cost (Philadelphia and Shenzhen, for
duplication of efforts. Electric bus adoption is not
example, encountered high charging facility
simply a matter for transit agencies, and it requires
costs and land permitting problems). Potential
interdisciplinary knowledge. For example, many
stakeholders may include bus operators, city
of our case study cities identified infrastructure
planners, city officials in charge of urban
concerns as a key area of need for interdisciplinary
planning and construction, and manufacturers
collaboration:
of charging facilities. Sometimes research
▪▪ GRID CAPACITY: Power generation, distribution institutes can help with related research.
networks, distribution planning, and related
capacity to build, operate, and maintain the
▪▪ LAND RIGHTS: Charging infrastructure is a
permanent physical installation. However, bus
facilities, including charging stations, need to depots and terminals are sometimes leased
be understood. Charging mechanisms are more by the bus operators, and land is usually a
centralized for e-buses than for private vehicles scarce resource in urban areas. The high price
(e.g., in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Belo Horizonte, of land in urban centers and complicated
Brazil; Campinas; Bangalore; Zhengzhou, regulatory structures may also exacerbate this
China), but they can present challenges of land issue, as was noted in Shenzhen, Campinas,
or space availability. Potential stakeholders and Philadelphia. Landowners or city officials
may include bus operators, manufacturers of may want to use the land for other more
charging facilities, utility companies, urban valuable purposes than charging e-buses.
planners, and city and regional officials in Potential stakeholders involved may include
charge of power generation planning and city bus operators, city officials, and landowners,
electricity bills. City government and utility among others.
companies need to be involved; in some cities,
state or provincial governments or power In general, it is important to convene all
generating companies may also be involved. stakeholders and encourage direct communication.
This happened in Santiago and Belo Horizonte, company and well-coordinated communications,
where before the actual implementation of electric Santiago has advanced in the adoption process.
buses, stakeholders from all sectors were invited
to attend a workshop. During the workshop, Electric vehicles may also benefit the utility by
stakeholders such as utility companies, bus providing an opportunity to develop a cleaner, more
operating agencies, and government institutions resilient, and more profitable grid (Fitzgerald et
shared their perspectives and considerations for al. 2016). If electric vehicles’ charging patterns are
the electric bus project. This limited the potential smartly controlled, they can help flatten the peaks
for dissent and resulted in comprehensive project and fill in the troughs of demand on the power grid.
plans. Some additional examples of effective This may help reduce the unit cost of electricity and
stakeholder coordination and cooperation are avoid unnecessary investment in power generation
briefly described below. to meet peak demand. Also, for those utility
companies with flatlining loads, electric vehicles can
Manufacturer – Operator – Manufacturer provide extra demand and increase revenue. These
In Shenzhen, the close cooperation between factors can help incentivize utility companies to be
operators and manufacturers led to important proactive in the electric vehicle adoption process.
technology improvements (Box 1). Operators
provided continuous feedback and suggestions
Consider key constraints
to manufacturers, and manufacturers adjusted Cost is an obvious constraint on the mass adoption
the technology according to the needs of the of e-buses but there are many other factors that
operators. This generated a virtuous cycle of can limit a city’s ambitions. A few examples are
technological improvement; however, it required provided here.
prolonged dedication from both stakeholders and
Grid Capacity
close physical proximity. Close relations between
manufacturers and operators, usually the two most Mass adoption of electric buses increases a city’s
prominent parties in developing e-bus projects, is demand for electricity. A typical e-bus has a battery
important. Information needs to be fully shared capacity of approximately 300 kilowatt hours
and requirements clearly communicated. However, (kwh). This is a large load but likely not debilitating.
the interests of the two parties do not need to fully However, at scales of hundreds or thousands of
overlap and the objectivity of manufacturers should e-buses, the cumulative electricity requirements can
be carefully observed and considered throughout account for a large portion of that of an entire city.
the project development process. For example, assuming on average each city has one
bus per 1,000 people (PPIAF 2006) and that the
Utility – Manufacturer – Operator current bus fleet is fully electrified, the electricity
Utility companies are indispensable in provid- consumption of a whole e-bus fleet roughly equals
ing a robust charging network and potential price 14 percent of the electricity consumption of a
incentives for electric buses (Fitzgerald et al. 2016). lower-middle-income city, 5 percent of that of a
If these typically heavily regulated monopolies are middle-income city, 3 percent of that of an upper-
properly incentivized and well-coordinated with middle-income city, and 1 percent of that of a high-
other stakeholders, adoption may be accelerated. income city.8 The per capita electricity consumption
of different cities is based on IEA categories (IEA
In Santiago, the utility company took the lead in 2014). Similar studies with more localized models
supporting the adoption of electric buses along with and data can be found and they confirm the results
the transit agency and bus operators. It analyzed of this estimation. For example, in Singapore,
grid capacity and worked with the manufacturer a fully electrified bus fleet requires around 1.4
and operators to test the technology. The utility gigawatt hours per day, which accounts for about
company also provided expertise to help with 1 percent of Singapore’s daily electricity demand
electrical grid issues during the procurement (Gallet et al. 2018).
process. With the active involvement of the utility

Ensuring a stable grid with sufficient capacity to Procurement and Financial Management Rules
support e-bus charging is a prerequisite through all
A more detailed description of procurement
phases of e-bus adoption. Some key questions to
considerations is provided in Section 3.2 as these
consider regarding grid infrastructure are
issues tend to be more relevant to large-scale
as follows:
adoption. However, even smaller procurements
▪▪ Generation and transmission capacity: Do

the power plants and electricity transmission
will face similar challenges. Traditional bus
procurement models often consider up-front cost
networks supporting the city have sufficient as a key factor, rather than the buses’ total cost of
capacity to support the increased load from ownership. This does not encourage the adoption
various degrees of e-bus adoption? of electric buses, which have a much higher
▪▪
up-front cost than diesel buses but a comparable
Distribution network quality and capacity: At total cost of ownership. In Latin America and
the locations where the e-buses are expected to South Africa, for example, competitive tendering
be charged, what electrical infrastructure (e.g., is often used for electric bus adoption, which can
distribution transformers, substations) must be incentivize market competition and result in a
upgraded to support anticipated daily charging lower cost for high-quality delivery. However, this
needs? How much do these upgrades cost?
▪▪
mechanism enables diesel buses to tender a lower
Smart charging: Are there systems and processes bid and win the contract. If e-buses are to win bids
that can be put in place to manage charging as and achieve widespread adoption, traditional bus
a means of minimizing infrastructure expenses procurement models need to consider the buses’
and/or operating costs? total cost of ownership.
▪▪ Future planning: What work can be done now

to minimize future infrastructure expenses
Bus procurement models also need to include a
mechanism to manage the risks and uncertainties of
and operational challenges as e-bus adoption electric buses as a new technology (Li et al. 2018).
reaches a mass scale? In some cases, financial leasing and operational
In Campinas, transit officials determined that one leasing mechanisms have been applied when
of the most important first steps was upgrading the adopting electric buses (see the Shenzhen example
bus depots with charging facilities. This required in Section 3.2). Financial leasing mechanisms can
coordinating with local utility companies to analyze reduce costs for bus operators, which do not need
the capability of the grid and whether upgrades to pay the up-front cost and have the flexibility to
or maintenance were needed. By focusing on this procure the asset at the end of the leasing period.
issue early, they were able to avoid significant Operators make regular payments to lessors, and
future delays. They also established a clear lessors might receive a tax benefit if the buses
structure of actions and responsibilities between are recorded as an asset on their balance sheets
those organizations responsible for vehicles and (instead of on those of the operators).9
those responsible for infrastructure, which is a
common impediment to successful completion of
Find help
e-bus projects. Cities can find financial and other support when
they lack sufficient capacity to launch their own
Similarly, in Santiago a combination of a grid e-bus projects. They should review existing
capacity analysis (utility company), pilot test supportive policies, projects, or subsidies, as
(operator), route selection analysis (consulting explained in Section 2.1. Other stakeholders, such
institute), and determination of business and as utility companies or other transit agencies in
service models (with the manufacturer) were similar cities, may have resources and experience
conducted jointly (Orbea 2018). These careful with e-bus adoption.
actions increased the confidence and preparedness
of local stakeholders and led to more ambitious
adoption targets.
Cities can reach out to research entities and third Pilot projects offer a relatively low-barrier
parties, such as universities, research institutes, opportunity for cities to learn by doing and explore
think tanks, and the research branch of development new mechanisms of adoption. Cities that have been
organizations, to learn more about the latest most successful in adopting e-buses have used pilot
technologies and practical experiences with e-bus projects to gather targeted information to support
adoption. These entities and organizations can be broader adoption.
local, national, or even international. For example,
technical support from international organizations The term “analysis paralysis” refers to a situation
and research institutes (GIZ, National Renewable where a group is so concerned with studying
Energy Laboratory, C40 Cities Climate Leadership a problem that it fails to take action. This is
Group) helped Mexico City, Mexico, start its a common challenge when adopting any new
initial pilot project and conduct technical feasibility technology, including e-buses. A well-conducted
analysis, together with local stakeholders, on analysis can help in developing better projects, but
Metrobús Línea 4 and Eje 8 Sur corridor (Valdez practical experience is essential to success.
2016; C40 Cities Finance Facility 2017). These This section provides a basic framework for
activities can help enhance the city’s understanding structuring a useful pilot program, while offering
of the status of technology, local operational examples from around the world.
conditions for e-buses, and routes that are best
suited to e-bus performance. Cities like Santiago Define the scale and timing of the pilot project
and Belo Horizonte successfully convened all
Pilot projects can involve a single e-bus or several.
stakeholders and initiated conversations with the
Generally, the number of manufacturers and buses
help of international organizations (WRI, the United
to be evaluated depends on available funding.
Nations Environment Programme, Centro Mario
Manufacturers sometimes provide e-buses at no
Molina Chile). These activities catalyzed policy
cost to cities specifically for this purpose, which
discussions in the city around the topic and provided
can be helpful. However, there are costs associated
a more objective perspective for e-bus adoption.
with installing charging infrastructure, collecting
International development funds or multilateral data, and running operations that should also be
development banks may be sources of additional considered. Even if it is feasible to obtain only
funding, which can help cities in developing one e-bus, a structured pilot project can provide
countries initiate the adoption of clean technology, essential information in crafting a successful e-bus
and possibly attract more finance from other sectors. adoption strategy.
For example, when adopting hybrid electric buses
Another key parameter is timing. A pilot project
in Bogotá, Colombia, a concessional loan program
should typically last no more than two years to
was put in place with initial funding from the Clean
ensure that momentum is maintained toward
Technology Fund. This amount was matched by
broader implementation. In some cases, an
Colombia’s national development bank (Bancoldex),
iterative process may be prudent to address any
and jointly distributed to commercial banks and bus
unexpected outcomes of an original pilot effort.
operating companies.
This may prolong the pilot period but it should not
2.3. Launch a Structured Pilot Project be allowed to continue indefinitely; establishing
a final deadline is advisable. Similarly, the time
required to plan and execute procurement of the
Transit agencies and other entities interested in e-buses and associated infrastructure can also be
starting an e-bus project face many uncertainties time consuming and subject to unexpected delays.
concerning technological requirements and For example, Philadelphia ordered 25 e-buses
performance, financing, and institutional for its initial pilot but a late update to the vehicle
responsibilities and capacities. Lack of specific specifications delayed operations by six months.
data can inhibit project initiation or compromise Cape Town, South Africa, ordered 11 e-buses for
its chances of success. For further information, see its initial pilot, amid much media interest and
Barriers to Adopting Electric Buses. publicity. However, the program is on hold pending

legal investigation into accusations of corruption body, which resulted in cracks when operating on
and misadministration. These types of prolonged rough roads. In Bogotá, the operators procured
processes can diminish enthusiasm, so it is generally vehicles with ruggedized suspension systems,
advisable to plan for other analyses and outreach which proved very uncomfortable for drivers and
activities in parallel with the procurement process. passengers. Enhanced suspension systems are
now part of the technical requirements for tenders
Define information needs in these locations and the world benefits from
Some parameters will be of interest to all the knowledge gained through their experiences.
prospective e-bus operators: In Cape Town, passenger safety and public
▪▪
acceptability are important factors to consider
Range – including variations based on route, under local conditions. In the past, arson and
passenger load, and temperature vandalism of trains and buses have cost the city
▪▪ Vehicle Availability Rate – including

availability limitations due to maintenance,
millions of dollars. This risk has been key in
considering e-bus routes and charging locations.
repair, and charging infrastructure Future pilot projects should consider these types of
unavailability location-specific factors and incorporate them into
▪▪ Charging Time and Energy Consumption

– including variations based on temperature
an overarching plan.
Define how information will be collected and

and charging station capabilities
evaluated
▪▪ Driver and Customer Satisfaction –
factors related to noise, comfort, and air quality
It is imperative to gather pilot project information
in ways that ensure that appropriate and actionable
In addition to these general data parameters, pilot conclusions are drawn. A robust testing plan for
efforts should consider city- and location-specific e-buses will evaluate their performance in different
information that could impact the project. For terrains, with different passenger loads, and under
example, e-bus operators in Campinas found different road and weather conditions. The easiest
that their buses were not equipped to drive on way to test against these varying conditions is to
poorly paved roads. To minimize weight, the operate the e-buses across multiple routes and
bus manufacturers used aluminum for the bus compare the results.
Izmir is an excellent example of a city that
▪▪ Distance between routes and charging facilities
implemented a highly structured testing procedure
for evaluating e-buses across multiple routes. The ▪▪ Passenger demand, stop times, and operational
speeds
▪▪
public transit agency in Izmir tested 20 e-buses on
280 of its 340 routes to better understand e-bus Other local characteristics
performance under a range of conditions and Participating e-buses must include data-logging
determine which routes were suitable for electric devices to gather operational information. If these
buses. The results will provide vital input if the devices are not included, information will be
public transit agency of Izmir is to achieve its limited and impossible to validate.
target of 400 e-buses established in its 2015–20
strategic plan. Such route testing is also seen Plan ahead for charging infrastructure
in one of Mexico City’s pilot projects. In the
Electric buses require charging infrastructure.
project planning to be conducted on Metrobus
Constructing and maintaining this charging
Line 4, 16 buses will be tested for 3 weeks under
infrastructure requires careful consideration of
different scenarios. Data will be used to compare
various factors, including but not limited to the
the implications of types of e-buses and route
following:
specifications for operational planning.
In general, varying the routes on which e-buses

operate is considered a best practice for fully
▪▪ Existing power capacity and distribution
facilities in the city, and potential locations for
charging facilities
▪▪
evaluating e-bus capabilities. Route planning is
important and necessary for electric bus adoption, Likely electricity demand, expected charging
especially for cities that want to scale up and behaviors, and impact on the grid
achieve mass implementation. Some key route-
related factors that will impact vehicle efficiency ▪▪ Potential requirements for new charging
facilities in case of future expansion, in terms
and battery range include the following: of both location and type of infrastructure
▪▪ Road surface conditions

(e.g., transformers, substations, generators,
▪▪
power plants)
▪▪
Route length and slope
Route infrastructure design ▪▪ Costs of all required infrastructure and sources
of funding and/or financing
33
Careful planning of charging infrastructure can number and routes of electric buses are confirmed
help increase system efficiency, reduce unnecessary based on the number of available charging facilities.
costs and risks, and limit potential redundancy of
infrastructural assets. Even though a pilot project Underestimating the importance of charging
may not require in-depth infrastructure analyses, infrastructure may cause existing projects to
it is often the case that the costs associated with stagnate, compromise the benefits of electric
installing charging stations are significant. By buses, or reduce the buses’ operating efficiency.
planning ahead, infrastructure created for a pilot For example, in Philadelphia, the electric bus
project can be fully integrated and leveraged for rollout was delayed because of the need for a new
future expansion of the e-bus fleet, which will substation. In Campinas, due to a lack of charging
increase the efficiency of the overall project. A capacity, a separate diesel power generator was
thoughtful charging-infrastructure construction procured, increasing the carbon footprint of the
plan can contribute to a successful e-bus adoption electricity used to charge the buses. In Shenzhen,
plan because it can help establish a limit on the size despite the success in the city, the efficiency of the
of the e-bus fleet that is feasible at defined points in charging stations has been limited due to a lack of
time. This is a lesson learned in Shenzhen. coordinated planning and a surge of electric buses,
which has reduced the efficiency and sustainability
In Shenzhen, multiple charging infrastructure of the system.
plans were released to support electric vehicle
adoption (including e-buses). In 2009, the Even if local conditions are not optimal for electric
city government issued the “Public Charging bus adoption, grid system improvements can
Infrastructure Implementation Plan for New be incorporated as part of the planning process.
Energy Vehicles (2009–2012)” before the first For example, in Izmir, the local bus operator
e-bus was put into service. This plan provided a installed a solar power plant near one of its depots
roadmap for public charging infrastructure and to generate electricity specifically for charging the
paved the way for initial e-bus adoption. However, e-buses. Installed solar panels total 9,250 square
in the final acceleration stage of e-bus adoption, the meters, with a generating capacity of 5.2 kilowatt
number of buses increased faster than anticipated hours per square meter per day. This helps reduce
in the charging infrastructure plans. This caused a the emissions generated by electric buses and
shortage of charging infrastructure in the city that mitigate the generally high carbon intensity of the
led to operational impediments and higher-than- Turkish national grid.
necessary costs to resolve.
Select one or more e-buses to evaluate
In Belo Horizonte, the local utility company, Once the pilot project scope and data collection
together with bus operators, conducted a plan are in place, this information should be
grid analysis using actual depot locations and shared with multiple e-bus manufacturers to refine
grid capacity information to determine the the plan and prepare for procurement. To the
infrastructure needs and charging patterns for greatest extent possible, competitive procurement
local electric bus adoption. In Philadelphia, procedures should be used to select participating
potential investment in charging infrastructure bus manufacturers.
was considered before procuring electric buses.
Although the estimated prices increased during In the case of Zhengzhou, the city took a proactive
the procurement process, a grant from the federal role in the adoption process. Bus operators
government was secured to cover some of the cost conducted a series of tests with different bus models
for charging equipment. In Zhengzhou, charging under varied conditions and different charging
infrastructure is planned and constructed before methods, such as battery swapping and wireless
more e-buses are introduced, taking into account charging. This form of comparative testing allowed
the limitations of the local power grid. Then, the the city to evaluate similarities and differences
between vehicle makes and models in a structured Plan for trial and error
manner, and determine the ideal technical features
There is always a learning curve when adopting new
that fit for the city’s operational conditions. The
technologies. Some failures or disappointments
findings helped inform future procurements, and
are inevitable and should be acknowledged as
now e-buses constitute 69 percent of the transit
a necessary part of a continuous learning and
fleet (29 percent are fully electric and 40 percent
improvement process. Cities should plan for a
are plug-in hybrid electric).
“flexible planning process” based on thorough
The novelty of electric vehicle technologies often monitoring and evaluation of emerging results.
generates heightened interest and scrutiny and Building in such flexibility yields returns
cities may sometimes be unprepared for the public in the long term with the adoption of new
backlash that can result from noncompetitive technologies that may have uncertain outcomes.
awards. Therefore, an open and transparent
Shenzhen currently operates the largest electric
procurement process is important. Specific
bus fleet in the world. As the first and only city
procurement strategies are suggested in Section 3.2,
to achieve such a large transformation to electric
based on lessons learned from bus procurements
transport, Shenzhen experienced numerous
observed around the world. It should be noted that
challenges and had no precedent to guide decision-
this is an active area of further investigation and
making as issues arose. Shenzhen thus provides an
additional business models are likely to emerge
exceptional example of the importance of trial and
over time.
error (Table 5).
Table 5 | Electric Bus Adoption in Shenzhen: Challenges and Solutions
CHALLENGES SOLUTIONS
Initial technology could not meet 1. Continuously provided feedback and negotiated with manufacturers to address the issues,
operational requirements which led to technology improvement.
2. Shifted battery and vehicle maintenance risks to manufacturers.
3. Operated early models on less crowded routes.
No precedent for charging infrastructure 1. Formed a joint venture with local charging providers, which are responsible for financing,
business models constructing, and operating bus charging facilities. The capital investment can be paid back
through service fees and by providing services to private vehicles.
2. Applied an alternative business model by establishing a service package with the
manufacturers, which are also responsible for constructing and maintaining the charging
infrastructure as well as delivering the vehicles.
Lack of charging infrastructure, 1. Established a dedicated committee including members from different departments.
especially in terminals 2. Worked with manufacturers to improve charging efficiency. This reduced the number of
charging ports required and, thus, demand for charging infrastructure.
3. Addressed land scarcity issues by building large depots on the urban periphery, extending
land leases for rental properties, and finding unused state-owned land to install charging
infrastructure.
Source: Shenzhen case study.

Share knowledge Izmir’s adoption and operation of electric buses.
After Izmir became the leading e-bus city in
While the number of cities that have achieved mass
Turkey, ESHOT started to disseminate knowledge
adoption of e-buses is very small, more cities have
nationally, accelerating the development of electric
begun pilot testing. A commonly cited barrier to
bus projects in other cities.
e-bus adoption is a lack of available information
on vehicle performance and best practices. This 2.4. Update the Cost-Benefit Analysis
report intends to bridge some of that gap, but new
information will emerge every day.
and Explore Financing Options
Knowledge exchange activities such as site visits,

workshops and online courses, international E-buses may be better from a cost-benefit
conferences, and stakeholder meetings can help analysis perspective than diesel buses due to the
cities learn intensively and interactively. Sometimes environmental benefits, though most of the time
these activities can generate unexpected synergies the benefits are not monetized. However, from a
between stakeholders and lead to new development financing perspective, e-bus projects face multiple
opportunities. barriers including their high up-front costs, lack of
financing options, rigid or inappropriate business
In Izmir, the bus operator, ESHOT, took a models, and general uncertainty surrounding
proactive role at the initial stage, when operational the long-term costs and who will bear them.
knowledge was still lacking. It developed a team For further information, see Barriers to Adopting
of engineers, planners, and decision-makers that Electric Buses.
undertook technical visits and literature reviews
to develop the internal knowledge base necessary
to initiate the electric bus adoption project. The Cost-benefit analysis and financial planning are two
team visited cities in China where e-bus fleets essential steps in achieving a sustainable cash flow
have been scaled up and some countries in during e-bus operations. Both cost-benefit analysis
the European Union (where many e-buses are and financial planning should be started during the
imported from Turkish manufacturers, making initial analysis phase (Section 2.2) and informed by
them a potential e-bus market for Turkey) to gain information gathered during the pilot project phase.
a better understanding of the current and future
e-bus marketplace. These activities helped guide
Update the cost-benefit analysis exact threshold of whether e-buses can help reduce
CO2 emissions depends primarily on the carbon
Considering the relative immaturity of electric
intensity of local electricity generation, but also
buses and the potential for rapid technology
on the fuel type and efficiency of other fleet buses
evolution, long-term planning should be included
(e.g., diesel, CNG, or hybrid buses). Cities with less
in the cost-benefit analysis to support strategic
stringent vehicle emission standards, worse fuel
decision-making. Some relevant issues to consider
quality, and a cleaner grid will enjoy more climate
are briefly discussed below, besides the TCO
benefits from a transition to an electrified bus
analysis and benefits discussed in Section 2.2.
system. These should be monetized and included
Price variability. The most obvious price in the full cost-benefit analysis of e-bus adoption
variability is the ongoing decrease in battery projects to reflect the real costs and benefits of
prices. Because the price of the battery accounts adopting e-buses.
for a large portion of the price of the whole vehicle
Theoretically, these social and environmental
(BNEF 2018), a decrease in battery price could
benefits can be monetized and included in the
greatly affect the future adoption of electric buses.
cost-benefit analysis to determine the real value of
Also, e-bus project prices may vary by region
adopting clean technology. However, in practice,
due to imported components (e.g., importing an
the social and environmental benefits are rarely
electric bus from China is more expensive than
monetized or included in cost-benefit analyses
procuring one domestically due to shipping costs);
published by public companies, even though
local taxes and tariffs (see 2.1); and higher prices
companies probably do conduct estimates on these
due to fluctuating exchange rates (e.g., if a loan is
benefits internally.
borrowed in an international currency before the
project is implemented, or if certain components Financial planning
need to be purchased abroad but local currency
depreciates before the loan is paid back or before Potential financing options should also be
the components are purchased). The possible considered and explored at this stage to secure the
financial risks for banks and the operating agencies successful and sustainable implementation of the
are worth considering as well. project. Even though the TCO of electric buses,
which includes the up-front procurement cost,
Costs for supportive elements are sometimes financing costs, operation and maintenance costs,
overlooked when transit agencies plan for electric and the residual value of bus scrappages, is often
bus adoption. To operate electric buses efficiently, comparable to that of diesel buses (BNEF 2018),
city-level infrastructure may need to be upgraded, the up-front cost of e-buses is much higher. Transit
which requires significant resources. Additional agencies and bus operators should therefore use
substations and distribution network expansion, the entire lifespan of electric buses as their primary
additional land for charging infrastructure, and financial unit of measurement. They should
even the materials and human power required to also explore innovative financing options and
establish new infrastructure in the city—as well procurement models to reduce the risks of up-front
as the variance in the prices of these components costs (discussed in more detail in Section 3.2).
(especially land prices)—can all add significantly to
initial cost estimates. These are additional factors Table 6 below lists three financing-related
to consider other than the infrastructure costs components and real-world examples seen in e-bus
discussed in Section 2.2. procurement based on 26 case studies conducted
in 2016 (Li et al. 2018). Even though the list may
E-buses have social and environmental not be comprehensive or capture developments
benefits, which need to be monetized. For since 2017, it can at least provide a relatively
example, e-buses have zero tailpipe emissions, comprehensive picture of potential financing
which can help reduce local air pollution and options that transit agencies and bus operators can
bring benefits such as improved human health explore. The three categories of financing-related
(USDOT 2016). E-buses may also help reduce CO2 components include the following:
emissions and address climate change issues. The

▪▪ Nonreimbursable funds, which refer to
the potential funding and income sources for
▪▪ Investment capital, which refers to the
typical financial mechanisms or reimbursable
the bus operator or transit agency, specifically funds that transit agencies or bus operators
regarding e-buses. This category may include can apply to pay for the high up-front costs of
the regular sources of income for bus operators buses. Even though traditional mechanisms
and transit agencies, such as farebox revenues, used by operators, such as debt and equity,
bus scrappage payments, or the public trans- are usually used to procure e-buses, specific
port budget, or subsidies directly supporting financial mechanisms designed to support
the procurement and operation of e-buses. It e-buses are rare. Table 6 lists two mechanisms
may also include types of direct grants either to supporting e-buses—soft loans (used in
reduce the up-front costs or the risks associated Curitiba, Brazil, and Bogotá, Colombia, for
with the new technology. The reduced taxes for hybrid electric buses as concessional loans)
e-buses—an incentive policy—can also be seen and green bonds (used in one city in China,
as a form of income. Tianjin, with lower interest rates). More
innovations are emerging annually.
Table 6 | Potential Funding and Financing Mechanisms to

▪▪ Legal arrangements, which refer to the
procurement and operational models, some
Support Electric Bus Projects of which are used specifically for e-buses.
More information about legal arrangements
provided by the case studies will be discussed
CATEGORY EXAMPLES in Section 3.2.
Nonreimbursable Private grants 2.5. Set Actionable and Time-Bound

funds Public grants Targets
Capital expenditure grants Clear, specific, time-bound, and thus actionable
Operational expenditure grants targets help cities organize their planning and
Research and development grants actions for timely implementation of full electric
Public transportation budgets bus adoption. Manufacturers and utility companies
have led successful pilot schemes (such as in Belo
Farebox revenues
Horizonte and Campinas) but guidance from the
Bus scrappage payments local government has been indispensable in cities
Sales taxes that have wanted to expand beyond pilot projects
Environmental impact taxes (such as in Shenzhen, Zhengzhou, and Izmir).
Payroll taxes
Targets can provide valuable guidance for
stakeholders, especially in the early adoption
Investment capital Soft loans
stage of new technologies, but targets alone are
Green bonds insufficient. In Santiago, the national government
issued the National Electric Mobility Strategy
Legal arrangements Bus leases in 2018, which includes a target of 90 e-buses
Battery leases in its public procurement process as the first
Lease-purchase contracts step toward achieving a fully electrified public
Leaseback agreements transport system by 2050. However, the strategy
does not include a detailed implementation plan
Concessions
or clear responsibilities and actions for different
Public procurement contracts
stakeholders. Thus, even though transit agencies
Advertising contracts and utility companies in Santiago have analyzed
and advocated for e-buses, they have expressed
Source: Li et al. 2018. uncertainty regarding the next step of adoption.
Actionable and time-bound targets can assist track of progress. Even though Belo Horizonte has
stakeholder coordination and avoid duplicative not yet started e-bus procurement and operation,
efforts. In Belo Horizonte, potential stakeholders a testing plan of 25 e-buses has been released,
convened for a detailed conversation regarding and an initial analysis, including charging station
electric bus adoption. The convening event resulted feasibility analysis and planning, has been done.
in a detailed timeline (Figure 8) with clearly defined The actionable and time-bound targets reduced
actions in different categories, such as vehicle, potential redundancy and increased the efficiency
infrastructure, operation and maintenance, and of the e-bus adoption process, which helped the city
communication. This helped the city identify transition quickly from Development Stage 0 (no
potential actions for the near term, allocate substantial plans or awareness) to Stage 1 (actual
responsibilities to different stakeholders, and keep plans) in less than two years.
Figure 8 | Belo Horizonte’s Electric Bus Adoption Timeline (Initial Plan)
SEPT 2018
JUNE 2019
MAR 2019
JULY 2018
JULY 2019
AUG 2018
DEC 2018
AUG 2017
APR 2019
FEB 2018
DEC 2017
SEP 2017
JAN 2018
JULY OCT NOV MAR APR MAY JUNE OCT NOV JAN FEB MAY
2017 2017 2017 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2019 2019 2019
Business Financing Definition Start to Delivery of

model of the e-bus Financing manufacture
process approval the bus
workshop starts routes the buses
Definition of
Study the bus depots and Bus depot Energy grid Bus depots
energy infrastructure infrastructure and energy
infrastructure development
of bus depots of an adaptation adaptation grid ready
Operational test of the vehicles

adaptation plan
Start of operation
Training of bus
drivers and
maintenance
Communication team
Start to Announcement
plan and
develop seminar to of the
communication launch the
plan project
project
Start to Normative
evaluate the aspects
normative concluded
aspects
Vehicles Infrastructure Operation and mintenance Communication Normative aspects
Source: Authors, WRI Brasil.

3. HOW TO REACH
MASS E-BUS ADOPTION
Many cities around the world have successfully initiated
pilot e-bus programs but only a few have been able to
move e-buses to the mainstream and include them as a
substantial percentage of their entire bus fleets. Scaling e-bus
implementation is a fundamental challenge that is often
overlooked at the outset of an e-bus program. This section
discusses strategies for moving e-buses past initial pilot
projects to mass adoption.

Figure 9 | Enabling Factors and Actions in the Planning and Scaled-Up Lifecycle of E-Bus Adoption
PLAN FOR E-BUS ADOPTION MASS E-BUS ADOPTION
Formalize and implement

long-term infrastructure plan
Policy landscape
Structured pilot Actionable and time- Formalize and implement Large-scale adoption
bound targets procurement plan
Initial analysis of costs and

benefits, technology,
stakeholders, and constraints Training on operation and
maintenance
Cost-benefit analysis and

financing planning Plan for end-of-use of bus
Source: Authors.
3.1. Formalize and Implement a Long- are involved. This requires more careful planning of
charging facility locations. Also, scaled-up adoption
Term Infrastructure Plan
requires more electricity, which increases the
impact on and response of the grid system. In all
cases, it is critical that planners consider not just
Officials may underestimate the formidable
current infrastructure needs but potential future
planning challenges inherent in scaling up an e-bus
needs as e-bus adoption increases.
pilot scheme. Lack of information concerning the
technical implications and costs associated with
Create a site plan
expanding infrastructure and associated land-use
requirements can present a serious obstacle to Transit agencies often lack space within depots
success. For further information, see Barriers to and parking lots and the physical requirements
Adopting Electric Buses. of charging infrastructure can further limit the
space available for buses. Charging stations with
multiple charging ports can help minimize the
The same infrastructure considerations identified space requirements, depending on the physical
for pilot projects in Section 2.3 apply to scaled characteristics of the parking area. Other electrical
implementation. The degree of rigor will be greater equipment, such as distribution transformers and
and additional considerations will apply to large- substations, also require physical space that may
scale e-bus deployment. For example, a pilot project not be readily available. Thus, the distribution of
may cover only one or a few routes, but with broad e-buses across potential parking locations should be
adoption, multiple routes or a network of bus routes based in part on the availability of physical space.
Charging stations are expensive but are typically established for light-duty vehicles, but the
not the most expensive element associated higher power requirements of e-buses makes
with charging infrastructure. For example, it necessary to define new standards or adapt
Philadelphia reported that charging stations existing standards. Establishing common technical
represented only 40 percent of the total standards, such as those of the International
infrastructure cost of its pilot project. The other Organization for Standardization, is important for
60 percent was related to electrical equipment and the industry. Regarding transit agencies and bus
construction expenses. operators, industry coalitions such as CharIn offer
important technical and institutional information
In general, the distance between where charging for cities seeking support as they plan for e-bus
stations and facility electrical equipment are located adoption (CharIn 2019).
impacts cost due to the physical facilities required.
For example, it is usually necessary to dig trenches Determining the power requirements of charging
through concrete to run wires from electrical stations is also necessary. Higher power ratings
and communications equipment to the charging allow e-buses to charge more quickly but also
stations. A shorter physical distance will likely require more expensive charging equipment.
reduce overall cost, though the cost also depends Generally, a 50-kilowatt charging station is the
on the number of vehicles served by the charging minimal rating that would be appropriate for
facilities. Power management strategies (such as charging fully-electric transit vehicles (Gnann et
circuit and panel sharing) that limit the maximum al. 2018). Lower power ratings may not ensure
load potential can lessen the overall cost burden for a full overnight charge. The power rating should
electrical infrastructure. These types of costs should be determined based on the charging time
not be overlooked when preparing for the mass necessary to ensure adequate vehicle availability,
adoption of e-buses because they can be a major the power ratings available from charging station
impediment to success. manufacturers, the power ratings available from the
existing electricity network, and potential downtime
It is generally advisable to prepare facilities for for the charging facilities due to maintenance and
the long-term adoption of e-buses to minimize other activities.
recurring expenses. For example, it is likely much
more expensive to install and then replace a Charging stations for e-bus fleets should also
distribution transformer than it is to install a larger include standard safety features and either Wi-Fi
transformer than is immediately needed. However, or Ethernet communications capabilities to enable
the expected changes in the technology also need to monitoring, data collection, and “smart charging”
be taken into account when the city is making systems (described in the next section). Some
a decision. charging station models include a high-accuracy
metering capability, which allows operators to
Define technical specifications for charging closely monitor and control e-bus electricity
stations consumption.
Technical specifications for charging stations, such
as charging standards, power requirements, safety
Consider implementing smart charging systems
standards, and communication mechanisms, are Smart charging is enabled by a software system that
important to consider and should be standardized manages the charging schedules and load profiles
before the long-term and large-scale adoption of for each individual charging station (Moghaddam
electric buses and charging facilities. et al. 2018). The purpose is usually to optimize
charging schedules to minimize cost by ensuring
There are currently no globally accepted charging not only that vehicles are charged when electricity
standards for e-bus charging stations, but many is cheapest, but also that vehicles are fully charged
companies are pursuing a common standard. for their next scheduled use. In locations where
Standards generally pertain to the physical the price of electricity or vehicle use schedules are
plug and communication protocols that allow highly variable, smart charging can be an effective
charging stations to connect to and communicate means to reduce e-bus operational expenses.
with vehicles. Charging standards are generally More sophisticated smart charging solutions also

consider electricity consumption from nonvehicle fulfill e-bus routes until power has been restored
sources in a given facility to ensure that electric if the e-bus fleet scale is small or if the city is not
vehicle charging does not adversely affect the targeting a 100 percent adoption rate of e-buses
facility’s overall electricity load. Implementing and still has conventional buses in operation. It is
smart charging solutions typically does not cost a worth noting that this option does not encourage
significant amount of money because these solutions cities to purchase new fossil fuel–powered buses,
are primarily software-based. However, there must but to improve the efficiency of the whole fleet once
be a means to communicate between computer e-bus adoption begins.
servers and charging stations, either through Wi-Fi
or an Ethernet connection. Identify and plan for capital infrastructure
expenses
In addition, considering the bus route network,
smart charging may not be limited to securing a The cost to install an e-bus charging station varies
cheaper price of electricity, but can also be used to widely between countries, regions, and facilities.
optimize the costs for the whole system by taking Costs observed through the case studies used for
into account local operational features. For example, this report ranged from approximately $20,000 to
buses may be charged along the route or during $80,000 per unit, including all supporting electrical
off-peak hours when buses are in low demand, but equipment and construction (information estimated
when the electricity price is high. However, the based on experiences in Shenzhen, China, and the
increasing costs for electricity may be compensated United States). Certain fast-charging systems can
by a reduction in infrastructure costs. On-route and cost several hundreds of thousands of dollars.
off-peak charging may reduce the need to establish Unfortunately, options to finance charging
charging facilities for overnight charges and increase infrastructure are currently limited. It is possible to
the usage rate of public chargers during the day. use green bonds or power purchase agreements as
Therefore, a deeper analysis should be performed to mechanisms to amortize infrastructure expenses,
determine the optimized solutions for cost reduction. but few examples were identified in the preparation
of this report. We observed one mechanism that
Establish a plan for power outages involved engaging with electrical utilities to support
Power outages can wreak havoc on city public infrastructure expenses. Electrification of transit
transit systems when e-buses are widely deployed. buses is generally in the interest of utilities (public
It is essential for transit agencies to develop and or private) because it increases electricity demand
implement back-up power strategies to mitigate from participating transit agencies. In Campinas,
operational risks. For example, strategies to detect for example, the local utility provider partnered
potential system failures need to be adopted, with a transit operator to install a substation
such as signing a contract with a power company for a bus depot and equip garages with charging
that includes penalties for service disruptions; infrastructure.
establishing demand reliability regulations at the
national level; and further applying smart charging 3.2. Formalize and Implement an E-Bus
technology and different charging patterns to Procurement Plan
reduce the impact of power outages.
In addition to rapid response, additional charging

sources, such as stationary or mobile generators, E-buses represent a new and emerging
are capable of effectively charging e-buses. Energy technology. Transit agencies and bus operators
storage facilities and batteries are also seen as face multiple uncertainties related to e-bus
additional sources of electricity during power design technology, operational performance and
outages. However, the energy sources of these maintenance, financing, and end-of-life scrap
back-up generators and energy storage facilities value. It may be difficult to establish effective
should be considered from an environmental working relationships with e-bus manufacturers,
perspective. Alternatively, plans can be developed especially if none are present locally. For further
to allow for the temporary replacement of e-buses information, see Barriers to Adopting Electric Buses.
by renting or reassigning conventional buses to
Transit agencies and bus operators are generally ideal price, among others. In the first tendering
experienced in procuring and operating buses. process, none of the manufacturers met the
However, to successfully implement e-buses at conditions required by the transit agencies related
scale, cities need to select procurement models that to battery range, the fuel used in the heating system
address the uncertainties mentioned above. (which shouldn’t be fossil fuel), or air conditioning
technology. Later, transit agencies negotiated
Create e-bus technical specifications with manufacturers but maintained their quality
Public transportation aims to provide urban requirements, which were eventually met by one
residents with efficient, comfortable, and reliable manufacturer.
transit services. Since this goal is essential for
This may be easier to achieve in places with
any transit agency, adopting e-bus fleets should
either more technology choices or more bus
not come at the expense of the quality of transit
manufacturers. For example, in China, cities usually
service. E-buses are a relatively new technology
have specific technical requirements, especially
with great variances in technical specifications
regarding the number of battery packs, and issue
and performance; cities need to understand these
tenders tailored to local conditions. However,
nuances to ensure their adoption of e-buses is
even cities with less developed e-bus marketplaces
compatible with local operational requirements.
should never feel compelled to accept inadequate
Based on all analyses and pilot projects conducted
technical specifications from a manufacturer. It is
prior to preparing a tender, transit agencies should
better to narrow the scope of the tender than risk
develop requirements for the buses to be procured
the quality of transit service.
that meet both technical needs and passenger
satisfaction. Plan for technology advancements
Transit agencies can and should negotiate with E-buses are relatively new and use constantly
manufacturers on specific technical requirements improving technologies. For example, in just
to achieve the best performance possible. These five years, Shenzhen’s supportive policies for
technical requirements should include both electric vehicles, increased targets, and high
e-bus–specific components, such as battery, electric demand for electric buses emphasized the need for
engine, and transmission system, and those that are technology upgrades and led to an improvement in
common for both electric and conventional fossil performance. Problems such as limited battery range
fueled buses, such as air conditioning, heating, and and frequent breakdowns have been largely reduced
the number and condition of seats. For example, in the new-model buses adopted since 2016. In 2011,
the public transit agency in Izmir conducted a 2 electric buses were needed to secure the service
feasibility analysis and procured 20 electric buses quality of 1 diesel bus (50 percent availability rate)
for further testing. The tendering document listed whereas in 2016 only 103 e-buses were needed to
specific technical requirements, including battery achieve the same level of service as 100 diesel buses
range, air conditioning and heating system, and (97 percent availability rate) (Table 7).
Table 7 | Performance of Electric Buses in Shenzhen before and after Technology Upgrade
FIRST E-BUSES, IN 2011 E-BUSES IN 2016
Daily operation mileage in kilometers (km) 125 175
Battery range (km) 180 250
Energy efficiency (/100 km) 150 kilowatt hours (kwh) 110 kwh
Availability rate 50% 97%
Source: Compiled by the authors, Shenzhen case study.

Other early adopters have also experienced acquiring e-buses using conventional procurement
operational improvements. In Campinas, for models since current contracting models do not
instance, the newest e-buses have longer battery consider the unique cost structure of e-buses
ranges and more power than the older models, (Section 2.2). If e-buses are to compete successfully
which allows them to traverse a higher percentage with diesel buses, contracting models need to
of the city’s routes. find ways to meet the high capital investment and
maintenance responsibilities and overcome the
However, e-bus technology will improve over risks associated with their adoption.
time only if manufacturers are able to produce
and sell more vehicles. Hence, the most Given the unrivaled success of mass e-bus adoption
prudent course of action for transit agencies in China, it may seem reasonable to look to cities
is to implement a multiyear procurement like Shenzhen or Zhengzhou for lessons on how
strategy that gradually increases the quantity, to model procurement processes. However, the
complexity, and route difficulty for e-buses as new procurement models used for e-bus adoption in
generations of vehicles are introduced. As with China require strong government financing (see
long-term planning for charging infrastructure, Section 2.1), which does not exist in most regions
it is important to take a long-term view of e-bus of the world. In Shenzhen, several e-bus financing
procurement. models are in use, some of which require a
financing entity (typically backed by some element
Select a procurement model for e-buses and of government) or charging facility operator to
supporting services bear the risk associated with owning and leasing
The case studies conducted for this report e-buses or batteries to operators. An example of a
demonstrate that many cities have difficulty procurement model used in Shenzhen is shown
in Figure 10.
Figure 10 | A Procurement Model for E-Buses in Shenzhen
Financial institute Lease vehicle, charging stations Bus operating companies
After 8 years, vehicles belong to bus operating companies
s
s o p erator le
Bu hic
r a t e the ve
op e
Pu cha
rch rgi
as ng
e w inf
ho rast
Maintenance; charging
le ru
ve ctu
station construction
hic re
le,
an
d
Bus manufacturer
Source: Shenzhen Municipality Transport Commission 2017.

For regions with limited government-backed Figure 11 | A Procurement Model for E-Buses in Santiago
financing options, WRI has led research on how to
structure e-bus procurement models. The findings
of this research are detailed in the paper Adapting
Procurement Models for Electric Buses in Latin Responsibility Existing WRI
America (Orbea et al. 2019). While that paper Contracts Proposal
focused on Latin America, the major takeaways
Vehicle provision BusCos
concerning the allocation of risks and costs are
applicable globally. Orbea et al. (2019) propose that
Maintenance
cities devise a procurement model that divides bus
service responsibilities into three main categories
Fuel
of stakeholders: Operator
▪▪ Multiple bus procurement companies,

which specialize in raising capital and
Operation Operators
understanding and underwriting the Drivers

technological risks. The number of
procurement companies should be numerous Terrain
Governing
body
enough to sufficiently divide risk, but few
Governing
enough to prevent logistical and coordination body Depot
issues between each other. Infrastructure
▪▪
builders
One or multiple infrastructure building
companies, which are responsible for
Note: The colors are used only to distinguish the different stakeholders. The roles
building the necessary depot infrastructure or responsibilities of each stakeholder are briefly introduced on the left-hand side
while providing adequate space for operation, of the graphic. The following describes WRI’s proposed model: Bus procurement
administrative support, maintenance, cleaning, companies (BusCos) are responsible for procuring buses based on the needs
defined by the governing body. The governing body and depot builders are
and maneuvering. The number of infrastructure responsible for land and infrastructure–related procurement and installation, while
building companies should depend on the size the governing body needs to define bus operating needs and requirements and
of the e-bus fleet and how much infrastructure establish contracts. Operators will purchase buses from BusCos under contracts
designed by the governing body, with the main responsibility to provide good
will be needed.
▪▪
service. The mixed area for BusCos and operators represents different options
Multiple bus operating companies, which available for maintaining electric drive and battery components; this role can be
played by BusCos, operators, or a combination.
provide transport services. These operating
Source: Orbea et al. 2019.
companies should function much as they do
now, but with a greater focus on operating
e-buses, rather than maintaining and
procuring them.
in multiple cities in Latin America including Belo
This model aims to place responsibility for specific Horizonte and Santiago. An example of the duties
tasks with the stakeholders that are best equipped and the responsible parties in Santiago’s proposed
to manage them. For example, bus procurement contractual model is shown in Figure 11.10 Santiago
companies can focus solely on evaluating financial historically contracted all bus responsibilities to one
risks, while infrastructure-building companies focus entity, the operator. Under the proposed model,
on charging and maintenance issues and operators the responsibilities and associated risks are shared
focus on the logistics of providing transit services. among multiple stakeholders.
While this model is still relatively unproven and In the most recent bus procurement case, in
is not a one-size-fits-all solution to procurement Bogotá, the intention to separate the procurement
challenges, it does provide a framework that cities of e-buses and the bus service is also observed.
may be able to customize for their e-bus tenders. TransMilenio, the city’s transit agency, has issued
For example, forms of this procurement model open bidding documents for approximately 1,400
have been adopted, or are under consideration, buses, of which 67 percent are bi-articulated and

33 percent are articulated (TransMilenio 2018).11 to purchase the bus after a set number of years. A
The procurement model includes two components, few other derivative mechanisms include purchase-
which separate bus procurement and operation. leaseback, which involves tax-reduction options, and
The first component is the procurement and supply a combination of financial leasing and operational
of the bus fleet; the second component includes leasing for different bus components. Concessional
the operation and maintenance of the fleet, and the loans have been used in Latin America, and green
operation of a depot with maintenance capacity bonds were used in one Chinese city (Li et al. 2018).
(“patio-taller” in Spanish) (Figure 12). According International development banks or funds can
to TransMilenio, this model minimizes the risk of also provide financing mechanisms and additional
operation and encourages the best quality provision funding sources to support the adoption of e-buses in
of bus service. developing countries. Some examples are the Green
Climate Fund, Clean Technology Fund, nationally
appropriate mitigation action (NAMA) mechanisms,
Figure 12 | TransMilenio Bus Contract Model and loan or blended finance options provided by
development banks (Li et al. 2018).
Model with two components 3.3. Training

Driving an e-bus is not significantly different from
driving a conventional bus. While there are some
nuances to regenerative braking features, and
poor driving habits can negatively affect battery
performance, driver training associated with
Fleet Bus operation Depot these issues is relatively brief and straightforward.
procurement and maintenance operation
Perhaps the most important reason to provide
training for e-bus drivers is to increase acceptance
Source: TransMilenio 2018. of the new technology. This step is especially
necessary at the start of a project, when operators
may be most apprehensive about adopting a new
technology. Bus drivers in Campinas, for example,
However, it is worth noting that even though there reported a mistrust of e-buses, and a fear of drastic
are incentives to adopt clean technologies, steps operational differences between the new buses
can be taken to further incentivize e-bus adoption. and traditional diesel buses. However, after an
For example, the current model is open to all effective training process wherein the bus drivers
types of clean technologies—including e-buses, became familiar with how to operate electric buses,
natural gas buses (e.g., CNG and LNG buses), and the drivers became more welcoming of the new
buses with high emission standards (e.g., Euro VI technology. Many even stated a preference for
buses)—but the model could be more stringent by e-buses over conventional buses due to the decrease
setting limits to bus technology to support e-bus in engine vibration and noise.
adoption. In addition, the points allocated to clean
technology in the contract model to incentivize its Maintenance and repair requirements for e-buses
adoption can be further increased from 200 points and conventional buses differ significantly. Most
(out of 1,000), and stricter fuel efficiency standards cities studied while preparing this report opted
in general for new bus concessions can push to contract maintenance services to the bus
operators to procure e-buses. manufacturers. However, training is required if
in-house maintenance services are desired. In
Other financing mechanisms for electric buses have Zhengzhou, for example, operators carry out their
been used in some cities. For example, leasing is a own maintenance but require training and service
common mechanism. This usually involves a third- manuals to be provided by the manufacturer.
party financial institute that procures and leases the
bus to operators, with an option for bus operators
3.4. Plan for End-of-Use for Each E-Bus It is difficult to predict the cost and availability
of vehicle batteries, but battery costs are rapidly
E-bus technologies are so new that there are very
declining and are expected to continue declining
limited examples of e-buses reaching the end of their
over at least the next decade (BNEF 2018).
useful lifespans (normally longer than eight years).
While estimates of future battery prices vary,
Therefore, the information provided in this section is
most mainstream predictions illustrate the same
general and not linked to specific case studies.
general trend estimated by Bloomberg New Energy
Unlike conventional buses, e-buses have very few Finance: After an approximate 80 percent price
moving parts in the engine and are thus expected decline from 2010 to 2017, battery prices will
to require less maintenance and have longer useful continue to reduce by half, reaching $96/kwh by
lifespans than their internal combustion engine 2025 and $70/kwh in 2030.
counterparts (Mahmoud et al. 2016). It is likely that
Meanwhile, there is active research into battery
battery degradation will be the primary factor in
recycling and second-life use that suggests other
decommissioning e-buses rather than mechanical
economic, environmental, and operational
systems. For this reason, it is suggested that e-bus
considerations. In this context, the term “second-
disposition plans be aligned with the expiration
life use” refers to the transition of old electric
of battery warranties. Once the battery warranty
vehicle batteries into stationary energy storage
expires and/or the battery becomes too degraded to
applications. Battery degradation in vehicles results
operate a bus on routes, there are four options:
in a reduction in vehicle range, which ultimately
▪▪ Replace the battery and continue operating the

bus by the same operator for additional years.
becomes operationally unacceptable. However, the
batteries still have adequate capacity to provide
This scenario is very likely to happen, as the various grid and facility support services (Stringer
chassis of a bus lasts longer than its battery. and Ma 2018).
The new battery is likely to come with its own
A disposition decision should be based on well-
warranty under this mechanism.
▪▪
defined criteria, including projections of the future
Replace the battery and sell the bus to a third cost of replacement batteries, the future cost and
party. It is very unlikely the bus operator will capabilities of new e-buses, the future value of
bear the cost of the new battery unless the used e-buses and batteries, and other social and
overall resale value can compensate for the environmental considerations. For example, if the
cost of installing a new battery. However, the cost of a replacement battery falls and the residual
manufacturer will likely bear the cost of a new value of used e-buses and batteries increases to a
battery and sell the bus to a new entity, similar certain point, upgrading the batteries of existing
to how manufacturers resell old diesel buses to buses might be a better option than procuring
other entities. new buses; if the future capabilities of new buses
▪▪ Sell or scrap the bus but retain the battery for

recycling or second-life use. This can be done by
increase significantly compared with the costs,
procuring new buses and disposing of the old ones
the bus operator or manufacturer. This scenario may be a better solution for bus operating entities.
is likely to happen when the used battery market Because these factors are difficult to predict, we
is mature and the bus chassis is old. suggest that agencies create a set of decisional
▪▪ Sell or scrap the bus and the battery, which the

operators will be likely to do when the residual
criteria that describe the conditions that must be
true for the agencies to select one of the options
listed above. These conditions should be evaluated
values of the battery and e-bus are not clear
regularly to help ensure preparedness at an
or low, and the battery replacement cost is
imminent decision point.
higher than the price that would be received by
selling everything.

4. KEY ACTIONS TO
ACCELERATE E-BUS
ADOPTION
The general message of this report is clear: To ensure
sustainable electric bus adoption, cities need to initiate a
responsible adoption plan, explore innovative mechanisms
for procuring and financing e-buses and charging
infrastructure, and ensure stakeholder coordination. While
cities need to take a comprehensive and long-term view, we
also recommend that cities emphasize key actions based on
their development stage to accelerate electric bus adoption.

The guidance in the previous sections is intended support or delay electric bus adoption. If the city
to help bus operating agencies create a strategy has the requisite infrastructure in place, then it
for maximizing the adoption of electric buses. In needs to decide on a “responsible adoption” path,
this section, we summarize what actions need to and plan for well-analyzed and well-designed
be taken based on e-bus development stage so that mechanisms in multiple areas, which are discussed
stakeholders can review what must be done to move in Section 2 of this report. Generally, the decisions
to the next stage and accelerate e-bus adoption for are better made by city decision-makers, bus
that city. operating entities, and other related stakeholders
together to ensure the messages are aligned and
In addition to moving from one stage to the next, agreed upon.
leapfrog options exist for cities to skip stages on their
paths to mass e-bus adoption. However, leapfrogging Cities at Stage 0 can learn from the experiences of
requires comprehensive planning and coordination Stage 1 cities, and other cities at more advanced
as well as rapid implementation and service stages, regarding both their successes and failures.
delivery among all stakeholders. Cities need to be Actions taken to initiate and scale up discussions
cautious of leapfrogging because irresponsibly fast of electric bus adoption are particularly worth
advancements may be detrimental to the adoption studying.
process if the necessary finance, infrastructure, and
supportive policies are not yet in place. From Stage 1 to Stage 2
A city at Stage 1 wanting to move to Stage 2 must
The key actions for stakeholders in different cities
develop concrete and time-bound targets and
are discussed below. Specific city examples are also
action plans based on prior discussion and analysis.
listed to which they can refer.
City decision-makers can start by providing
From Stage 0 to Stage 1 policy instruments to incentivize adoption,
such as subsidies, public grants, and other
A Stage 0 city attempting to progress to Stage 1 supportive measures, and facilitating stakeholder
needs to first understand whether or why it wants conversations and coordination. Transit agencies
to pursue electric buses. To do this, city officials and bus operators need to analyze policy scenarios,
and bus operators must understand both the local understand the total cost of ownership, the
environmental objectives of the city and whether environmental benefits of electric buses under
e-buses will be able to fulfill these goals. For local conditions, and the potential operational
example, if a city aims to reduce local air pollution constraints they may face later. This information
by a certain target level, the local air pollutant can be integrated and lead to concrete action plans
reduction potential of electric buses needs to be for all stakeholders.
analyzed based on local operational conditions. In
addition, local conditions such as transit service The next step is to start testing theories and
quality, technology availability, fuel price, and fuel implementing a well-designed pilot or testing
availability may also be considered. project. The pilot or test is a trial-and-error process
and a good time to collect local operational data for
Next, if the city decides to adopt, or even just test, long-term planning and more efficient operations.
electric buses, some prerequisites for adopting
e-buses need to be reviewed to ensure that the For Stage 1 cities, a flexible planning process needs
city has the capacity to begin a worthwhile e-bus to go hand in hand with knowledge learned from
project. If not, the city must first establish the basic pilot implementation. Any targets and action plans
infrastructure needed for electric bus adoption— must be reflected in the pilot projects, and lessons
this could include, for example, electricity from the experiences gained from running pilots
generation, transmission, and distribution need to be used to modify and improve the original
capacities; road conditions; and whether the targets and plans as necessary. Cities at Stage 1
existing public transport operational model will
can learn from the experiences of Stage 2 cities, analysis is necessary to scale up the project, and
particularly in how to conduct an initial analysis implementation measures need to be planned for
and determine an actionable pathway for adoption. the long term to encompass future expansion. For
example, innovative and sustainable financing
From Stage 2 to Stage 3 mechanisms, the ability to monitor and improve
A city at Stage 2 wanting to move to Stage 3 must bus performance, sustainable sources of electricity,
determine what targets they want to achieve, and a responsible, cost-effective program of
and how to scale up the current e-bus projects to infrastructure construction are all factors that can
achieve them. Using data collected from structured secure a smooth and sustainable transition. This
pilots and tests, cities need to standardize their stage may take much longer than previous stages to
e-bus protocol, determine which bus assignments complete because the efforts required to replicate
are compatible with electric buses, and secure and scale up route-based experiences to a network
sustainable financing sources. may be exponential and the capabilities to do this
need to be established gradually. Currently, only
At this point, cities at Stage 2 need to be committed some cities in China have achieved large-scale
to developing a long-term plan for large-scale adoption and operation, with some other cities
adoption that is tailored to fit their local situations. around the world aiming for aggressive adoption
For example, the three Stage 3 cities studied in this and starting down this road (e.g., Santiago; Delhi;
report all took different paths. Izmir benefited from Los Angeles, United States). Cities can learn from
a strong bus industry, an innovative manufacturer, different elements of their adoption pathways.
and a responsible transit agency when preparing for
large-scale, long-term adoption. Campinas does not Stage 4 and What’s Next
have a local electric bus manufacturer, but the city Stage 4 is not the finishing line for cities adopting
provided incentives for a foreign manufacturer to electric buses. A lot more can be done by cities
accelerate implementation. Santiago has abundant that have reached their final e-bus adoption
resources for battery manufacturing but does targets. Transit agencies and bus operators need to
not have a local e-bus manufacturer. However, it actively evaluate the current network of buses and
conducted multiple rigorous analyses led by the learn from their experiences. More data collection
utility company and based on local conditions and and research are needed to reevaluate operations,
developed a good long-term plan for adoption. bus procurement and scrappage mechanisms,
sustainable financing sources, infrastructure
One key common factor among these three cities
planning, charging models, and grid performance.
is that they all coordinated among different
Also, cities need to consider the requirements for
stakeholders. E-bus adoption is not a task for
battery recycling and bus scrappage before their
the transport sector alone, nor is it only about
e-buses reach the end of their lifecycles and test
vehicles. It involves power generation, electricity
out different models. In addition, cities need to
distribution, land use, technology promotion and
actively share their experiences with other cities
diffusion, urban planning, passenger behavior, and
engagement, among others. Officials must envision around the world to improve the efficiency of
a comprehensive picture, coordinate with all their operations and accelerate e-bus adoption.
stakeholders, and plan accordingly. Cities may also consider electrifying other modes
of transit to increase the electrification level of
From Stage 3 to Stage 4 the entire transport sector, integrating more
renewable energy sources into the electricity grid,
A city at Stage 3 wanting to move to Stage 4 and helping other cities advance their e-bus fleets
must build a bus route network to approach its based on their experiences.
target. At this point, a comprehensive and holistic

APPENDIX A. THE ELECTRIC BUS ADOPTION ▪▪ Policy-Based Actions: The city has considered or is actively
considering specific e-bus policies or adoption targets.
STAGES OF THE CASE STUDY CITIES ▪▪ Implementation-Based Actions: The city (or some operators) has
Based on city actions taken to date, WRI developed a categorization procured and is operating e-buses either as a pilot or as part of its
system to assess the relative progress made by each of the 16 cities nominal public transit operations.
toward mass e-bus adoption. The cities are predominantly from The extent to which each of the 16 cities has taken concrete policy and/or
the global South but two cities from the United States and Europe implementation actions was evaluated to place each city into one of five
(Philadelphia and Madrid) are also included because their experiences categories, called Stages 0 to 4 (Table A-1). Cities can use these actions as a
in e-bus adoption can provide some useful information for other cities. guide to determine where they stand in terms of their own stage of electric
Specific city-level actions were also categorized as either policy- or bus adoption.
implementation-based actions:
Table A-1 | Actions toward Electric Bus Adoption Taken by the 16 Case Study Cities
POLICY/TARGET IMPLEMENTATION
Stage City Multi-route Mass Route
Informal Formal Policy Preliminary Structured
Operations Operations
Discussions Discussions Enacted Test Pilot
(Plan) (Network)
0 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
1 Ahmedabad, India
1 Quito, Ecuadora
1 Mexico City, Mexicob
1 Cape Town, South Africac
1 Bangalore, Indiad
2 Belo Horizonte, Brazile
2 Bogotá, Colombia
2 Madrid, Spain
2 Philadelphia, USA
2 Manali, Indiaf
3 Izmir, Turkey
3 Campinas, Brazil
3 Santiago, Chileg
4 Zhengzhou, China
4 Shenzhen, China
Note: Blue – implemented, Yellow – ambiguous, Gray – not implemented.

a. Quito has run an e-bus pilot test led by the manufacturer but the government has not had any serious conversations or made any plans for e-bus adoption.
b. Mexico City is developing a long-term policy and is planning to pilot buses on certain routes when the research has been completed.
c. C ape Town procured a small fleet of electric buses, which are not yet under operation, before a structured pilot plan was made. However, the project was under investigation by
local authorities when the case study was done.
d. Bangalore had a three-month e-bus trial supported by a manufacturer, but the agency didn’t further expand the project or procure the buses. Thus, it does not count as a
structured pilot.
e. Belo Horizonte is about to start the pilot testing process, but had not officially launched the project at the time of publication.
f. Manali has been operating a fleet of 25 electric buses. However, the buses operate only during a certain time of year, the plan to scale up the project is ambiguous, and the
replicability of the project is hard to determine.
g. Santiago adopted 100 electric buses in late 2018 and another 100 in early 2019. However, whether these new buses qualify as “mass route operations” is still ambiguous.
APPENDIX B | METHODOLOGY firsthand information on the case. When we identified applicable
literature, we used additional literature reviews to strengthen our
Case Study Protocol and Interview Guidelines of understanding of all components of the case studies.
Electric Bus Adoption Case Study (Excerpt) This research does not focus on any specific electric bus technology.
Instead, its aim is to determine how and why a technology was
Overview of the case study adopted, and key measures related to “technology adoption” and
“technology diffusion,” using electric buses as an example. When the
This project is trying to review the barriers cities are facing during the
results of the project are delivered to the target audiences, we suggest
electric bus adoption process and to identify key actions urban leaders
that rather than focus on which technology to choose, it could be more
could take to fill knowledge gaps, tackle barriers, and accelerate
productive to focus on the local situation and base the choice on those
adoption. The experience of cities in adopting electric buses is a
circumstances. The choice of bus technology should be made by local
relatively new topic with limited recorded knowledge, which is
officials based on local conditions.
why WRI has chosen a case study as the best approach to fill the
information gap. Both primary and secondary sources of data are
needed to finish quality case studies with limited resources. While Theoretical framework for the case studies
desktop research can collect secondary data and answer questions Technology diffusion normally can be divided into multiple stages,
like “who,” “what,” and “where,” interviews with stakeholders can help based on the level of technology maturity and market penetration.
answer “how” and “why” questions regarding electric buses adoption. We hypothesize that electric buses, as an emerging clean technology,
will go through the same development stages. Based on author
The case studies will be conducted under a consistent analytical preliminary analysis through research, case studies, local engagement,
framework that is mainly based on lifecycle elements of electric and literature reviews, we developed five stages for electric buses,
bus adoption and allows for adjustment due to potential differences according to the adoption conditions for cities around the world. The
between cities. The case studies will be selected to include as many definitions will be improved once the research is done.
types of cities as possible and may include counterpart cases that
are not as successful but which could help identify specific barriers
that may have different impacts on cities in different stages of electric
▪▪ STAGE ZERO (0): At this stage, there are no specific measures
regarding electric buses in the city. Some thoughts may have been
bus adoption. In addition to literature reviews and desktop research, articulated, but no concrete actions have been taken yet.
detailed information will be collected through interviews with local
stakeholders. These case studies serve as the major sources to ▪▪ EMERGING STAGE (1): At this stage, the city is considering electric
bus adoption, starting to conduct research and analysis on the
facilitate a deep dive into cities of different situations, and to learn
applicability and feasibility of electric buses to the local context,
about the on-the-ground barriers they have encountered in their local
preparing a related work plan or roadmap, or setting targets for
contexts. This document provides a guide and general requirements for
adoption.
the case studies and interviews, to ensure cross-case comparability.
Case study questions and hypotheses

▪▪ BREAKTHROUGH STAGE (2): At this stage, the city starts to test
the technology with pilot projects, trying to collect operational
data, investigating areas for improvement, and preparing for mass
Through the case studies and interviews, we attempted to answer two adoption of electric buses.
▪▪ GROWING
key questions:
STAGE (3): At this stage, the city is speeding up the
1. What barriers does a city face when planning and implementing the adoption process by procuring more electric buses. Meanwhile,
adoption of electric buses? route-based or city-level planning has started to ensure quality
service and improve operational efficiency.
2. What actions can urban leaders take to address these barriers and
accelerate the adoption process? ▪▪ CONSOLIDATED STAGE (4): To the maximum level of electrification
defined by the city: At this stage, the city is heading for 100 percent
We hypothesized that multiple stages exist for electric bus adoption electrification of its local bus system, or, based on local needs
in different cities. Even though the adoption approaches could vary, and conditions, it is reaching the maximum level of electrification
similar categories of barriers and related actions may exist, such as it is willing to or could have, without sacrificing service quality.
institutional, technical, financial, social, and environmental ones. Meanwhile, city-level planning needs to happen, and backup plans
need to be prepared before full electrification.
The case studies attempted to understand “what,” “how,” and “why”
certain steps are taken, or certain measures are carried out, for In order to conduct the comparative case study analysis and collect
electric bus adoption in selected cities. The “what” questions were comparable information, we have used a predefined case study outline.
mainly addressed by literature reviews and desktop research and Some flexibility can be exercised due to variance among cases. But the
supplemented by interview questions, especially for the indirect general categories are the same.
aspects of adoption. The “how” and “why” questions we pursued mainly
through interviews with related stakeholders, who could provide

Case study outline Expected preparation prior to interview
Instructions: Case study authors should refer to this framework first For each city, the status, policy, and process of electric bus adoption
before starting the research process in order to generate a set of con- could be different. Thus, it is important to define key concepts ahead,
sistent and comparable case studies. Then, based on the information and develop a general framework for information collection, in order to
collected, authors can determine if the city context requires anything maintain the uniqueness and comparability of all cases.
outside of this framework, or if any innovations in the system should
be added to the list. The sample questions should be considered as a. Define the key terms below before the interview:
a guide to information collection and may provide some ideas of the □□ The scope of the electric bus adoption project or effort.
content. They may be tailored and adjusted based on local context. ▪▪ Whether district, city, regional/provincial, or national level
efforts are included. Be clear about different levels’ efforts
1. General information on the city in the case. The actions, measures, stakeholders, and
2. Electric bus development results could be different.
a. History of electric bus development □□ The technology the city will be, is, or has been implementing.
▪▪ This project is mainly focused on battery electric buses,
b. Identification of the stage of development which could include different charging methods.
c. Next steps ▪▪ If the city does not distinguish among the categories
of battery electric bus, plug-in hybrid electric bus, fuel
3. Barriers and benefits (if any recorded information exists)
cell bus, and conventional hybrid electric bus, it will be
a. Barriers: Potential categories include, but are not limited to, important to find out the intention and reason behind this,
technology and infrastructure, cost and financing, and institu- and maintain a good record of the general policy or plan
tional, operational, environmental, and social aspects. and other information.
b. Benefits: Cost savings, emissions reductions, and so on. □□ The transport modes included in electrification targets, plans,
or projects.
4. Stakeholder analysis
▪▪ This project is mainly focusing on buses.
5. Key components ▪▪ But it will be interesting to see the connections with other
a. What are the key components of this stage, and of previous modes, such as private vehicles, 2–3 wheelers, taxis, and
stages, if any? freight if the city’s electrification focus is not solely or
mainly on electric buses.
b. What other components or variables in this case are not
□□ The development stage (see case study outline) of the city.
reflected in this lifecycle component framework?
▪▪ If multiple stages exist, try to separate the information for
6. Key takeaways (keep short but synthesized) each stage and record the trends, if any.
b. Create a stakeholder map and identify the right person to perform
Data collection procedures the interview.
In this project, desktop research and interviews are the two primary □□ If this task is hard to initiate at the beginning with desktop
research methods. Apart from published journal articles, which are research, find the focal contact person, or people who issued a
limited in this case, the literature review should have a strong emphasis certain target, for example, and ask them for more information.
on gray literature, such as reports and other resources not publicized The more stakeholders involved, the less informant bias exists.
internationally, government policies, company reports, research institute
publications, and unpublished research. For the interviews, the project
will use a semistructured approach to collect primary information Potential stakeholders
from local stakeholders. This type of interview contains predetermined A list of potential stakeholders is shown below. It varies by city and
questions but allows the flexibility to ask more customized questions should be a list of reference. Each case will also have key stakeholders
based on the actual conversation. The targeted local stakeholders are and tertiary stakeholders, who play different roles and have different
ideally all sectors involved in the city’s electric bus adoption project, to impact on the project. This could be analyzed later in the case study
reduce potential bias and incorporate diverse voices. and report. At the current stage, it is important to capture as many
stakeholders as possible.
This section will not go into literature review methods, and will focus
on interviews only. It covers the suggested steps for data collection
(more focus on interviews), the type of evidence to be expected,
specific information to be reviewed, and issues to be covered prior to
fieldwork (interviews).
a. City level c. Higher level
□□ Bus operators (public, private, etc.) □□ National-level officials
□□ City officials who are in charge of the related project ▪▪ Transport, energy, industry and technology, treasury,
▪▪ Public planning environment, etc.
▪▪ Related public work or infrastructure □□ Utility companies (national, regional)
▪▪ Transport □□ Manufacturers (national, international)
▪▪ Energy and/or environment □□ National research institute, academia
▪▪ Treasury (for budget purpose, fuel vs. electricity), or who □□ Financial institute
pays the bills ▪▪ Bank, leasing company, international development
▪▪ Other organization, etc.
□□ Utility companies (public, private, etc.) d. Other local specific stakeholders
□□ Charging service providers
▪▪ Utilities (if they are in charge) □□ E.g., a certain committee organized specifically for a certain
▪▪ Manufacturer electric bus project in a city, or a group of specialists for
▪▪ Installer the project, or a local carbon market (if connected with
electric buses)
□□ Local transport research institute
□□ Manufacturers (local)
□□ Passengers/public (if involved in decision-making process)
□□ Financial institute Interview questions
Not all of these questions need to be asked in interviews; some may be
b. Regional level
answered through desk research. Some categories are applicable to
□□ Transit authorities specific stakeholders.
□□ Planning committee
□□ Governance or regulatory authorities (transport, energy,
environment, etc.)
Table A-2 | Interview Questions Categories
CATEGORY ASPECTS
Institutional setting
Institutional
Specific arrangement
Policies and targets

Governance Key initiatives and mechanisms, for electric buses, if any
International agenda and climate actions (SDG, NDP, etc.)
Upstream, manufacturing
Technology
Downstream, operation
Procurement, contracting, and commissioning process

Bus operation and maintenance
Operation
Bus and battery recycling and scrapping
Impacts evaluation
Cost
Cost and finance
Finance
Societal—including users/passengers
Societal Economic
Political
Environmental impact analysis

Environmental
Results
Barriers and opportunities

Barrier Local and universal
Source: Authors.

Results of the Case Studies and Interviews
The results of the case studies are reflected in this report. A brief
summary of interviews conducted is listed in the table below.
Table B-1 | A Summary of Stakeholders Interviewed in 16 Case Studies
STAKEHOLDERS INTERVIEWED
City
City officials, Transit agency/ Vehicle/battery Utility/ Research
Bus operator
government authority Manufacturer charging institute
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia x x x x x
Ahmedabad, India x x
Quito, Ecuador x x
Mexico City, Mexico x x x
Belo Horizonte, Brazil x x x x
Cape Town, South Africa x x x x x
Bogotá, Colombia x x x x x x
Bangalore, India x x x
Madrid, Spain x x x x x
Philadelphia, USA x x x x x
Manali, India x
Izmir, Turkey x x
Campinas, Brazil x x x x x
Santiago, Chile x x x x
Zhengzhou, China x x
Shenzhen, China x x x x
Source: Authors.
ENDNOTES
1. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Ahmedabad, India; Quito, Ecuador; Mexico 7. The results are not intended to calculate the exact costs
City, Mexico; Belo Horizonte, Brazil; Cape Town, South Africa; and emissions in a city, but to provide an initial overview of
Bogotá, Colombia; Bangalore, India; Madrid, Spain; Philadelphia, different bus types and their emissions mitigation potential
United States; Manali, India; Izmir, Turkey; Campinas, Brazil; at the fleet level. Then, the results of the tool can trigger
Santiago, Chile; Shenzhen, China; Zhengzhou, China. more detailed analysis based on the city’s actual situation.
For example, given the city’s road conditions, average
2. Based on the initial screening done by the authors, these cities travel speeds, and other factors, how much can emissions
are mainly located in China with some in Europe. be reduced by upgrading how many buses from diesel
to electricity? Or, given prices, taxes, and subsidies in the
3. Bangalore, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Jaipur, Indore,
city, what is the total cost reduction or increase of the fleet
Lucknow, Kolkata, Jammu, and Guwahati.
upgrade?
4. The number of buses in the tender varies by region. For Jammu
8. The calculation is based on IEA’s average annual per capita
and Guwahati, 15 buses were included in the tenders; for
electricity usage for lower-middle-income, middle-income,
Bangalore, 150.
and upper-middle-income countries. It assumes one bus
5. The maintenance cost here refers to the buses’ total consumes 300 kilowatt hours of electricity daily and that the
maintenance cost. The numbers were accessed through city has one bus per 1,000 people (PPIAF 2006).
interviews, with some additional information on the
9. Recording the buses as an asset on a balance sheet may
environmental benefits of the project collected from bus
produce tax benefits due to depreciation. This is usually tax
operator ESHOT’s website: https://www.eshot.gov.tr/tr/
deductible in many countries, but may vary depending on
CevreselSonuclar. It is worth mentioning that this information
local accounting rules and regulations.
does not include the breakdown of maintenance costs of
different categories, such as engine, bus chassis, labor, 10. This shows only the proposal with project research language
and tires. It also doesn’t compare the specific breakdown and does not necessarily reflect the actual model Santiago is
maintenance costs between electric and conventional buses. going to adopt.
This type of information is helpful for bus operators, however,
and should be collected. 11. An articulated bus usually refers to a bus with two or more
sections linked by a pivoting joint. A bi-articulated bus usually
6. FedEx Corporation is a multinational courier delivery service refers to an articulated bus with an extra section and two joints.
company headquartered in the United States.

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org/10.1109/TTE.2017.2753403.

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How To Enable Electric Bus Adoption Cities Worldwide

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HOW TO ENABLE

XIANGYI LI, CAMRON GORGUINPOUR,

WRIROSSCITIES.ORG How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide i

Sebastian Castellanos is an associate

We are pleased to acknowledge our institutional strategic partners, which provide

Design and layout by:

15 How to Plan for E-Bus Adoption

41 How to Reach Mass E-Bus Adoption

51 Key Actions to Accelerate E-Bus Adoption

Those reading this report – especially transit

How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide 1

How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide 3

▪▪ Transit agencies and bus operating entities play a key

PLAN FOR E-BUS ADOPTION MASS E-BUS ADOPTION

Formalize and implement

Initial analysis of costs and

Cost-benefit analysis and

How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide 5

STAGE 0 STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3 STAGE 4

targets pilot project replicability

Initiation Pilot Breakthrough Scale-up

How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide 7

How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide 9

Figure 1 | Electric Bus and Hybrid Electric Bus Adoption Worldwide

Figure 2 | Distribution of Case Study Cities

How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide 11

▪▪ LAND RIGHTS: Land rights problems are seen in

▪▪ POTENTIAL BENEFITS AND OBVIOUS COSTS: The

STAGE DEFINITION CASE STUDY CITIES

0 No substantial planning. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

▪▪ No e-buses have been tested by the transit agency/operator.

▪▪ The city is at or approaching its long-term e-bus target.

How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide 13

How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide 15

Figure 3 | Progress of E-Bus Adoption in Shenzhen

Joined the Thousands of Vehicles, Tens of Pilot Cities (TVTC) project

Adopted the first electric bus fleet

4,877 electric buses were adopted

Targeted 100% electric buses by end of 2017

How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide 17

Source: Lu et al. 2018.

Although electric vehicle–related subsidies FAME Scheme in India

BUS INCENTIVE LEVEL 1 INCENTIVE LEVEL 2

CITY/ NUMBER OF DRIVING KEY PLAYERS FINANCING

Pune 500 electric Technology State government Not known yet

Kerala 10 in various Technology State government Gross cost contract model

How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide 19

Table 4 | Question Template for Initial Analysis of Electric Bus Adoption

KEY QUESTIONS THINGS TO CONSIDER

How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide 21

Cost Output Emissions Output

Source: Cooper et al. 2019.

Source: Cooper et al. 2019.

Identify stakeholders experts in sectors such as transportation, electricity,

How to Enable Electric Bus Adoption in Cities Worldwide 25

City leaders Utility companies

Primary Stakeholders Secondary Stakeholders Tertiary Stakeholders

Table 6 | Potential Funding and Financing Mechanisms to