Module 17

Faculty of Transport Engineering Technologies
School of Aeronautical Engineering
Module 17 Propellers
These notes are intended for training guidance only and are not to be used as an authoritative
document for use in the civil aviation industry. In all cases, reference must always be made to
the current documents for the most up to date information.
Amendment and Annual Review Record
Amendment Incorporated Date Annual Completed by Date

No by Review
2011 C Gibson 01 Sept 2011
2012
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2014
2015
2016
2017
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2019
2020
2021
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2024
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Table of Contents 17.3.1 Speed Control and Pitch Change Methods _________ 44
Table of Contents____________________________________ 3 17.3.2 Feathering and Reverse Pitch ___________________ 63
Summary __________________________________________ 4 17.3.2 FEATHERING AND REVERSE PITCH _______________ 80

17.3.3 Overspeed Protection _________________________ 83
Introduction ________________________________________ 4
17.4 PROPELLER SYNCHRONISING ___________________ 86
17.1 FUNDAMENTALS ______________________________ 6
17.1.1 Blade Element Theory _________________________ 9 17.5 Propeller Ice Protection ________________________ 92
17.1.2 Angle of attack, rotational speed. High/Low/Reverse 17.6 PROPELLER MAINTENANCE _____________________ 99
blade angle__________________________________________ 12 17.6.1 Static and Dynamic Balancing ___________________ 99
17.1.3 Propeller Slip _______________________________ 14 17.6.2 Blade Tracking ______________________________ 103
17.1.4 Aerodynamic, Centrifugal and Thrust Forces ______ 15 17.6.3 Assessment of Blade Damage, Erosion, Corrosion,
17.1.5 Propeller Torque. ____________________________ 19 Impact Damage, Delamination. _________________________ 105
17.1.6 Relative airflow on blade angle of attack. ________ 22 17.6.4 Propeller Treatment / Repair Schemes __________ 107
17.1.7 Vibration and Resonance ______________________ 24 17.6.5 Propeller Engine Running _____________________ 111
17.2 PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION ______________________ 26 17.7 Propeller Storage and Preservation _____________ 116
17.2.1 Construction Methods ________________________ 27 17.7.1 Preservation and De-preservation ______________ 116
17.2.2 Blade Station, Blade Face, Blade Shank, Blade Back and
Hub Assembly _______________________________________ 34
17.2.3 Fixed pitch, Controllable Pitch, Constant Speed
Propellers __________________________________________ 34
17.2.4 Propeller and Spinner Installation _______________ 37
17.3 Propeller Pitch Control ________________________ 42
EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 3 of 117

Summary
These Notes are designed to present the information necessary
to the Aircraft Maintenance Engineering Student to give a
general understanding of the theory, operation and
maintenance of aircraft propellers in use today, to assist the
student in obtaining an EASA Part66 Aircraft Maintenance
Engineers Licence. The information used may be of specific
propeller systems, but are used to give a general understanding
of propeller systems, including their design, and methods of
operation applicable to all propeller systems as a whole.
The information contained herein is for instructional purposes

only and is not to be used as a substitute for manufacturer’s
maintenance and repair manuals, service bulletins and other
operational publications.
The format used is based on EASA Regulation (EC) No

2042/2003 ANNEX III, (Part-66), Appendix I, Basic knowledge
requirements, Module 17. Propeller. Fig.1.1. Early propeller design of the 1870’s the
blades made of a wooden frame, covered with fabric
and braced with wires.
Introduction
It goes without saying that; all aircraft require some method, or
device to propel it through the air. Such a device must be able
to develop and maintain sufficient forwards thrust to the aircraft
to sustain controllable flight. Practically all early aircraft designs
used some form of propeller driven by an engine. These Fig.1.2. Early two-bladed wooden propeller similar to
designs were simply wooden-framed paddles covered in fabric the Wright Brothers design.
and wire-braced, which pushed air rearwards. (Fig.1.1.)

As the science of Aerodynamics evolved in wing design with the

development of the Aerofoil, the same principle was applied to The basic aerodynamic principles of the propeller has changed
propeller design using the aerodynamic action which produces very little but with modern understanding of aerodynamics and
lift on a wing now produces Thrust to pull the aircraft forwards. technological research in composite materials and construction
These propellers were very inefficient at converting engine methods the modern propeller has become a very efficient, and
power into forwards thrust and rarely achieved more than 50% complex, high powered, thrust generator, which requires careful
efficiency. Modern designs are usually around 80% efficient and and precise inspection and maintenance.
newer research developments of propellers are in the region of
95% efficient.
Fig. 1.3. Latest research and development Thrust

Generator.

17.1 FUNDAMENTALS
The purpose of a propeller is to convert the rotary brake

horsepower developed by the engine into a directional linear
force called 'Thrust'. This force must be equal to and opposite
in direction to 'Drag' in order for the aircraft to remain in level
flight without acceleration or decelerating.
Aircraft propellers, whether powered by reciprocating piston
engines or turbine engines (Turboprop), accelerate a large
mass of air through a small velocity change, as opposed to
the turbojet, which accelerates a small quantity of air through a
large velocity change.
Fig. 1.4. Thrust generation differences between

propeller and Jet.

A propeller usually consists of two or more aerofoil shaped

blades attached to a central hub assembly which is mounted on
the crankshaft of an engine
There are two types of propeller: Fixed Pitch propellers made
of laminated wood (Fig.1.5.) aluminium or steel designs.
(Fig.1.6.) and Variable Pitch propellers of more complex Fig.1.6. Fixed pitch metal propeller design
design. (Fig. 1.7.)
Wooden propeller are made up of several layers of wood Variable pitch (VP) propellers can be classified as:-
(usually Birch) bonded together with a waterproof resin
Ground adjustable, Two-position, or Controllable-pitch.
adhesive. It is allowed to set for at least one week, as distortion
occurs during this drying period. Only then can it be formed and (VP propellers will be explained later in the Notes)
shapes to the desired pitch angles.
Fig.1.5. Fixed pitch laminated wood propeller design.
Aluminium propellers are the most commonly used types. They

are stronger, more efficient, resist wear and require less
maintenance than wooden propellers.
Fixed pitch aluminium alloy propellers are of one-piece
construction. They are machines and ground to the desired
shape, and then twisted to obtain the correct pitch and blade
angles throughout each of the blades length.
Fig.1.7. Variable Pitch propeller design

Propellers can be installed in several configurations: that of a propeller, albeit in a vastly different form to the Wright Brothers'
'tractor' in which the propeller is mounted forward of the model, will be around for many years to come.
engine, and 'pusher' in which the propeller is mounted aft of
The development of variable pitch propellers is dealt with in
the engine. (Fig. 1.8.)
depth in a later section.
Fig.1.8. Tractor and Pusher Propeller installations.
Increase in power output has resulted in the development of

four and six bladed units, but there is a limit to R.P.M. and
efficiency, generally accepted to be approximately 500 mph.
However, recent advances in computer design, composite
materials and blade aerodynamics, plus the continued
development of the fan engines, do seem to indicate that the

17.1.1 Blade Element Theory

Although the propeller blade is of Aerofoil section there are
The cross section of a propeller blade is similar to that of an some changes in terminology and the forces produced as it
aerofoil and it will behave in a similar manner when moving moves through the air are roughly equivalent to the forces of lift
through the air. As the blade is rotating as well as moving and drag produced by an aircraft wing. These forces are called
forward, the blade will meet the air at a positive angle of attack, thrust and torque and are shown in comparison with a wing
usually between 2° and 4°. This will produce 'lift' which acts aerofoil in Fig. 1.9.
along the axis of rotation of the engine, thus causing forward
movement of the airframe as a result of thrust. The blades can
be thought of as rotating wings in essence. The amount of
thrust produced is determined by five factors: i.e. Blade
shape, Aerofoil surface area, Angle of attack, Air density,
and the speed the aerofoil moves through the air. Newton's Second Law states that Force = Mass 
Acceleration and Thrust being a force, the same expression
applies, being equal to the mass of air handled and the speed of
the slipstream, less the speed of the aeroplane. Therefore, the
power expended in producing thrust depends on the mass of air
moved per second. On average, thrust constitutes 80% of the
total horsepower absorbed by the propeller (torque). The other
20% is lost in friction and slippage. For any constant speed of
rotation, the horsepower absorbed by the propeller balances the
horsepower delivered by the engine.
Fig.1.9. Comparison of Forces on an Aerofoil and

Propeller Blade.

Blade Terminology.
It is important to know and understand the terminology used to

describe the parts of the propeller.
Angle of Attack - The acute angle between the cord line of a

propeller blade section and the relative airflow. It is affected by
both the engine RPM and aircraft forward speed.
Axis of Rotation - The centre-line about which the propeller

rotates.
Back - ref; Propeller Blade. Also known as;- Blade Camber.-

The curved surface of the propeller blade. This corresponds to
the upper surface of an aircraft wing.
Blade - One arm of the propeller from the hub to the tip.
Blade or Pitch Angle - The angle between the blade cord line
and the plane of rotation.
Blade Reference line.- A position marked on the thrust face of

Fig.1.10. Airflow’s due to Rotating Blade. each blade where the blade angles are measured from.
Blade Station.- A distance measured from the centre of the hub

along the blade length usually in inches or centimetres.
Blade Twist – The reduction in pitch angle from blade shank to

blade tip to ensure uniform thrust along the blade length.
Boss - The centre portion of a fixed pitch propeller.

Butt - The base of the blade for the attachment to the hub.
Cord Line.- An imaginary line extending from the tip of the

leading edge of the blade to the trailing edge.
Face - The flat or thrust side of the blade corresponding to the

lower surface of an aircraft wing.
Hub - The centre of the propeller which is attached to the

engine and carries the blades and blade rotating mechanism.
Leading Edge - The most forward edge of the propeller blade.
Plane of Rotation - The plane in which the propeller rotates

and is 90° to the crankshaft centre line.
Shank – The lower part of the blade which carries all the loads
and forms the attachment to the hub assembly via the butt.
Fig.1.12. Blade terminology and Station reference
Fig.1.11. Propeller blade terminology

17.1.2 Angle of Attack, Rotational Speed, When the propeller is rotated through one revolution, the blade
High/Low/Reverse Blade Angle tip (90 STA.) will travel a further distance than the blade shank,
(30 STA.). which means the tip speed is 3 times greater than
As with any aerofoil section, the angle of attack (AoA) which blade shank speed. Therefore, to maintain an even amount of
gives the best lift/drag ratio (thrust/drag ratio for a propeller) is thrust along the whole length of the blade it must be
between 2 and 4 degrees. With a wing aerofoil at a fixed AoA, proportionally twisted to a smaller blade angle (pitch angle)
lift is increased with an increase in forward speed; therefore, to towards the tip. This is called; Blade Twist
maintain a given altitude we have to reduce the AoA. The same
principle applies to a propeller. As we increase the RPM, so
thrust will increase.
Fig.1. 13. Comparative distance and speed each blade Fig. 1.14. Blade Twist to compensate for varying blade
section travels at a given RPM section speed.

Blade Twist With a fixed-pitch propeller, the amount of air propelled

rearwards at a given propeller RPM will produce a specific
Blade twist is best understood by considering the requirement amount of thrust, and therefore, a given aircraft speed, the
for each section of the blade to produce an equal amount of same as a car with only one gear. A low pitch (low gear) will
thrust and to advance the same distance in one revolution. give good acceleration from a standing start, (Take-off) or
Ensuring that the angle of attack remains constant along the climbing a steep hill, (steady climb) but unable to reach a
total length of the blade is a major factor in achieving this. reasonable cruise speed without over-revving the engine! We
For a single revolution of the propeller, the amount of air need a higher blade pitch to give us a higher cruise speed (a
handled depends on the bite of air a propeller takes. Therefore higher gear on the car). But this will mean poorer acceleration
the blade angle is a means of adjusting the load on the propeller and climb speed! The same as driving off in a car in fourth gear!
to control the engine R.P.M. For this reason, Fixed-pitch propellers are usually found on light
single-engine aircraft.
The operational performance of propellers is based on

aerodynamic principles at sub-sonic speeds only. Therefore, the
maximum rotational speed of a propeller is limited to the blade
“tip speed”. (The larger the propeller diameter, the lower the
maximum RPM)
To get the optimum performance out of a propeller, the blade

pitch (Angle of attack) needs to be variable to suit the flight
conditions, i.e. Take-off, Climb, Cruise, Descent, Landing.
A low A of A is required for Take-off and Climb . A high A of A

for Cruise and .Descent. A reverse pitch for braking on Landing,
and a feathered position for In-flight engine failure to prevent
excessive drag and engine rotation.
Fig.1.15. Path of blade section showing variation in

Blade Angle

With zero angle of attack the thrust is zero.
Fig.1.16. The four primary, blade angle settings of a variable

pitch propeller.
Fig.1.17. Propeller Slip
17.1.3 Propeller Slip
 Geometric Pitch. The distance the propeller would

move forward in one direction without slip.
 Advance Per Revolution. (Effective Pitch) The actual
distance moved forward in one revolution. It is not a
fixed quantity, depending upon the aircraft speed and
propeller RPM.
 Slip. The difference between the geometric pitch and
the advance per revolution expressed as a percentage.
Geometric Pitch - Advance / Rev

Slip = Geometric Pitch  100

17.1.4 Aerodynamic, Centrifugal and Thrust Forces
Blade Forces
A propeller has to be capable of withstanding severe stresses
which are greater near the hub and are caused by centrifugal
forces and thrust. The force tending to through the blade from
the hub is often as much as 22 tons. The stresses increase in
proportion to the R.P.M. The blade face is also subjected to
tension from the centrifugal force and additional tension from
the bending. For these reasons, nicks or scratches on the
blade can cause failure linked with stress corrosion.
Blade Rigidity
A propeller must also be rigid enough to prevent flutter, a type
of vibration in which the ends of the blade twist back and forth at
high frequency around an axis perpendicular to the engine
crankshaft. Flutter is often accompanied by a distinctive noise
frequently mistaken for exhaust noise. The constant vibration
tends to weaken the blade and may eventually cause failure.
Fig.1.18. Effective Pitch
Thrust
Thrust; is the component acting at right angles to the plane
of rotation.
The thrust on the propeller causes it to be subjected to bending
stressed.
Torque; is the component acting in the plane of rotation
opposing engine torque and is the resistance offered by the
propeller to being rotated.

The value of the thrust and torque depends on air density,

blade angle of attack and R.P.M. The thrust on the propeller
causes it to be subjected to bending stressed.
Forces Acting on Propeller Blades
Bending - Due to thrust and torque forces on the

blade.
Centrifugal - Caused by the propeller blade mass
rotating at high speeds.
Torsion - Due to the affects of CTM and ATM and
pitch change loads
Fig.1.19. Forces acting on the propeller.

The aerodynamic of the propeller can most easily be Disc Area. The area of the circle described by the propeller
understood if the action of the propeller is considered. The blade tips.
motion is both rotational and forward, and as far as the
forces are concerned, the result is the same as if the blade
were stationery and the air were coming at it from a direction Blade Path. The path followed by the propeller blade in flight.
opposite its path. The air deflection produced by this angle The direction of the blade path is determined by
causes the dynamic pressure at the engine side of the the components of AC FWD speed and propeller
propeller blade (the blade face) to be greater, thus rotation and will determine the direction of the
producing thrust. The combined forces which produce relative airflow.
thrust are shown below.
Air Density Angle of Attack

Increased air density produces An increase in Angle of Attack will
increased Thrust. produce more Thrust and Torque
(Lift = CL ½V2S) up to the stalling angle.
Denser air offers greater The optimum Angle of Attack will
resistance to the propeller give the best Thrust / Torque
i.e. Increased Torque. Ratio.
Fig.1.20. Forces acting on a propeller

Propeller Speed (R.P.M.)
Thrust and Torque will alter

directly with the speed of
rotation.

ATM. Aerodynamic Turning Moment. CTM. Centrifugal Twisting Moment.

These are moments on the blades of a propeller when rotating,
These are weaker forces than CTM which normally act in the
which due to centrifugal force, tend to turn the blades into fine
opposition, trying to turn the blades to coarse pitch.
pitch.
Fig.1.21. ATM Effect on a blade
The blade's centre of pressure is forward of the pitch change Fig.1.22. CTM Effect on a blade.
axis and the moment of the resultant force turns the blade to
coarse pitch.
ATM acts with CTM to fine the off the blades only when the
propeller is windmilling
In reverse pitch the ATM will turn the blade to a coarser

negative blade angle.
Fig.1.23. Illustration showing CTM as the stronger moment

17.1.5 Propeller Torque.
Propeller torque is produced by the aerodynamic drag on the

blades when in motion. It acts in the plane of rotation and
opposes engine torque.
When propeller torque and engine torque are equal the

propeller will rotate at constant speed.
Thrust and Torque values developed by the propeller depend
on the angle of attack, the R.P.M. and air density. As air
density increases so will thrust, but as increased resistance is
felt by the propeller, torque will also increase. Thrust and
torque will alter in direct proportion to propeller speed and any
increase in the angle of attack (below stalling speed) will
produce more thrust and torque. There is an optimum angle of
attack for all propellers, usually about 4.
Fig.1.24. Air drag equal and opposite reaction to rotation.

Other effects on a Propeller
 Gyroscopic Precession (GP)
A spinning propeller (also the engine crankshaft, rotating

assembly and reduction gearing) acts as a gyroscope, which
tends to initially resist any forces attempting to change its axis
of rotation. (Coriolis Effect) If such a force persists or is strong
enough, the spinning prop will NOT be deflected in the direction
the force is applied, but in a direction 90 degrees further around
its rotation.
Example: If the control column is pulled back to establish a

climb, the bottom of the propeller disc is pushed forward. If the
propeller rotation is clockwise (as viewed from the cockpit) the
force will be effected 90 degrees further around in the direction
of rotation, i.e. on the Left-hand side of the prop disk. This will
result in the prop disk deflecting to the Right! causing the
aircraft to yew to the Right.
Fig. 1.25. Gyroscopic Effect on Propeller.

 Slipstream Effect:-  Asymmetric Effect.

In passing through the propeller the air is accelerated and In general the axis of the propeller will be inclined upwards
given a rotational velocity. to the direction of flight due to the angle of attack of the
The parts of the aircraft that are in the propeller slipstream will aircraft.
therefore have higher speed air passing over them than the
parts outside the slipstream. The drag of these parts will This causes the down-moving blade to have a greater effective
therefore be higher, and the effectiveness of any control angle of attack than the up-going blade and therefore to develop
surfaces in the slipstream will be greater. The rotation given to a greater thrust.
the slipstream will cause it to meet the fin at an angle and so
cause a yawing moment.
Fig.1.27. Asymmetric Effect causing yaw.
The difference in thrust on the two sides of the propeller disc

causes a yawing moment. For a right hand propeller in a nose-
up attitude the yaw will be to the left. A similar effect can occur if
the aeroplane is flying yawed, the asymmetry of the thrust
causing a pitching moment is this case.
Fig. 1.26. Slipstream effect causing yaw.
This effect may be corrected by offsetting the fin or trimming the

rudder. The amount of rotation given to the air will depend on
the torque torque of the propeller, and so the yawing moment
will depend on the power setting.

17.1.6 Relative airflow on blade angle of attack.
A fixed blade angle will only be efficient at one

combination of airspeed and RPM.
During take-off the angle of attack will be large because
the airspeed is low with a high RPM.
With the blades nearly stalled, the acceleration is poor and
a long take off run is required.
At cruise conditions the angle of attack is small and the
forward speed is limited to prevent an engine Overspeed.
The fixed pitch propeller has to compromise to improve

take off performance by reducing the cruise performance.
Fig.1.28. A of A change between up-going and down-
going blades
 Solidity. Is the ratio of total blade area to the disc

area, the greater the solidity the more power can be
absorbed by the propeller.

Fig. 1.29. Disadvantages of a Fixed Pitch Propeller

17.1.7 Vibration and Resonance
When the propeller is producing thrust, aerodynamic and

mechanical forces are present which cause the blades to
vibrate. If this is not compensated for, excessive flexing and
work-hardening of the metal can cause fatigue and the
formation of cracks, resulting in blade failure.
Fig. 1.30. Engine power impulses causing propeller
Aerodynamic forces have the greatest vibration effect at the vibration.
tips of the blade where the effects of transonic speeds cause
buffeting and vibration. This may be reduced by careful
selection of the aerofoil and tip shape during the design stage. Most Airframe-engine-propeller combinations have no problem
in eliminating these vibration stresses. However, some airframe-
Mechanical vibrations are generated by the power impulses in engine-propeller combinations are sensitive to certain RPM
a piston engine and are considered to be more destructive in ranges. Such combination have this Critical Range indicated
their effect than aerodynamic vibration (such impulses are on the RPM gauge by a Red arc. The engine should not be
eliminated in a turbo-prop installation) . These impulses cause operated in this range except in passing through it to a higher or
the blade to vibrate and set up standing wave patterns that lower RPM setting.
cause fatigue and eventual blade failure. The location and
number of stress points changes at different RPM settings, the There are two sources of propeller-induced vibration;
most critical being about 6 inches from the tip of the blade.
 Those caused by an out-of-track condition.
 Those caused by an out-of-balance condition.
This will be discussed in detail in Section 6 later.

Propeller Efficiency work down by propeller

Propeller efficiency = work down by engine  100
Since the discovery of the jet engine in the late 1940’s, the The drag on an aircraft travelling at 300ft/sec is 1100 lbs and if
propeller has been replaced by jet propulsion for modern high the engine produces 750 Shaft Horsepower the propeller
speed, high altitude flight, however, propeller will still be with us efficiency is as follows:
for many years to come, especially for short-haul, low altitude
flight up to about 450 knots. Up to this speed, propellers are Work = Force  Distance
more efficient than turbo-fan or turbo-jet engines.
Drag = Thrust (in level flight)
Work Done by Propeller / Sec = Thrust  Speed

= 1100  300 ft lbs
Work Done by Engine = HP / Sec

= 750  550 ft lbs (1
HP)
1100  300
Propeller Efficiency =  100 =
750  550
80%
Note that if the aircraft is stationary with engine running, thrust

is produced, but as there is no forward movement, propeller
efficiency is zero. At high forward speeds the slip could be
The propeller is 80 - 87% efficient up to approximately 400 mph. zero, i.e. no angle of attack, therefore no thrust. With no thrust
Generally, beyond this performance will fall off, although new the propeller efficiency is zero.
materials and improved blade technology are tending to When power is changed into thrust, the drag (or torque) created
increase efficiency. by the propeller limits engine speed. To be efficient, obviously
This efficiency can be expressed as followed: the propeller should absorb all the power available. This is

achieved by making a compromised design as power 17.2 PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION

absorption creates limitations.
Propeller design with regard to diameter, number of blades and Propellers are classified according to the:-
blade shape is governed by the power to be absorbed. The tip
speed must not approach the speed of sound or efficiency will  Material they are made.
be lost; this limits the propeller diameter. Aircraft design also  Number of blades.
limits propeller design. Low slung engines mounted close to the  Method of pitch change. ( Fixed, Adjustable, Two-speed,
fuselage require small diameter propellers; larger propellers Variable, etc.).
require a longer undercarriage.
Materials, of early propellers were made of laminated
Other factors are:- Diameter, Blade Angle, Chord, Change of hardwoods, the most common being of fixed pitch. (Although,
Angle of Attack, Camber of Aerofoil. there are a few adjustable-pitch wooden propellers installed on
In higher powered engines, a reduction gear is usually fitted. some older aircraft.) As engines became more powerful,
This allows the engine to run at its most efficient speed while requiring larger diameter propellers to generate larger amounts
allowing the propeller to turn at its most efficient speed. of thrust, the limitations of wood were exceeded and metal
propellers became widely used to absorb the power. Most were
made of forged aluminium alloys, This material is still the most
commonly used today. Some older large transport and vintage
aircraft had steel blades installed.
The blades of modern, high powered turbo-prop aircraft are now

made of composite materials, which are far stronger, and much
lighter than metal propellers. Although they are more expensive
to produce, they are more efficient than metal propellers, have a
longer operational life, and require less maintenance as a
general rule.

17.2.1 Construction Methods

The Number of blades, is primarily dependant on;-
Wooden Propellers,
 the amount of power (Thrust) the propeller must deliver
and, Are found on older, single-engine aircraft and on some modern
 The overall diameter of the propeller, which is limited by VLA (Very Light Aircraft).
the ground clearance and the tip speed.
Wooden propellers are made up from laminations of carefully
Two bladed propellers are generally more efficient than multi- selected hard-woods, bonded together with a waterproof resin
bladed propellers, especially the smaller diameter propellers glue. The most commonly used woods are; birch, cherry,
which can operate at a higher RPM. The blade path of smaller mahogany, oak, and black walnut. Of these, Kiln-dried birch is
multi-bladed propellers tend to interfere with each other by the most frequently used. Most have a natural wood finish, but
disrupting the airflow on the preceding blade at high propeller some designs having a black or grey plastic coating for overall
speeds, especially during the take-off run after releasing the protection.
brakes, with small pitch angles. (Low A of A)
Multi-bladed propellers are more efficient with larger diameters A minimum of five layers or planks, of the same thickness and
and slower operating RPM. type of wood are used. The laminated assembly, when cured, is
called a “Blank”
Pitch Change methods, are required because, as was
discussed earlier, a fixed-pitch propeller is only efficient at a
given engine RPM and forward aircraft speed.

place with solder. This “Tipping” is to protect the wood against

erosion and small stone damage. Small drain holes are drilled in
the tips to release moisture from the propeller and allow the
wood to breath.
Finally, the propeller is balanced and the final coat of varnish or

plastic coating is applied.
Fig.2.1. Three main stages of wood propeller manufacture.
During fabrication the blank is roughly shaped and allowed to

set for at least a week to allow equal distribution of moisture
through all the layers. The roughly shaped blank is now called a
“White”.
The White is then machined to the desired aerofoil shape and

pitch angle. During this process, the hub is centre-bored and the
attach bolt holes are drilled.
Normally, a fabric sheath is installed over the tips to reinforce Fig.2.2. Wooden propeller being manufactured.
them against splitting. A thin strip of brass, stainless steel or
Monel is installed along the whole leading edge and tip, and
attached with countersunk screws on the thick part of the blade,
and by copper rivets on the thin tip section. They are safetied in

Metal Propellers
Most metal propellers have forged aluminium alloy blades

protected from corrosion by anodising and often further
protected by polyurethane enamel.
Steel Blades
Solid steel blades:- A few older aircraft types have propellers
with solid steel blades. These are forged and machined to the
desired contours and the required pitch angles are achieved by
twisting the blades throughout its length.
Hollow steel blades:- Some earlier metal propellers were

made of sheet steel, stamped in two halves with ribs attached
and brazed together along the leading and trailing edges. This
shell was then installed over a tubular steel shank to mount onto
a propeller hub. The outer section was filled with foam material
to absorb vibration and maintain a rigid structure.
Steel blade propellers are found on antique and older transport

aircraft. They are more durable than laminated wood propellers
and resist damage more readily. However, they are heavy and
therefore the centrifugal forces are great which limits their
operation to a lower maximum RPM range.
Fig.2.2. Hollow steel blade construction

Aluminium Blades Larger, Variable Pitch (VP) aluminium alloy blades are
manufactured by a similar process. The main differences being
Aluminium propellers are more desirable than wood as thinner, a thick shank is formed to withstand the greater forces imposed
more efficient aerofoil sections can be used without reducing on the blade. A shoulder is also formed to mount the bearing
strength. The aerofoil section can be carried closer to the hub race between the blade and hub.
for better engine cooling on piston engine aircraft. They also
require less maintenance than wooden propellers. Some larger propellers have the blade tips cropped to improve
ground clearance and allow higher RPM operation.
They are made of forged aluminium alloys which can withstand
reasonable bending impact without fracture. (e.g. tip contact
with the ground). The desired shaping, aerofoil contours are
carried out by machining and manual grinding. The pitch angles
are then set by twisting the blades to the desired blade angles.
Balancing is checked and adjusted by removing metal from the
tips to adjust for horizontal balancing and the leading or
trailing edges, or the boss for vertical balancing.
Fig.2.4. Typical VP, Aluminium alloy blade.
These blades can be mounted to form either twin, three, four, or

even five blade propellers, mounted in a central hub assembly
attached to the engine.
Fig.2.3. Fixed-pitch Aluminium alloy propeller
The propeller surfaces are finally finished by either; anodising,

plating, chemical etching, before painting.

fibres most generally used are glass, graphite, and aramid

(Kevlar™), and the matrix is a thermosetting resin such as
epoxy.
The strength and stiffness of the blades are determined by the
material, diameter, and orientation of the fibres. The matrix
material supports the fibres, holds them in place, and
completely encapsulates them to protect them from the
environment.
Because the fibres have strength only parallel to their length,
they are laid up in such a way that they are placed under tensile
loads.
The typical Hartzell composite propeller, like that in the diagram
below, has a machined aluminium alloy shank, and moulded
into this shank is a low-density foam core. Slots are cut into the
foam core and unidirectional Kelvar shear webs are inserted.
Fig.2.5. Typical VP Hub Assemblies
Composite Propellers
Laminated wood, forged aluminium alloy, and brazed sheet

steel propellers have been the standard for decades. But the
powerful turbopropeller engines and the demands for higher-
speed flight and quieter operation have caused propeller
manufacturers to exploit the advantages of modern advanced Fig.2.6. Cross section of a Hartzell composite propeller
composite materials. blade.
The Composite material used in propeller manufacturing
consists of two constituents; the fibres and the matrix. The

The leading and trailing edges are made of solid sections of

unidirectional Kevlar, and laminations of prepreg material are
cut and laid up over the core foundation to provide the correct
blade thickness, aerofoil shape, pitch distribution, plan- form,
and ply orientation. The outer shell is held in place on the
aluminium alloy shank by Kevlar filaments impregnated with
epoxy resin wound around the portion of the shell that grips the
shank.
Fig.2.7. Plan view of Hartzell composite blade.

Fig.2.8. Blade retention on a Hartzell blade.
Some Hartzell blades have a stainless steel mesh under the

final layer of Kevlar to protect against abrasion, and a nickel
leading edge erosion shield is bonded in place.
The entire blade is put into a blade press and cured under
computer-controlled heat and pressure.

Another Composite blade design is the Hamilton-Standard The Dowty Rotor blade is secured in the hub by expanding the
blade has tremendous strength and fatigue resistance because carbon fibres spars with tapered glass fibre wedges and locking
of its solid aluminium alloy spar enclosed in a glass fibre shell. them between the inner and outer sleeves (see diagrams
below).
The spar is machined to its correct configuration and placed in a
mould cavity, and the core foam is injected around it. The foam
is cured and is removed from the mould. Glass fibre cloth, with
Composite propeller blades are much lighter than metal blades
the correct number of plies and the proper ply orientation, is
capable of absorbing the same amount of power. The lighter
then laid up over the cured core. The complete lay-up is then
blades impose less centrifugal loading on the hub, allowing it to
placed in a second mould that has the shape of the finished
be made lighter. Composite blades have very low notch
blade. The resin matrix is injected to impregnate all the fibres,
sensitivity, and their foam cores absorb much of the vibration
and is cured with heat and pressure.
that would damage metal propellers. While composite blades
currently cost more than metal blades, their greater efficiency
and longer life make them much more cost effective.
The Dowty Rotor composite propeller blade has two carbon

fibre spars that run the length of the blade on both the face and
back and come smoothly together at the blade root. The carbon
fibres and pre-impregnated glass fibre cloth are laid up with the
proper number of plies and in the correct ply orientation and are
placed in a mould. Polyurethane foam is injected into the inside
of the blade, and the entire unit is cured under head and
pressure.

17.2.2 Blade Station, Blade Face, Blade Shank, Blade

Back and Hub Assembly
Blade terminology is explained in Section 1.2..
17.2.3 Fixed pitch, Controllable Pitch, Constant Speed

Propellers
Fixed Pitch Propellers

A fixed blade angle will only be efficient at one combination of
airspeed and RPM, similar to a car having only one gear.
During take-off the angle of attack will be large because the
airspeed is low with a high RPM.
With the blades nearly stalled, the acceleration is poor and a
long take off run is required.
At cruise conditions the angle of attack is small and the forward
speed is limited to prevent an engine over-speeding.
The fixed pitch propeller has to compromise to improve take off
performance by reducing the cruise performance and vice versa
.
Ground Adjustable Pitch Propellers
This type is no longer used today. However, there are still a few
old aircraft still flying with this type installed.
The blades of this type of propeller can be rotated in the hub
and clamped at the desired blade angle, but this operation can
only be carried out on the ground by an engineer.

Controllable Pitch Propellers. Two pitch propeller

On these propellers, the blade pitch can be changed in flight by
the pilot, to either fine pitch for take-off, and when cruise altitude To improve the propeller performance a two pitch propeller was
has been reached, coarse pitch can be selected by the pilot, evolved, it enabled two blade angles to be selected.
similar to a car with two gears. (a 1st gear and a 4th or top gear)
For take-off and climb a low blade angle or Fine Pitch is used.
For cruise a large blade angle or Coarse Pitch is selected.
This improves the performance in both conditions as the angle
of attack is near the optimum for take-off and cruise. The Two
Pitch propeller is limited as it behaves like a fixed pitch propeller
once the selections are made
.

Constant Speeding Propeller
The definition of a Constant Speeding propeller is 'A propeller,

the pitch setting of which varies automatically to maintain a
preselected constant rotational speed'.
The variable pitch propeller overcomes the disadvantages of the
fixed and two pitch propellers by maintaining the best propeller
speed to suit the engine power output. The Propeller Control
Unit (PCU) or Constant Speed Unit (CSU) maintains the
selected RPM through all changes in flight conditions without
any assistance from the pilot, it will automatically select the
optimum angle of attack for the propeller blades at all times.
Other facilities will be incorporated into the mechanism to
enable 'feathering' and ‘power on braking’.

17.2.4 Propeller and Spinner Installation
Propeller shafts
Flanged Shaft Installation.
Most modern engines, both reciprocating and turbine, have

flanged crank-shafts or propeller shafts. Some of these flanges
have integral internally threaded bushings that fit into
counterbores in the rear of the propeller hub around each bolt
hole. Propellers with these bushings are attached to the shaft
with long bolts that pass through the propeller. A stub shaft, or
pilot spiggot, fits into the centre bore of the propeller to centre it
on the shaft. The diagram below shows a cross section of the
flanged crankshaft of a direct-propeller reciprocating engine.
Notice that this shaft is fitted for a fixed-pitch propeller. If a
constant speed propeller were installed, the expansion plug in
the end of the shaft would be removed so propeller control oil
from the governor could flow into and out of the propeller.

Fig.2.4.1. Propeller flange on the crankshaft of a direct-

drive piston engine Fig.2.4.2. Typical flanged propeller shaft for a Turbo-prop
engine.
Some engines have index pins in the propeller flange so the

propeller can be installed in only one position relative to the
crankshaft.

Tapered Shaft Installation. Splined-Shaft Installation.

These are found on older, low powered, piston engines The most popular type of propeller shaft on reciprocating
designs. The fit of the hub on the crankshaft should be checked engines built through World War II and on the larger turboprop
using Prussian Blue transfer ink. A thin coat is applied to the engines is the splined shaft. The sizes of splined shafts are
shaft. With the key and propeller installed the retainer nut is identified by an SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) number,
removed. The ink transfer should indicate at least 70% contact SAE 20 splines are used on engines in the 200-horsepowered
area. When this is achieved, clean the shaft and apply oil or range; SAE 30 splines are used in the 300- and 400-
anti-seize compound. Install keyway, then propeller and horsepowered range, and SAE 40 in the 500- and 600-
retaining nut to correct torque value and locking mechanism. horsepowered range. SAE 50 in the 1,000-horsepowered range
and SAW 60 and 70 are used for larger engines.
Splines are longitudinal

grooves cut in the
periphery of the shaft.
The grooves and lands
(the space between the
grooves) are the same
size, and one groove is
either missing or has a
screw in it to form a
master spine. The
purpose of the master
spline is to ensure the
propeller's correct
installation in relation to the throws of the crankshaft. This
orientation is critical to minimise vibration.
Fig.2.4.3. Tapered Crankshaft

Fig.2.4.4. Splined propeller shaft.

Fig.2.4.5. Front and rear propeller mounting cones.
The inside of the propeller hub is splined to match the shaft and
the hub is centred on the shaft with two cones. The rear cone is
a single-piece split bronze cone, and is considered to be part of
the engine. The front is a two piece hardened steel cone and is
considered to be part of the propeller. The two halves are
marked with the same serial number to ensure that only a
match set is used.
Fig.2.4.6. Correct seating of front and rear cones.

Propeller Spinners
All modern propeller-driven airplanes have spinners over their

propeller hubs. These spinners have the dual aerodynamic
function of streamlining the engine installation and directing cool
air into the openings in the cowling. The diagram below shows
a typical spinner installation over a constant-speed propeller.
The spinner bulkhead is installed on the propeller shaft flange
and held in place by six spinner attaching bolts. The propeller is
then installed so that the dowel pins in the propeller hub align
with the holes in the flange. The propeller attaching nuts are
installed and tightened to the torque value specified in the
airframe maintenance manual.
If a spinner support is required, it is installed and the spinner is

secured to the bulkhead with the proper machine screws
Fig.2.4.7. Constant-speed Propeller Spinner

Installation.

17.3 Propeller Pitch Control
Constant speed propellers use a fixed force to cause an

increase or decrease in blade angle. This force may be
centrifugal force acting on counter-weights, opposed by either a
spring, or CTM on the blades. This force is called a fixed force
because it is always present during engine operation and must
be overcome to cause a change in the blade angle.
The most commonly used variable force to overcome this fixed

force is engine oil pressure. The oil pressure is varied by a
Governor to adjust the blades to the desired pitch angle. This
operation is similar to a two-speed propeller, except that the
blade angle can be adjusted to any angle between the Max
Cruise (Coarse) pitch stop and the Take-off (Fine) pitch stop.
These stops can be over-ridden, either by the pilot, or
Fig.2.4.8. Typical Turbo-prop Spinner Installation automatically, depending on the demand required. i.e. Feather,
Ground fine, Reverse braking.

Fig.3.2. Typical single-engine propeller control.
Blade Range
Fig.3.1. Blade pitch angle range of operation.
Beta Range – Pilot controls the pitch on the ground.
Ground Fine Pitch – Used for disking braking and engine start.
Negative (Reverse) Pitch - Used for power On braking.
Alpha Range – Also known as “Constant Speed range”. The

propeller governor controls the pitch.
Max Fine Pitch – Used for rapid acceleration during take-off.

Allows a shorter take-off run.

Coarse Pitch – Used for high forward speed.
Note:- In the event of engine failure, the propeller will auto-

feather. i.e. pass through Max. Course pitch into
feather.
17.3.1 Speed Control and Pitch Change Methods
Constant Speed Governor (CSU)
The propeller governor is an RPM sensing device which

responds to changes in engine RPM by directing “boosted”
engine oil pressure to one side of a piston. The piston is
connected by various means, to each propeller blade to change
the blades angle in unison. The blade angle changes, and
therefore the RPM is controlled by a “Propeller Pitch Control
lever” in the cockpit.
The propeller governor is mounted either on the forward section

of the crankcase or at the rear of the reduction gearbox and Fig.3.3. Typical propeller governor sectioned view.
provides a constant engine RPM during the propeller governor
mode of operation. The gear driven propeller governor shown pressure is returned to the inlet side of the pump. The flyweights
here is composed of a high pressure integral spur gear, or sense engine speed and compare it with the speed selected by
gyrator pump, sliding metering valve, and a flyweight-type the pilot which is through the tensioning of the speeder spring.
governor. Engine lubricating oil is internally directed to the This opposes flyweight forces. Any in-balance between these
propeller governor oil pump inlet. The oil pressure is boosted forces will move the sliding metering valve up or down to control
through the propeller governor pump to about 450 psi, excess the direction of metered oil pressure. The metered oil flows into
the propeller pitch control and through the oil transfer tube to
route oil pressure into the propeller dome and piston to control
the propeller pitch blade angle.

Note: The synchroniser coil and monopole are part of the Governor Operation
propeller RPM synchronising upturn and will be looked at later
in the notes. Governor (metered)oil pressure is directed through passages to
the pilot valve which fits in the centre of the hollow driveshaft.
The pilot valve can move up and down on the driveshaft
On Speed Condition.:- The centrifugal force of the flyweights

balances the tension force of the speeder spring. The pilot valve
blocks off the metered oil pressure port and the return oil port to
the tank or engine sump. The oil behind the piston dome is now
hydraulically locked, and engine RPM is steady.(Fig.3.5. A)
Under Speed Condition:- If the air load on the propeller

increases, (pilot wishes to climb), the RPM will decrease,
centrifugal force is now less than speeder spring force which will
move the pilot valve down, and the flyweights turn inwards,
(Fig.3.5. B), opening the oil pressure port and allowing oil to
flow to the rear of the dome piston. This moves forwards,
turning the blades to a finer pitch. RPM increases again until
flyweight force and speeder spring force balance each other
again and the governor is “On speed” once more.
Over Speed Condition:- If the air load on the propeller de-

creases, (Pilot wishes to descend), the RPM will increase,
Fig.3.4. Governor installation on a GA aircraft. forcing the flyweights outwards, (Fig.3.5.C), compressing the
speeder spring, which lifts up the pilot valve, dumping the
metered pressure from the pump back to engine sump. At the
same time, opening up the oil return port back to the tank. This
allows oil pressure from the rear of the dome piston to be
released. The dome piston moves rearwards, increasing the
blade pitch angles, until the RPM is “On speed” again.

Pilot Increases RPM:- This increases speeder spring force,

pushing, pushing pilot valve down and allowing oil pressure to
push dome piston forwards, decreasing blade angle and RPM
increases. (Fig.3.6.D)
Pilot Reduces RPM:- This reduces speeder spring force,

flyweights move outwards, lifting pilot valve. This dumps
pressure oil, dome piston moves rearwards and blades go to
coarser pitch, reducing engine RPM. (fig.3.6.E).
Fig.3.6. Pilots Input Selection
Fig.3.5. Governor Speed Control

Pitch Change Methods Strong springs positioned in front of the piston within the dome,
push the pitch-change piston rearwards, turning the blades to
Various pitch change mechanisms are designed by different coarse pitch. Some designs use a lighter spring but charge the
manufactures to suit different propeller installations; the front of the dome with nitrogen to a specified pressure. This
propeller requirements for small General Aviation (GA) piston method makes for a lighter propeller assembly.
engines are very different from that of large piston engine
aircraft. Turbo-propeller engines have even different control Governor oil pressure opposing the spring force, is ducted from
requirements. the governor to the back of the piston through oil passages, the
crankshaft and ducting.
Single-Acting Mechanisms
The governor , which senses both engine (Prop) RPM and also
pilot input from the propeller control lever, regulates the amount
Single Acting Propeller: The governor oil pump directs its of oil flowing to and from the back of the piston. This piston
output against the rear side of piston only, A single acting movement adjusts the blade angle to the desired setting. i.e.
propeller uses a single acting governor. This type of propeller Full, fine pitch for take-off and landing, any angle between flight-
makes use of three forces during constant speed operation, fine and Coarse pitch for climb, cruise and decent.
namely;
When the desired RPM and pitch setting is reached, the
 Counter-balance weights. governor is said to be “On-speed”. In this position, the governor
 Spring force. pilot valve is in the neutral position, blocking off the oil pressure
supply and return ports, which positively holds the blades at a
 Governor oil pressure
fixed angle, until the load on the propeller changes, causing and
increase, or decrease in RPM.
As mentioned previously, CTM tends at all times to move the
blades toward low (fine) pitch. Whereas ATM, being the weaker
This single-acting system work well on smaller powered aircraft,
force, tries to turn the blades towards high (Coarse) pitch. To
but the forces on large commercial aircraft are much greater
balance these forces, counter-balance weights are mounted
and therefore require a more positive method of holding the
on the root of each blade at approximately 90° from the
blades in the require position.
cambered surface, on forwards projecting arms, the forces of
the weights during rotation tend to turn the blades to high
(Coarse) pitch, thereby balancing the dominant CTM forces.

components. This is achieved by some designs such as the

Hamilton-Standard Hydromatic® and Dowty-Rotol propellers
which directing governor oil pressure to both sides of the piston.
When in the “On-speed” condition, the oil on both sides of the
piston is hydraulically locked by the position of the pilot valve.
This type of propeller is normally fitted to larger engine and,

because of engine requirements, is more complicated than the
propellers fitted to smaller engines. Construction is similar to
that of the single acting propeller, the hub supporting the
blades, and the cylinder housing the operation piston. In this
case, however, the cylinder is closed at both ends, and the
piston is moved in both directions by oil pressure. In one type
of mechanism links from the annular piston pass through seals
in the rear end of the cylinder, and are connected to a pin at the
base of each blade. In another type of mechanism, the piston is
connected by means of pins and rollers to a cam track and
bevel gear, the bevel gear matching with a bevel gear segment
at the base of each blade; axial movement of the piston causes
Fig.3.7. Single-acting propeller mechanism rotation of the bevel gear, and alteration of the blade piston
causes rotation of the bevel gear, and alteration of the blade
angle. Operating oil is conveyed to the propeller mechanism
through concentric tubes in the bore of the engine reduction
gear shaft. And another type shown has the blades connected
Double-Acting Mechanisms.
by links to the cylinder which moves with the piston held
stationary
Large, powerful engine/propeller installation requires greater
forces to move and hold the blades in the required pitch
The piston may move in the cylinder or the cylinder may move
settings. Larger, powerful springs could be used, but this will
over the piston, the linear movement being transmitted to the
require more powerful governor pumps to overcome the greater
blades by various linkages to convert it to rotary motion
spring pressure when moving the piston forwards into finer pitch
settings. Also stronger (and therefore heavier) propeller hub and

Fig.3.9. Moving Cylinder design.

Fig.3.8. Moving Piston design
The geared, or Hydromatic, pitch change mechanism utilises a

piston inside a stationary cylinder. The piston is 'U' shaped to
contain a pair of co-axial cylindrical cams. The outer cam is
fixed and the inner is free to turn. This carries a bevel gear
which meshes with bevel gear segments on the blade roots.

(fuel lever) alone would cause RPM to increase or decrease,

but until the Pitch lever is moved no real thrust would be
produced. The same could be said about using the pitch lever
alone. RPM fluctuations can be caused by varying propeller
load, but no real operator of such a system was extremely good,
both levers could be worked simultaneously. This would keep
RPM constant and give useful thrust with power.
Fig.3.10. Geared (Hydromatic) design
Propeller Pitch Control Operation

Before looking at propeller pitch control on Turbo-prop
installations, an understanding of the relationship between the
'Power Lever' and the 'RPM (condition / speed) Lever' with Fig.3.11. Power (fuel) Lever/Condition (prop.) Lever Control
regard to power management control is required. The following
account is for a 'fixed shaft', coupled turbo, propeller.
Rather than depend on the skilful movement of two separate
The function of the power management system is to provide a levers the two functions are incorporated into one lever, the
means for controlling load and power. To do this a basic Power Lever.
system utilising a lever to control power, and separate lever to
control propeller load might be used. Moving the Power lever

Through a system of cams and linkages it will be rigged to give

two modes of operation, 'BETA' mode and 'Prop Governing'
mode.
When the power lever is moved between Flight Idle (FI) and
Reverse (Rev) it will be operating in the BETA mode with the
Propeller Pitch Control (PPC) directly controlling blade angle.
From FI to Max. the propeller governor will adjust blade angle in
response to the fuel flows demanded by the Manual Fuel Valve
(MFV) situated with the Fuel Control Unit (see diagram below).
When the power lever is advanced forward from the flight idle
detent, the propeller pitch control cam will normally hold the
propeller at a fixed pitch. The manual fuel valve cam will then
cause fuel to increase and RPM to increase eventually giving
authority to the propeller governor, (see following diagram.)
Note: The propeller pitch control unit is not the propeller
governor (PG).
Fig.3.12. Power lever interface with PPC and FCU

RPM LEVER
Earlier with the constant speed theory it was pointed out that the
engine, with load and power equal, would operate at basically
one RPM. Because of different operating conditions, such as
taxiing or cruise, it becomes necessary to operate at some other
RPM besides 100%. This is due to the need for noise
reduction, fuel economy or operation at minimum load. The
only function of the speed lever is to set engine operating RPM.
To aid the speed lever, it is linked to the underspeed fuel
governor and the propeller governor. The speed lever is used
to 'calibrate' or set each governor RPM limit. With the speed
lever in the low or taxi position, the underspeed governor is set
to 96% RPM. When the speed lever is advanced to the high or
take-off position the underspeed governor is set to 97% RPM,
the propeller governor is set to 100% RPM and will not be
effective till this RPM is attained by forward movement of the
power lever.
Fig.3.13. Condition lever interface with FCO and PG

BETA MODE
In 'beta' or ground mode of operation the pilot has manual
control of propeller load through the propeller pitch control. The
range of operation for the power lever is from flight idle to
reverse. In this case the manual fuel valve cam is cut such that
it has no effect in this area. Speed control is a function of the
underspeed governor. Normal range for the speed lever in beta
mode is from low to high. For beta operation the effect of
bringing the power lever behind flight idle is that fuel is reduced
to the point that RPM drops below the setting of the propeller
governor. The underspeed governor then assumes control of
fuel to maintain the selected minimum RPM. If the speed lever
were high, this RPM would be 97 percent. The need for a beta
mode derives itself from the need to manually demand a
reverse pitch to bring the aircraft to a stop after landing. Also
thrust directional control is needed to provide adequate control
of the aircraft for taxiing.
Fig.3.14. Beta mode lever positions.

PROPELLER GOVERNING MODE 'propeller governing mode'. For ground operation, the propeller
pitch control provides manual load control; the underspeed
governor automatically controls fuel flow in response to load
The speed lever is placed in the high position. The engine is
changes. This equals power and load to maintain selected
operating at 97%. As the power lever is advanced ahead of the
engine RPM. This is called 'beta mode'.
flight idle detent this causes the power lever cams to react by
momentarily holding a fixed pitch and increasing fuel. As RPM
increases, it reaches overrides the underspeed governor and
reaches the propeller governor setting of 100%. The propeller
governor then takes control of blade angle and increases it to
maintain the selected RPM by equalling load with the power
demand. This is known as 'propeller governing mode' of
operation. Because of the cut of the cam the propeller pitch
control has no effect so the propeller governor has automatic
load control. The underspeed governor is effectively overridden
by the manual fuel valve (see diagram on following page).
The prop governing or inflight mode is shown here. The range

of operation of the power lever is from flight idle to maximum.
The effective component is the manual valve. Normal propeller
governing mode quadrant of operation for the speed lever is
from cruise to take-off, or high. As previously stated the
increased fuel demand drives RPM to the setting of the
propeller governor which changes the blade angle of the
propeller to equal the demanded power.
Fig.3.15. Governor Mode lever positions.

To review; In flight, the manual fuel valve (MFV) is the effective
component giving a manual power demand. The propeller
governor is the other effective component responsible for
automatic load control to equal with the manual power demand
and maintain the selected engine RPM. This is known as

The light is illuminated when the propeller is operating in beta

mode and out when the propeller is operating in governing
mode.
If the engine should lose power during flight, a negative torque
sensing system is used to automatically effect movement of the
propeller blades toward the feather position.
The propeller control system consists of a propeller, oil transfer
tube, propeller governor, propeller pitch control, propeller
feathering valve, propeller unfeathering pump, and a negative
torque system. The oil transfer tube treads into the propeller
piston and extends into the propeller pitch control.
Propellers used on this system are spring loaded to feather
and require oil pressure from the propeller control system to
decrease pitch angle.
Fig.3.16. Lever interconnect between modes. Some of the single-acting propellers that are typically selected
for use are shown below. Each one, using a different method of
operation, Some using balance weights to assist oil pressure,
As described earlier, the propeller control system is designed to others not. Namely:-
operate in either of two modes. These modes are; the
propeller governing or flight mode and beta or grounding  Hartzell
operating mode. In the propeller governing mode, the  McCauley
propeller governor meters oil to the propeller as a function of  Dowty Rotol
engine speed, power requirements, and pilot demands through
the power lever. In the beta or ground operating mode, oil is
metered to the propeller by the propeller pitch control, and the
propeller blade angle is controlled directly by the power lever
movement.
A pressure switch in the propeller hydraulic control system is
used to power an indicator light on the cockpit instrument panel.

Fig.3.17. Hartzell Single-acting propeller System. Fig.3.18. Blade angle operational ranges.

Fig.3.20. Single-acting propeller with multiple springs.
Fig.3.19. Single-acting propeller with counterweights.

To minimise the propeller aerodynamic load on the starter and

power supply, propellers have 'start locks' to hold the propellers
at or near a flat pitch angle during ground starting of the engine.
The start locks are spring loaded pins that hold the propeller
blades to a flat position. Shown below is a typical Hartzell
Propeller with the start locks engaged. At the base of each
propeller blade hub is a plate that engages the locking pin. The
Hartzell propeller is always installed or removed with the blades
in a feathered position. This prevents the load of the heavy
feather spring from distorting the start lock arrangement. The
Dowty Rotal and McCauley propellers have locking pins that
restrain the piston in the propeller dome. The single acting
propeller is spring loaded to the feather position. During engine
operating this spring force is overcome by oil metered from the
power management system. However, if the operator fails to
put the propeller on the start locks during shutdown, the blades
must be moved from a feathered position to a flat pitch for
ground starts. A nacelle mounted propeller unfeathering pump
is used to put the propeller on the start locks. The procedure for Fig.3.21. Fine pitch Start locks example.
this is to position the power lever to the reverse position,
actuate the unfeather pump switch. Oil is then routed to the
propeller pitch control through the oil transfer tube to the
propeller. Pressure overcomes the spring force and causes the
propeller to rotate toward the reverse position. When the start
latches engages, the unfeather pump is de-activated.

TURBO-PROPELLER CONTROL MECHANISMS
The propeller control mechanisms used on turbo props vary

from manufacturer to manufacturer. The example given in the
previous chapter on 'Power Management' talked about fuel
control (manual fuel valve and underspeed governor). Prop
governor (PG) and prop pitch control in (PPC) this chapter,
these components will be over viewed and a typical single
acting propeller control mechanism explained.
Fig.3.22. Turbo-prop control component.

The oil transfer tube (beta tube) is threaded into the propeller
piston and extends aft, through the engine propeller shaft, and
into the propeller pitch control. The tube portion housed within
the propeller pitch control ported sleeve has oil ports through
which propeller governor discharge oil is routed to the propeller
dome. During beta mode, the oil transfer tube is positioned by
power lever movement of the servo-valve in the propeller pitch
control which meters oil pressure to the piston to position blade
pitch angle. During propeller-governor mode, the governor
meters oil pressure through the propeller pitch control and oil
transfer tube directly to the propeller piston.
Fig.3.23. Beta tubes pass through reduction gearbox.

BETA MODE
Fig.3.25/26/27. Metering Valve Control.

Advancing the power lever rotates the propeller pitch control
Fig.3.24. PPC Cam Mechanism cam, which moves the ported sleeve to the right. This action
uncovers the holes in the beta tube, as illustrated in View 'A'
The power lever is mechanically connected to the propeller above. The oil pressure from the propeller piston area drains
pitch control and the manual fuel valve (MFV) in the fuel into the gearcase through the uncovered holes in the beta tube.
control. Movement of the power lever results in the rotation of a The reduction in oil pressure allows the propeller springs and
cam in each control unit. Movement of the cam results in the counterweights to move the piston to the right, increasing
ported sleeve being extended or retracted within the propeller propeller blade pitch angle. The propeller piston continues to
pitch control. The function of the propeller pitch control in beta move until the holes in the beta tube re-align with the ported
mode is to meter oil from the propeller governor pump into the sleeve bushing in the propeller pitch control. As illustrated in
propeller through the beta tube. View 'B' above, oil pressure is now metered in the right amount
to hold the propeller blade pitch angle to the selected position.

Illustration 'B' shows the propeller pitch control cam positioned

Illustration 'A' is shown in the beta mode of operation, the power to full reverse. The ported sleeve completely covers the holes
lever is positioned at ground idle. The ported sleeve bushing in the beta tube allowing full oil pressure from the propeller
meters oil to the propeller piston, which balances the oil governor pump to enter into the propeller. The high oil pressure
pressure against the force of the propeller springs and compresses the springs and positions the propeller piston to the
counterweights. The natural tendency of the propeller springs internal mechanical stop, and the propeller blades to the full
and counterweights is to move the piston to the feather stop. reverse position.
Oil pressure from the propeller governor pump opposes this
action and attempts to fully compress the springs. The small
metering holes in the beta tube meter allows only enough oil to
balance the forces of the propeller. If the springs were to push
the beta tube too far into the ported sleeve, additional pressure
from the pump will enter the beta tube, moving the piston to the
left to rebalance the forces. Likewise, if the piston were
subjected to too much oil pressure, it will move to the left and
allow the beta tube holes to bleed the excess oil into the
gearcase

17.3.2 Feathering and Reverse Pitch Turboprop control systems usually utilize a negative torque
sensor in the reduction gearbox which moves the blades toward
Feathering feather when the engine is no longer providing power to the
propeller. Depending on design, the pilot may have to push a
On piston engine aircraft, the propeller control lever is moved button to override the high-pitch stops and complete the
through a restricted gate, (to avoid inadvertent operation in feathering process, or the feathering process may be totally
flight) into the feathered position. This moves the blades automatic.
beyond the course pitch stop to align the blades directly into
the relative airflow, in the event of an in-flight engine failure,
which stops rotation of the propeller. This is to;
a) prevent excessive drag from the dead engine and

thereby excessive yaw towards the dead engine.
b) Prevent the propeller from “windmilling” and causing

possibly even more damage to the failed engine.
At present we are only considering the single acting propeller

mechanism which adopts the use of a spring to force the
propellers to the feathered position. Students should be aware
that on some hubs a nitrogen charge within the hub provides
the force to feather. Double acting variable pitch propellers
which will be looked at later use electrical feathering / auxiliary
oil pump to provide the force for feathering.
Fig.3.28. Light aircraft prop in feathered position.
Most feathering systems for reciprocating engines sense a drop
in oil pressure and move the blades toward the feather position,
and require the pilot to pull the propeller control back to
disengage the high-pitch stop pins before the engine reaches
idle RPM.

Operating in propeller governor mode during ground testing

yields similar results as flight operation. Advancing the power
lever adds fuel and power causing an increase in engine speed.
The propeller governor responds by reducing oil pressure,
increasing propeller pitch angle to maintain the selected engine
speed. Retarding the power lever reduces fuel flow and power.
The excess propeller blade angle causes a reduction in engine
speed. The propeller governor decreases propeller pitch angle
maintaining engine speed.
Feathering the Propeller
If there is an engine failure in flight, the propeller would windmill

creating drag and increasing any damage that had occurred in
the engine. Feathering is the procedure by which the propeller
blades are turned beyond the coarse pitch position until they are
edge on to the airflow. This action stops rotation and reduces
the drag of the stationary propeller to a minimum.
Fig.3.29. Large transport aircraft props in feathered At present we are only considering the single acting propeller
position. mechanism which adopts the use of a spring to force the
propellers to the feathered position (Piston moving rearwards).
Students should be aware that on some hubs a nitrogen charge
within the hub, in front of the piston, provides the force to
feather. Double acting , variable pitch propellers which will be
looked at later, uses electrical feathering / auxiliary oil pump to
provide the force for feathering because the piston is moved
hydraulically by diverting oil to the front or rear of the piston.

Because of the dangers at overspeeding, all turboprops will

have some form of Auto Feather which will be activated by a
negative torque signal, these devices may give an electrical
signal to energise a solenoid or hydro-mechanical as illustrated
in Fig.3.30.
The torque sensor is a pressure regulator and regulates the

'torque' pressure as a result of the twisting action of the torsion
shaft. The pressure in the reduction gearbox operates at less
than ambient due to the action of the oil system scavenge
pumps that pump oil and air out of the case. The torque sensor
and metering valve sense this pressure. The torque sensor
pilot valve is mechanically positioned and any change in case
pressure will change the measured torque pressure. The gear
case pressure must be added to the torque sensor pressure. A
pressure gage can measure the case pressure and this value
added to the torque sensor pressure will give a corrected torque
valve.
Fig.3.30. Simplified Hydraulic Torque-Sensing
Arrangement.
The propeller feathering valve is externally mounted on the rear

of the reduction gearbox. The feathering valve is hydraulically
actuated by the negative torque sensor and can be manually
actuated by pilot control. The feather valve prevents high
pressure control oil from entering the propeller dome and piston,
which allows the spring-loaded propeller blades to move
towards a feathered position.

Positive torque is when the engine is driving the propeller. If the

engine should have an inflight shutdown, the windmilling
propeller will drive the engine. This is considered to be negative
torque. When the propeller is driving the engine, a torque
sensor within the reduction gearcase senses a negative input.
The negative torque system automatically effects a movement
of the propeller blades toward the feather position. That
propeller will not feather, however, it will continue to windmill.
The negative torque system is automatic drag reduction and not
an automatic feather system.
To feather the propeller, the pilot must actuate the feathering

valve from the cockpit. The negative torque system in operation
is illustrated. The engine has experienced an inflight shutdown
and attempts to decelerate, the propeller governor senses an
underspeed condition, and increases oil pressure to the
propeller to reduce blade pitch angle. The propeller, driven by
the slipstream tries to cause the engine to accelerate. The
propeller is now driving the engine, which causes the negative
torque system to actuate. The power input required from the
propeller moves toward feather. The power reduction causes
the negative torque system to activate. The power input
required from the propeller to actuate the negative torque
system reduces as the propeller moves toward feather. The
power reduction causes the negative torque system to de-
activate, reducing propeller blade angle, again tripping the
negative torque system. This action causes cycling of the
propeller, mode commonly called:- NTSing. (Negative Torque Fig.3.31. Feathering system operation
Sensing)

The position in the cockpit of the manual feather lever is shown air start positions and placing the air start / ground start switch
in the diagram (a small turbo prop), On some aircraft the to air start.
manual feathering is actuated through a gate on the RPM
The start switch is actuated causing the unfeather pump to
lever.(see figure opposite.)
operate and send oil to the propeller piston. The oil pressure
moves the propeller out of the feather position. The propeller
begins to windmill, RPM increases to 10 percent, fuel and spark
are introduced into the engine. Combustion occurs and the
engine accelerates to the preselected RPM and power settings.
Since the propeller is driving the engine, the negative torque
system will modulate the propeller blade angle to properly
control engine acceleration during air starts.
Fig.3.32. Engine/Propeller control console.
Also a full auto feather system without the pilot having to pull
the manual feathering lever can also be found on some turbo
props, an example of which is shown later in the paragraph
covering double acting systems.
Because the electric starter motor does not have the capacity to
motor the engine for air starts. With the propeller feathered the
high torsional loads will result in possible overheating and
failure of the start motor. The unfeathering pump is used to
move the propeller blades out of the feathered position and the
propeller then causes the engine to spool up. An air start is Fig.3.33. Example of engine and propeller controls.
accomplished by placing the power lever and RPM lever to their

SINGLE-ACTING TURBO-PROP OPERATION Several things should be checked prior to starting the engine.
(CONSOLIDATION. Ensure the propeller is 'on the locks'. Pull the propeller through,
listening for unusual noises. Check for control lever freedom of
travel and position the speed lever to the low or taxi position.
Before moving on to double acting propellers the following Place the power lever ahead of ground idle. The preferable
diagram and explanations will help the student consolidate the position is in flight idle.
information listed in the notes for so far and hopefully help
towards the understanding of the operational sequence and
control of a small turboprop aircraft.
Fig.3.35. Indications during cranking.

Actuate the start switch. Note the increase of RPM on the
Fig.3.34. Power/Condition levers in “Start” position. cockpit indicator as well as propeller rotation.

Fig.3.36. Indications after light-up.

Fig.3.37. All indication rising. “Watch EGT”
The engine will accelerate to 10 percent RPM. The EGT rise is
the true indication of lightoff. If lightoff does not occur within 10 RPM will continue to increase, fuel and temperature will
seconds after 10 percent, the start be aborted increase with temperature stabilising at the starting value.
Horsepower, or torque will also begin to indicate

Fig.3.39. Engine “On-speed” at Idle.

Fig.3.38. Starter kicks out. Engine self-sustaining.
The engine will continue to accelerate on its own until it reaches
its onspeed condition. RPM will stabilise at 65 percent. Fuel
As engine speed reaches 60 percent, the speed switch will send flow and temperature will have reduced and stabilised. RPM is
a signal to de-energise the ignition system. Horsepower has now a function of the underspeed governor.
stabilised due to the fixed prop load, fuel will remain the same
while temperature has decreases due to the increased air flow.
The engine is now considered self-sustaining.

Fig.3.40. Fuel-flow during acceleration.
The chart above illustrates the action of the underspeed Fig.3.41. Power lever moved to “Reverse momentarily to
governor and the reason for the reduction in fuel and release start locks.
temperature. Notice that the fuel required for acceleration is
greater than that required at a stabilised on-speed condition, or When the engine has stabilised and all parameters are check,
'required to run'. Acceleration fuel starts at 10% RPM when the the propeller can be removed from the locks. This is necessary
fuel valve opens. From that point the acceleration schedule is a to allow the propeller to produce thrust which would otherwise
function of increasing P3 air. Increasing P3 air is indicative of be extremely difficult with the propeller fixed at a low blade
engine rotational speed increasing. As the engine approaches angle. To accomplish this the power lever is moved toward
its low speed setting, the underspeed governor begins to meter reverse. By being in beta mode, blade angle is controlled by
fuel to the engine. It will continue to cut back on fuel flow until the propeller pitch control through the power lever. This will
the stabilised RPM is achieved or when power equals propeller cause the propeller to move toward a reverse blade angle. This
load. reverse blade angle is a greater load than the starting blade

angle, so the operator will notice an increase in torque, fuel flow

and temperature. When the propeller is off the locks and all pre-taxi checks are
complete, taxiing becomes a matter of moving the power lever
A slight decrease in RPM will be noted because of the load to produce the required thrust. Fluctuating indications will be
increase. Do not bog the engine down. It is not necessary to normal because of the changing load. The amount of power
use full reverse to remove the propeller from the locks. On lever movement required to taxi will depend upon aircraft
some aircraft this practice may result in setting the aircraft on its weight, wind and ramp conditions. For noise considerations,
tail. Experience with the aircraft will show the amount of the speed lever is left in the low position. The lower engine
reverse required to bring the propeller off the locks RPM provides a lower propeller speed, hence less noise.
Fig.3.42. Power lever forwards as required for taxiing.

Fig.3.43. Condition lever forwards to increase RPM.

be observed. As the power lever is being advanced to its limit,

the propeller governor continue to ass blade angle and the
aircraft accelerates down the runway.
Fig.3.44. Both levers fully forwards for take-off.
For takeoff, the speed lever is advanced to the high / takeoff

position. The engine will accelerate to 97 percent RPM. Fuel, Fig.3.45. Both levers set to best power/RPM position.
temperature and horsepower will all increase.
During climb the operator will notice a steady increase in
temperature and a decrease in torque. This is due to the
At this time, the power lever is advanced ahead of flight idle. change of air density as altitude increases. This action may
The manual fuel valve and propeller pitch control cams react require the operator to continually retard the power lever to stay
and RPM increases to 100 percent. The power lever is within temperature limits.
advanced until the torque or temperature limit is reached.
Temperature limits for takeoff depending on type of engine) to

Having reached the desired altitude, the operator may wish to

reduce the engine to a lower cruise RPM. This is done primarily
as a noise reduction measure, with a secondary benefit of some
fuel economy. Normal cruise RPM is from 96 to 100 percent.
This small range allows for noise reduction while keeping the
engine operating near its maximum limits for efficiency. To
bring the engine into cruise first reduce fuel with the power
lever. This will reduce the temperature. Move the speed lever
from high / takeoff to the cruise position. Temperature will rise,
as well as torque. Do not allow the temperature to exceed
limits. If further reduced to allow cruise RPM to be reached
Fig.3.46. Condition lever to fine pitch. Power lever pulled

back.
When the operator desires to prepare for approach to his
destination, the speed lever is moved to the high position. RPM
will increase to 100%, temperature and torque will decrease
slightly. Bringing the speed lever back to high on approach is to
ensure the operator has full power available should he need it.
After the speed lever is advanced, the power lever is then
retarded toward flight idle. Aircraft weight will determine the
amount of power required for proper descent rate. Fuel flow,
temperature and torque all will decrease.

Fig.3.47. Power lever toFlight Idle. On touch-down.

Beta light comes “ON”.
Fig.3.48. Power lever to Reverse for propeller braking.
As the aircraft approaches the threshold, the power levers are
moved to flight idle. Upon touchdown and rollout, as forward Braking of the aircraft is accomplished by moving the power
speed decreases, loading of the propeller by relative wind lever behind flight idle forward reverse. Runway length should
increases. RPM will fall below the setting of the propeller determine the amount of reverse to use. Ground idle is
governor by this loading as well as the low demand for fuel. As effectively 0 degrees pitch, and is highly effective in bringing the
97 percent RPM, the underspeed governor takes control of fuel aircraft to a halt. Using full reverse is not recommended unless
and maintains RPM. The 'beta lights' will come on indicating in an emergency. Full reverse tends to increase the amount of
that manual pitch control for braking is now possible. material the engine ingests from the runway.

Fig.3.50. Fuel shut-off to close. At 50% RPM, power lever to

Fig.3.49. Condition lever to low RPM. Power lever as “Reverse, allowing “Start locks to engage.
required.
With the aircraft parked, the engine may be shutdown.
Once off the runway, the speed lever may be moved to the low Actuating the stop switch closes the fuel shutoff valve. Fuel
position and taxiing is again accomplished by use of the power flow decreases to 0. At approximately 50 % RPM brings the
lever. power levers back to full reverse and hold them to put the
propeller back on the locks. The power lever may be held in
this position until RPM is less than 10%. This applies to both
Hartzell and Dowty propellers. When less than 10% RPM, the
power levers may be returned to flight idle.

FLIGHT-FINE, PITCH STOP When the aircraft is on the ground the undercarriage switch is
closed, the flight deck switch completes the circuit to energise
the solenoid valve.
The pitch lock mechanism is necessary to cater for the two fine
pitch position of 'flight fine pitch' and 'ground fine pitch'. It acts The open solenoid valve directs oil pressure to the stop
as a safety device designed to prevent the propeller from withdrawal piston allowing the spring collect to spring inwards to
inadvertently over-running the flight fine pitch position to the remove the Flight Fine Pitch Stop (see diagram on following
detriment of flight safety. page).
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION.
The pitch change piston is fitted with two pitch stops - the
flight fine pitch stop and the ground fine pitch stop. The
flight fine pitch stop provides a normal fine pitch angle, whereas
the ground fine pitch stop does not arrest the piston movement
until the propeller blades turn into the plane of rotation to attain
zero pitch angle. To obtain a zero blade angle it follows that the
pitch change piston must move beyond the flight fine pitch
position and, to achieve this, the flight fine pitch stop must be
withdrawn or rendered ineffective whenever ground fine pitch is
required. Therefore, the flight fine pitch stop is a flexible
arrangement which requires a support to maintain it in the flight
fine pitch stop position. When the support shown is withdrawn,
the flight fine pitch stop can move down flush with the level of
the pitch lock cylinder and the oil pressure acting upon the pitch
change piston can now move it forward into the ground fine
position. The pitch lock assembly fits inside the pitch change
cylinder and the transfer sleeve housing where it connects with
the oil tubes to complete the oilways to the Pitch Control
Mechanism (PCM).

Fig.3.52. Control lever positions on Quadrant.

Fig.3.51. Fine pitch stop operation.
Stop removed - This is the ground fine position and the stop
lever is at the rear of the quadrant.
To enable either flight fine pitch or ground fine pitch to be
selected, pitch selection levers are provides. These levers (one To prevent inadvertent loss of propulsive thrust, the pitch stop
for each propeller) are fitted to the main control pedestal in the levers are mechanically inter-connected with the throttle lever
aircraft cockpit. They are called 'fine pitch stop levers' and they so that when all throttle levers are advanced towards open (for
provide the two stop positions required for flight fine or ground max or cruise power) the pitch stop levers must move into the
fine. The lever position are: stop armed position. Thus always when the aircraft is flying the
Stop armed - This is the flight fine position and the stop lever flight fine pitch stop is armed.
is at the front of the quadrant.

Propeller Control
There is no separate propeller control selector for this engine /
propeller combination. Instead of a separate propeller control
lever, the governor, is designed to operate from engine control
inter-connections. At the top of the governor is a lever and
mechanism for selecting either constant speed operation or
feather, whilst below this there is a normal rack and pinion rev /
min selector which varies the value of the governor spring. The
levers at these control points are linked into the engine control
system as follows:
Constant Speed or Feather - The lever at the top of the
governor unit is called the Manual feathering lever. It is
inter-connected with the high pressure shut-off cock (HP
cock) control so that when the HP cock is at the run or 'shut-
off' position, the governor is set for constant speeding.
When the high pressure fuel cock control lever is moved
beyond fuel shut-off to the feather position the manual
feathering lever pawl mechanically lifts the governor piston
valve to direct pressure oil to the coarse pitch side on the
pitch change piston.
Rev / min Selector - The engine throttle control is linked to a

normal rack and pinion control in the governor unit so that
movement of the throttle control acts through inter-
connecting linkage to vary the load imposed upon the Fig.3.53. Double-acting pitch control unit(PCU)
governor spring to act as a rev / min selector.

17.3.2 FEATHERING AND REVERSE PITCH
DOUBLE ACTING FEATHERING SYSTEM
To prevent excessive drag in the event of a propeller on engine

failure, the double acting propeller as with the single acting
propeller requires a feathering system.
DESCRIPTION
The system has mechanical and electro hydraulic means of
lifting the PCU control valve. An electrically driven pum
p supplies the feathering oil pressure. Oil is supplied from a
'Feathering' Reserve in the main engine oil tank.
OPERATION
The control valve is lifted by moving the HP fuel cock lever to
'Feather' or by the piston lift solenoid valve opening and
hydraulic pressure acts on the valve lift piston.
Oil pressure from the feathering pump is directed to the coarse
pitch line to feather the blades. When the feathering is
complete a pressure operated switch de-energises the pump-
solenoid to stop the pump.
To unfeather the HP lever is opened and the feathering pump
switched on for a few seconds.
Fig.3.54. Double-acting PCU schematic.

MANUAL FEATHERING. AUTOMATIC FEATHERING

HP fuel cock lever moved to 'feather'. Feathering pump started This uses the torque indicating system to sense engine failure.
by Manual Feather Switch. Some systems have the feathering
When torque drops to a certain valve a low torque pressure
pump switch incorporated in the Engine Fire Handle.
switch completes a circuit to operate the piston lift solenoid
and start the feathering pump.
REVERSE PITCH
In some aircraft (e.g., the C-130 Hercules), the pilot can

manually override the constant speed mechanism to reverse the
blade pitch angle, and thus the thrust of the engine (although
the rotation of the engine itself does not reverse). This is used
to help slow the plane down after landing in order to save wear
on the brakes and tires, but in some cases also allows the
aircraft to back up on its own. This is known as "Beta Range"
operation.
THRUST REVERSAL which is also called REVERSE THRUST,

is the temporary diversion of an aircraft engine's exhaust or
changing of propeller pitch so that the thrust produced is
directed forward, rather than aft. Thrust reversers are used by
many jet aircraft to help slow down JUST AFTER
TOUCHDOWN, reducing wear on the brakes and enabling
shorter landing distances. What this means, is that the aircraft
has not used up its still considerable forward momentum.
Fig.3.55. Control circuit for feathering operations.

Fig.3.56. Lever positions for “Reverse Thrust

Braking”.
Fig.3.57. Reverse pitch blade angle. (BETA range).
To achieve this blade movement requires an action opposite to

feather. Oil is directed to the back (rear) of the piston. Raising
the power lever over the control stop, energises a solenoid
which is connected through the W.O.W. switch on the landing
gear. Solenoid action releases the Fine pitch stop in the
propeller, allowing the blade to rotate through a negative blade
angle of between 0° and about -15° depending on aircraft
design.

Connecting through the W.O.W. switch prevents inadvertent A switch mounted on the Hub closes when the blade angle is
reverse selection in flight. Usually, there is also a solenoid below Flight Fine Pitch. With the circuit complete the Piston Lift
operated lock pin preventing the power lever from selecting Solenoid is energised and the propeller coarsens off. (see
reverse in flight. Feathering circuit diagrams).
17.3.3 Overspeed Protection
Propeller Safety Devices
Various safety systems are fitted to override the control system

should a malfunction occur. If control were lost the propeller
would slam into fine pitch because of the centrifugal turning
moment (CTM) of the blade. The effect of this would be
dangerous in 2 respects:
• The torque required to turn the blades would be replaced by a

windmilling torque, which would assist the engine. Thus there
would be a grave danger of engine and propeller overspeed.
• The propeller would cause a very high drag force to be applied

to the aircraft. This would be particularly dangerous in multi-
engined aircraft, as it would give rise to a severe asymmetric
condition.
The propeller control system has a number of safety devices to

avoid overspeed and high drag caused by system failure. These
are:
Flight Fine Pitch stop Failure.

Fig.3.58 Solenoid operated switch, allowing blades to
feather in an overspeed condition.
An overspeed is prevented by an automatic coarsening device.

Oil Supply Failure (OVERSPEED)
To prevent an overspeed caused by an oil supply failure, one of

two methods may be employed:
Hydraulic lock valve. The pitch lock mechanism houses a
valve called the 'hydraulic lock valve'. This is a spring
loaded ball valve opened by fine pitch oil pressure and
closed by a spring. In the event of an oil supply failure the
hydraulic lock valve closes and acts like a non-return valve
to trap coarse pitch oil in the pitch change cylinder. The oil
trapped in the cylinder prevents centrifugal twisting
movement (CTM) from turning the propeller blades towards
fine pitch without affecting the feathering ability if the
propeller
Fig.3.59. Hydraulic lock valve operation.
Mechanical locking device. A rachet mechanism allows the

propeller to move to coarse pitch and to be feathered. The
Pawl has to be withdrawn by P.C.U. action before the blades
can move to a finer pitch.

allowing pressure oil to alter the position of the speed reset

adjuster. Speeder spring compression is reduced by the
upward movement of the adjuster and integral spring seat,
which acts against the speed reset spring. Reduced spring
force allows the flyweights to move out at a lower speed to
simulate an overspeed condition. When the solenoid is de-
energised, the oil supply to the adjuster bore is cut off, allowing
the governor to function normally.
Feathering. Feathering of the propeller is normally carried out

when the engine is shut down during flight. When feathered the
propeller blade is presented with its leading edge in the
direction of travel, thus reducing drag.
Reverse Pitch. Reverse pitch can be used both for braking on

landing and for ground manoeuvring. When selected, the fine
pitch stops are disengaged and the propeller blades are allowed
Fig.3.60. Hydro/Mechanical lock operation. to move aft of the flight fine position and into reverse pitch. This
is a pilot selected manoeuvre with the Condition lever passing
through a gate in the control quadrant
Propeller Overspeed Governor
These devices protect against overspeed, they are separate

governors to the P.C.U. and direct oil during an overspeed
situation to coarsen the blade. Built into the device is an air
bled which at max. RPM will back off the fuel flow from the fuel
control unit.
The governor is equipped with a solenoid valve to enable its

operation to be tested. When energised, the valve opens,

17.4 PROPELLER SYNCHRONISING
Synchronising
All multi engined propeller driven aircraft suffer from propeller

beat noise which induces vibration in the airframe and causes
fatigue and discomfort in the passengers and crew. This noise
is produced by the propellers rotating at different speeds when
each propeller produces its own frequency which beats with the
frequencies of the other propeller. The noise and vibration
levels are a function of the differences between the propeller
speeds.
Modern aircraft use automatic systems to synchronise the
propeller speeds. One engine is selected as the master and the
other engines are slaved to the master engine's selected speed.
The simplest way to accomplish this would be to adjust the
throttle and speed control of each engine until the relevant
tachometers indicate the same reading at the instrument.
Unfortunately the tolerances of each indicator are too great for
accurate synchronisation to be achieved which in turn would
lead to the engines being run at different speeds. In addition
the alternative of synchronising the engines by throttle alone is
also very difficult as the sensitivity of the throttles is much less
than the indicators. To overcome these problems the
synchroscope is fitted.
Fig.3.61. Overspeed Governor operation.
The synchroscope provides a good indication of the differences
between two or more engine rotation speeds. The instrument is
designed to operate from an alternating current supply
generated by the Tachometer generator. The principle of

operation is that of a frequency comparator unit comparing the

frequency of Tachometer generator No. 1 with that of
Tachometer generator No. 2 usually referred to as the 'Master'
and 'Slave'. By using a technique of setting the 'on' speed
conditions on the master engine, the indicator gives a clear
indication of whether the slave engine is running faster or
slower than the master.
Fig.4.1. Propeller synchronising equipment on a light twin

engined aircraft

INDICATOR PRESENTATIONS The next diagram shows a typical four engined synchroscope
which thus includes three units arranged symmetrically about
The diagram below shows a typical two-engines synchroscope
the axis of the instrument. Dial markings indicate the
which includes a single unit with a single central pointer. Dial
associated engine numbers and the directions of pointer
markings indicate the direction of pointer rotation which denotes
rotation which denotes whether an engine is rotating slower or
whether it is necessary to increase or decrease the speed of the
faster than the master.
slave engine in order to bring it into synchronisation with the
master.
Fig.4.2. Twin engine synchroscope indicator.

Fig.4.4. Four-engine synchroscope Indicator.
A combined RPM gauge / synchroscope indication may also be
used on a twin engined installation. The tacho generators that supply the Synchroscopes also
supply the engines automatic synchronisation system.
Fig.4.3. Twin engine synchroscope mounted in an RPM

indicator

INDICATOR INTERPRETATION
AUTOMATIC SYNCHRONISING
The interpretation of the pointer indications are as follows:
Irregular or Oscillating movement; Difference in speed beyond the

indicating limits of the
instrument.
Regular counter-clockwise rotation; Engine slower than the master if
error indicating.
Regular clockwise rotation; Engine faster than the master if
error indicating.
Pointer stationary; Engines synchronised. Or one
engine stopped.
The dial presentation of the synchroscope can be utilised in one

of two ways. One is to indicate an error i.e. the pointer
indicating 'Slow' means that engine's speed is slower than the
master. The other is as a correction demand indication i.e. the Fig.4.5. Automatic Synchronising system.
pointer indicator 'Slow' means that engine's speed must be
reduced to gain synchronisation. The same instrument can be
wired to be used in either way and this is decided by the phase Automatic Synchronisation uses engine driven synchronising
sequence of the aircraft wiring as in the wiring diagram manual. alternators to detect electrically any increase or decrease in a
When function checking following the change of unit it is slave engine's speed. Each alternator's output voltage is
essential to move the throttles and check that the sense of directly proportional to its engine speed and this voltage is sent
indication is correct for the type of aircraft concerned. to the corrector motor on the slave engine to modify its RPM if a
difference in output exists by comparison with the master
engine.

The corrector motor assembly consists of two stators mounted

on a common rotor. One stator is fed from the master engine
alternator and the other stator is fed from the slaw alternator.
The wiring from the alternators is in such a way that the
magnetic fields produced in the stators are in opposition. The
output from the common shaft is through a clutch assembly and
reduction gear to the slave engine throttle controls.
Rotation of the shaft imparts a small linear movement to the
control lever and operates the input rods to the fuel and
propeller control units. The operation of the PCU will,
depending on the direction of correction, increase or decrease
the blade pitch which with the fuel control unit will cause the
slave engine's RPM to rise or fall until it equals the speed of the
master engine.
The range of the synchronising system is restricted, so that a
master engine failure, or for that matter an overspeed, only
affects the slave engine to a limited extent. On the output shaft
is a datum cam which causes the corrector motor to return to
the mid point of the operating range when the system is switch Fig.4.6. Synchronising system component layout.
off.
One engine is designated as the master engine. When the
The opposition windings of the stators in the correction motor RPM of this engine is adjusted by the pilot and the synchroniser
are wired so that the slave motor will influence the rotor in the system is on, the RPM of the slave engine will automatically
decrease RPM direction and the master stator will influence it in adjust to the same RPM.
the increase RPM direction.
Another method of propeller synchronising is the use of Each propeller governor contains a rotating magnet and a
magnetic pick ups and stepper motor. magnetic pickup which produces alternating current as the
governor rotates. The frequency of this AC is proportional to
the speed of the governor. The outputs from the two governors

are compared in the synchroniser control box, and an output Synchrophasing.

signal is sent to the DC stepping motor actuator. A flexible steel
shaft connects the actuator to the propeller governor bell crank
on the fuel control of the slave engine. If the slave engine is Although much of the audible beat frequency is eliminated by
slower than the master engine, the control box will drive the synchronising the propellers, the noise and vibration may still be
actuator motor in a direction that will move the bell crank and quite high. The noise is produced by the interaction between
connection arm on the slave motor fuel control and the propeller the air and the blade tips as the blade tips of adjacent propellers
governor, in the correct direction to increase its RPM. pass close to each other. The position of the propeller relative
to each other, (the phase difference between adjacent
propellers) can be adjusted to an optimum combination which
The operation of the synchroniser system is simple. It is left off will reduce the interference to a minimum.
during takeoff and landing. When the aircraft is trimmed for
cruise flight, the condition levers of the engines are manually
adjusted to bring their RPM close enough to the same speed
that the engines will be within the synchronising range. Then
the synchroniser is turned on. Any difference in RPM is
sensed, and the slave engine fuel control and propeller
governor are adjusted so the slave engine RPM matches that of
the master engine.
When making power changes in flight, adjust both condition
levers together to keep the RPM within synchronising range. If
the engines get out of synchronisation beyond the limits of the
system, the actuator will be driven to the limit of its travel. Turn
the system off and the actuator will return to its centre position.
Manually synchronise the engines and turn the system on. It will
fine tune the synchronisation and hole the engines together.
Fig.4.7. Blade Phase relationship.

Synchrophasing is performed by each propeller driving a pulse 17.5 Propeller Ice Protection
generator. Each generator produces one pulse per propeller
revolution. Synchrophasing is only available in the flight range.
When in this range a master engine is selected and its signals Propellers and spinners are exposed to an environment that
are electronically compared with the slave engine signals. The under certain climatic conditions can lead to ice on the surface
discrepancy or phase difference between the engines is rapidly decreases its efficiency, leading to a loss of lift or thrust,
analysed, and by adjusting the propeller control units, the speed and increasing its weight. Another problem with ice formation
and correct phase relationship can be established with the on a rotating mass such as a propeller is that if unevenly
master engine. distributed, it can lead to imbalance which will cause excessive
vibration. Ice build up on a propeller can also be the cause of
another problem called ice throw, where the chunks of ice are
thrown off the propeller at high speed due to the centrifugal
force. These lumps of ice can cause considerable damage to
any structure that is in their path.
ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Ice protection systems fall into two major categories depending
upon the purpose for which the ice protection system is used.
They are:
Fig.4.8. Example of different phase angles used on an “In- Anti-Icing - This is a term used to describe the continuous
line thrust”, Light Twin engine aircraft. heating or protection of a component to prevent the
formation of ice occurring on it.
De-Icing - This is used where components are cleared of ice
formation after the ice has been allowed to build up. The
method of de-icing is usually cyclic and this intermittent
heating and cooling permits ice to form during the heat off
period. A thin layer of ice is allowed to build up and acts as
an insulator so that the temperature rise is more rapid during
the time the heat is on, and thus the ice that has adhered to
the surface is more easily melted.

FLUID (LIQUID) ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS The fluid is stored in a tank and passes via a filter to an electric
supply pump. The pump is controlled by a switch on the
instrument panel. In some installations the speed of the pump
Liquid ice protection systems can be used as either anti-ice or and thus the quantity of fluid supplied to the propeller can be
de-ice systems. The system is designed to project a film or fluid varied by the use of a rheostat.
over the surface of the blade which when mixed with water will
reduce its freezing point. If ice is already present the fluid will The output fluid from the pump goes through pipelines which
penetrate below the ice layer and reduce its surface tension terminate at the rear of the propeller hub. Attached to the
sufficiently to enable it to be thrown off by centrifugal force. A
propeller hub is a 'U' shaped channel called a slinger ring and
typical fluid ice protection system is shown below.
from points around the slinger ring delivery nozzles are
arranged to apply the fluid along the leading edge root section
of each blade.
Centrifugal force will then disperse the fluid along the blades'
leading edge and the airflow over the blades will allow a film of
fluid to be deposited on the face and camber sides of the
blades.
The airflow around the blade root however is fairly disturbed
and does not always disperse the fluid where it is more
required, that is where ice build up is greatest.
Propellers with this type of ice protection system usually have
boots or feed shoes installed along their leading edges.
An overshoe consists of a strip of rubber or plastic material set
into the leading edge of the blade, from the delivery nozzle at
the root end along the blade's length.
The shoe extends about 2/3rds of the length of the blade, and
Fig.5.1. Liquid system ice protection.
has several open parallel channels in which the fluid can flow
under the influence of centrifugal force. The overflow of the

channels along the length of the overshoe will evenly disperse ELECTRICAL ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
the fluid over the blade.
Electrical ice protection systems are used on most turbo-props.
Resistance wire heater elements are embedded in rubber and
cemented from the root to about 2/3rds of the blade's length
along the leading edge. The rubber is usually protected by a
wire gauze to withstand light stone damage and erosion. Often
the aerodynamic spinner and engine intake lip are also
protected from ice formation using this method.
Fig.5.2. Fluid Ice Protection system.
Fig.5.3. Electrical heater de-ice boots on blades and

intakes.

This type of ice protection system works on the cyclic principle.

The current is fed to the propeller blades, spinner, and the
engine intake lip by an automatic time switch. Part of the intake
lip is continuously heated. This method ensures that the areas
that have de-iced do not turn to water and then flow backwards
to freeze again on the unheated trailing edge. The cyclic
method also conserves electrical power so a smaller alternator
can be installed.
The cyclic timers have two speeds to use under differing
ambient temperature conditions.
Fast is used at temperatures from -6C to +10C when icing
conditions are prevalent, e.g. in rain or clouds.
Slow is used at temperatures of -6C and below.
Fig.5.4. Intake, electrical ice protection mats.

Fig.5.5. Intake mat construction.
The operation of the cyclic de-icing system is usually indicated

by flashing lights (usually green or blue) or an ammeter showing
Fig.5.6. Control panel and cyclic sequence.
the current consumed by the elements. Some aircraft have a
phase test switch which enables the operator to check the
current drawn from each phase of the a.c . supply. A typical
control and test panel is shown below4.

SYSTEM OPERATION
During each cycle rapid heating and cooling takes place. A thin
layer of ice is allowed to form on the leading edges of the
propeller blades. This thin layer of ice acts as an insulator so
that when the current is switched on by the cyclic timer the
temperature rises more rapidly than it would on an unprotected
surface.
The ice layer next to the heating element melts and the thin
layer of ice is easily dispersed by centrifugal and aerodynamic
forces. The cyclic timer now transfers the power from the blade
to the engine intake, and the leading edge of the blade rapidly
cools allowing another thin layer of ice to form and the cycle is
repeated.
Fig.5.7. Slip-ring and brush block installation on spinner

backplate.
Electrical power carried to the propeller blades and spinner by a

brush box, which contains several carbon brushes which are
spring loading to contact slip rings on the rear plate of the
propeller's hub. The current is then carried to the blades by
cables to the blade roots.

MANUAL OVERRIDE RELAYS
When the manual-override relays are not energised, this current

flows through brushes riding on slip rings mounted on the
propeller spinner bulkhead and into the heating elements
bonded to the propeller blades. The slip rings are connected to
the heater elements through flexible conductors that allow the
blades to change their pitch angle.
The timer sends current through the right propeller for about 90
seconds, then switches over and sends current through the left
propeller for 90 seconds.
Some propeller de-icing systems have two separate heating
elements on each blade. Current flows through the right
propeller outboard element for about 30 seconds, then through
the right propeller inboard element for the same length of time.
After the right propeller is de-iced, the timer shifts over and
sends current through the left propeller outboard elements and
then the left propeller inboard elements.
Current cycles of the two propellers are controlled by the timer
as long as the propeller Auto Prop De-ice switch is on. When
the Manual Prop De-icer switch is held in its momentary on
position, the two manual-override relays are energised, and
Fig.5.8. Electrical circuit for blade heater boots current flows directly from the bus to the blades without going
through the timer.
The pilot can easily tell whether or not the de-icing system is
operating correctly in the Automatic mode by watching the
propeller ammeter. It will indicate a flow of current each time
one of the heater elements draws current.

17.6 PROPELLER MAINTENANCE
Vibration has always been a major problem in aircraft operation.

The lightweight structure has so little mass that it cannot
dampen or absorb vibrations that disturb the occupants, fatigue
the structure, and cause cracks.
There are two sources of propeller-induced vibration; those
caused by an out-of-tract condition and those caused by an out-
of-balance condition.
17.6.1 Static and Dynamic Balancing
There are three types of balance of importance when working

with propellers:
 Static Balance
 Dynamic Balance
 Aerodynamic Balance
STATIC BALANCE
When the weight distribution about the propeller axis is equal,
with the propeller in any position, it is said to have static
balance.
Fig.6.1. Static Imbalance Versus Balance.
On fixed pitch propellers an unbalanced condition can be
rectified by the removal of material from heavy blades or by the
addition of extra coats of paint on the lighter blades. Some
propellers have weights attached to the propeller boss.

On variable pitch propellers, balance is corrected by the

addition of weights at the hub, or by the installation of lead wool
or washers in the hollow blade roots.
Static: Balanced when the centre of gravity acts through
the Axis or Centre of Rotation.
STATIC-BALANCING
Static balance is checked and corrected at a propeller repair
shop. The propeller is mounted on a mandrel and placed
across perfectly level knife edges. The balance is checked in
two planes, one with the blades horizontal and one with them
vertical.
Fig.6.3. Static balancing, (Vertical check).
Fixed-pitch metal propellers are balanced in a propeller repair

station by removing some of the metal from the heavy side and
then refinishing the propeller.
Constant-speed propellers are balanced by placing a lead
Fig.6.2. Static balancing ( Horizontal check) washer on a balancing stud inside the hollow blade shank.

Small amounts of unbalance are corrected by packing lead wool can only be corrected by repeated ground runs following the
in the hollow shanks on the bolts that fasten the halves of the addition of weights to the propeller.
propeller barrels together. This type of balancing can only be
Dynamic: Balanced when the blades' centres of gravity are
done by a certificated propeller repair station.
in the Plane of Rotation.
DYNAMIC BALANCE
Dynamic balance is the most effective type of balancing as it
takes all of the factors into consideration. It is done with the
propeller installed on the engine in the airplane.
There are several aircraft balancers / analysers on the market
that are essential for helicopter maintenance and extremely
valuable for propeller balancing. The use of a microprocessor-
controlled instrument that measures the amount of vibration and
shows the position and amount of weight needed on the
propeller spinner bulkhead to correct the out0of-balance
condition is used through out the industry.
The equipment offers an option to split weights. If the location
for mounting the permanent weights or the weight allowed per
location is limited, enter the angles that are available and the
unit will give a weight correction for each new location.
Install the permanent weights, and make a final engine run to
ensure that they have the same balancing effect as the test
weights.
Fig.6.4. Dynamic imbalance versus balance.
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE
A propeller possessing static balance may cause vibration due
to the non symmetrical disposition of the mass within the
propeller. Unequal weight distribution about the propeller axis

When all the blades of a propeller are producing equal thrust, it

is said to possess aerodynamic balance. To achieve this it is
necessary to adjust the blade angles relative to one another, by
a few minutes of a degree when setting the initial blade angles
on assembly.
Note: Balancing can only be carried out by approved propeller
repair organisations using approved balancing test apparatus.
Aerodynamic: Balanced when the aerodynamic forces on

all the blades are equal.
Slight differences in blade shapes produce unequal
aerodynamic forces, both Thrust and Torque, which must be
corrected to prevent vibration of the propeller. These forces act
at right angles to each other, so blades can only be corrected
for either; thrust or torque. NOT FOR BOTH.
Blades have painted on them the correction angle in degrees
and minutes. Also a letter “T” or “Q” to indicate which force has
been corrected for.
Fig.6.5. Aerodynamic Imbalance versus Balance

INDEXING 17.6.2 Blade Tracking
An out of track propeller will suffer an unbalance caused by a

PROTRACTOR
BLADE NO. A.C.F. Dynamic and Aerodynamic out of balance.
SETTING
Propeller track is the path followed by a blade segment in one
1 Normal 27 rotation. If one blade does not follow in the same track as the
others, its angle of attack and thus the thrust it produces, is
Set 05' different, and vibration will result.
2 27 5'
Coarse To make this check, chock the wheels so the airplane cannot
move and place a board under the propeller so the blade tip
Set 09' nearly touches it. Put a mark on the board at the tip of the
3 26 51'
Fine propeller, and rotate the propeller until the next blade is near the
mark. The amount that blades can be out of track is specified
4 Normal 27 by the propeller manufacturer.
Fig.6.6. Typical Blade Index markings.

The adjustment or index is termed the Aerodynamic Corrected
Factor (A.C.F.) and is usually painted on the blade root.
The ACF is the amount to be added or subtracted from the
basic setting when assembling the propeller.
The process is sometimes referred to as 'Indexing'.

An average maximum permitted out of track is 025 inches.

Wherever possible the pointer should be attached to the aircraft
structure to avoid the possibility of aircraft movement during the
check.
Small propellers may be checked using a special mandrel, a
surface table and a height gauge.
Fig.6.7. Blade tracking on the aircraft.

Fig.6.8. Blade tracking in repair shop.

17.6.3 Assessment of Blade Damage, Erosion,

Corrosion, Impact Damage, Delamination.
The most frequent major damage to a propeller is bent blades.

No straightening is allows by anyone other than the propeller
manufacturer or an approved repair station approved for the
particular operation. It is, however, the responsibility of the
licensed technician to know the repairable limits of a propeller
so a decision can be made to either scrap the propeller or to
send it to a repair station. When in doubt, consult technicians at
the repair station, because they may have additional approved
technique and procedures that give them latitude in making Fig.6.9. Maximum repair allowance on blade surfaces.
repairs.
Blades which are bent, twisted or cracked, or have severe
surface damage, must be considered unserviceable, and the Rework depth, face or camber sides must not exceed 060".
propeller must be returned to the manufacturer or an approved Reduction of section thickness must not exceed 25% of 'T' in
overhaul organisation. Minor surface damage may be blended area of rework.
out in the same way as for fixed pitch metal propellers, and
within the limitations by the manufacturer. Final blend area must not extend over more than 25% of chord,
or 4" whichever is less.
After removing visible damage, remove further 002" for gouge
rework, or 020" for burn rework with polished finish.
Length of any one (combined) blending shall not exceed 7".

Fig.6.10. Maximum repair allowance on leading and trailing

edges.

17.6.4 Propeller Treatment / Repair Schemes
REMOVING DAMAGE
Blending out damage and correction using;

 Riffler files
 Scraper
 Small power grinder (with suitable butts or grinding discs)
 Fine abrasive or powder.
The rework must be carried out in the direction of the major axis
of the blade, forming a smooth rounded depression in the blade
surface. The junction between edges of the depression and
surrounding blade surface must be faired out with a smooth
blend. All traces of file or grinding marks must be removed
using abrasive cloth and then the worked area finally polished.
Fig.6.11. Typical abrasive damage requiring repair.
The rework area should now be inspected for cracks,
indentations and tool marks using a magnifying glass. A crack
will cause rejection of the blade. Any further marks should be
polished out and the inspection repeated. Check that the
rework length / depth proportions are within limits. For gouge
and dent damage a further 002" of material should be removed,
beyond that required damage. Electrical damage or damage
with burrs a further 020" of material should be removed. It is
essential that as soon as a repair has been carried out, the
blade is reprotected.

COLD STRAIGHTENING grinding marks must be removed and the work area polished
using fine emery cloth. The blade should then be inspected to
Cold straightening of the blade is allowed within the limited
determine that the blade length is within permitted limits.
prescribed in the relevant Maintenance Manual, provided the
blade has not received impact damage. Impact damage is The amount of tip cropping must be recorded on the blade butt
defined as damage, visible or not, from blade striking, or being face in code form (e.g. T.C ¼).
struck while rotating or stationary. If a blade has suffered
impact damage (although it may be within the cold straightening
limits of the Maintenance Manual) the damage details must be
communicated to the manufacturer before cold straightening is
carried out.
The term 'cold straightening' has become accepted by common
usage to mean blades that can be straightened or twisted
without prior annealing. Blades damaged beyond the limits of
cold straightening will require heat treatment prior to bending or
twisting operations and must therefore be returned to the
manufacturer for rectification.
A blade may be subjected to cold bending or twisting within the
prescribed limits on two successive occasions only. Where
correct is required for a third time the blade must be returned to
the manufacturer for heat treatment.
TIP CHOPPING (CROPPING) Fig.6.12. Spanwise scratches (left) Cordwise scratches

(right).
The tip of the blade can be chopped (Cropped) with the limits
specified in the Maintenance Manual. A template should be
made to the new tip dimensions and the template placed
against the face side of the blade. Using a sharp pencil, mark
the new tip arc. The portion of the blade outboard of the
marking is removed by hacksaw or coarse grinding disc
depending on the amount of material to be removed. All file and

SHOCK LOAD CHECK
When an engine receives a shock load, such as during a heavy

landing or when the propeller strikes an object, e.g. a pile of
snow, the propeller shaft is checked for concentricity by
attaching a D.T.I. to a bar bolted to the engine nose casing.
With a weight attached to the end of the shaft and a D.T.I. in
contact with the front parallel portion set to zero, the shaft is
rotated through 360 and the indicator movement is observed.
The maximum permissible accentricity will be stated in the
appropriate maintenance manual.
Fig.6.13. Crank run-out check using DTI.

LIGHTENING DAMAGE If the propeller has been overspeeding between 115% and
130% of normal maximum rev / min, for a period in excess of
If a metal propeller is struck by lightening, burn damage to the
any specified time limit, it should be removed for inspection. All
blades is likely to occur. In removing this damage the normal
blades should be carefully inspected for material failure, using a
repair limits apply, but after cleaning out all physical damage, a
penetrant dye process. Blade bearings should be cracked
further specified thickness of metal must be removed, and the
tested, and the rolling elements and raceways should be
depression blended to a smooth contour. The damage area
inspected for brinelling (i.e. indentation). The hub and counter-
should then be chemically etched, and inspected with a
weights should be inspected for cracks and distortion, and
magnifying glass to ensure that there are no signs of material
particular attention should be paid to the blade mounting
abnormalities. Any electrical circuits in the propeller should be
threads and spigots.
checked for continuity and insulation resistance.
If the overspeeding has been in excess of 130% of normal
OVERSPEEDING maximum rev / min, the propeller should be returned to the
manufacturer for investigation.
Propellers may occasionally exceed their normal maximum
rotational speed, and be subjected to centrifugal forces in
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS
excess of those for which they were designed. With variable- Manufacturers of propellers may issue, from time to time,
pitch propellers, overspeeding will normally only occur following instructions dealing with the detection and rectification of faults
failure of the control system, but with fixed-pitch propellers the which are known to exist on particular types of propellers.
maximum engine speed may easily be exceeded during These instructions are often issued in the form of Service
manoeuvres if the engine speed indicator is not carefully Bulletins, and engineers should be acquainted with such advice,
monitored. The extent of the checks which must be carried out and should take action accordingly.
following overspeeding, will depend on the margin by which the
normal maximum rev / min have been exceeded, and on any
particular instructions contained in the approved Maintenance
Manual. The figures quoted here are typical values.
No special checks are normally required following overspeeding
up to 115% of normal maximum rev /min, but it may be
recommended that the track of the propeller is checked.

17.6.5 Propeller Engine Running

INSTALLATION OF CSU / PCU
Installation of the CSU / PCU is normally straight-forward. A
new gasket should be fitted to the mounting flange, and the unit
should be installed carefully, ensuring that the driven gear
meshes with the driving gear or quill shaft, and that any dowels
are correctly located. Mechanical linkage on a piston engine
should be adjusted, so that the CSU control is on the maximum
rev / min stop when there is a slight clearance between the
pilot's control lever and the forward end of the gate in which it
operates. The controls to the PCU of the turbine engine are
interconnected with the high pressure fuel cock, and with one or
more of the electrical contacts associated with the operation of
the various propeller functions; they may also be electrically or
mechanically connected to the controls on the flight deck.
Mechanical linkage is normally adjusted by locking the pulleys
and levers in set positions, using rigging pins or similar
equipment as necessary, and adjusting the connecting rods or
cables to suit. Details of the procedure for setting up the
propeller controls on any particular aircraft must be obtained
from the appropriate Maintenance Manual.
Fig.6.14. Dismantling of Single-acting propeller for major

inspection or overhaul.

INSTALLATION OF PROPELLER 5. Refit the propeller, lightly lubricate the splines, cone
bore and threads with specified lubricants. Cone faces
The method of installation will depend on the type of propeller,
should not normally be lubricated, as this may result in
and all instructions detailed in the appropriate Maintenance
looseness of the propeller when the oil film is lost.
Manual should be carefully followed; these will include any
Lubricating the propeller bore, rather than the shaft will
special checks to be carried out, and details concerning
prevent any lubricant from being displaced on to the cone
lubrication, torque loading and locking or retaining parts. The
face when the propeller is installed.
following procedures are applicable to most propellers:
6. Turn the blades to the feathered angle, and fit the
1. Remove all protective covers and plugs, and clean
pitch-change mechanism.
parts which have been treated with a protective coating.
Lubricate specified parts with the recommended grease or 7. Install the brush gear, and check for correct contact
oil before installation. between the brushes and the slip rings.
2. Fit the electrical brush gear housing to the engine 8. Fit the spinner, and turn the blades through their full
reduction gear casing, and check that it is square with the pitch range, to check for fouling.
engine shaft, using a dial test indicator clamped to the
shaft. TESTING AFTER INSTALLING
3. Fit the sling to the propeller, lightly smear the front After installing a propeller, the engine must be ground run to
and rear cone seatings with engineers' blue, and check propeller operation. Aircraft propeller installations vary
temporarily fit the propeller to check the contact area of considerably, and no set testing procedure would be
the cones. Tighten the hub retaining nut by hand, rotate satisfactory for all aircraft. It is imperative, therefore, that any
the propeller at least one revolution, then remove the particular installation should be tested in accordance with the
propeller and check the extent of blueing of the cones. If approved Maintenance Manual, which will normally include the
the contact area is less than 80%, high stops may be following general requirements:
removed by light stoning, or where permitted, by lapping The engine should normally be fully cowled, and the aircraft
on a suitable mandrel. Clean the cones and cone should be facing into wind before starting an engine run. It is
settings. sometimes recommended that the pitch change cylinder should
4. With hydraulically-operated propellers, fit and lock be primed with oil before starting, by operation of the feathering
the oil tubes in the engine shaft. pump.

The safety precautions appropriate to engine ground running SERVICING OF CHEMICAL DE-ICING SYSTEMS
should be taken, the controls should be set as required, and the
It is essential for the correct operation of the ice protection
engine should be started.
system that servicing is carried out on a regular basis. The
As soon as the engine is operating satisfactorily, and before fluids used in these systems are based on:
using high power, the propeller should be exercised in the
Isopropyl alcohol
manner specified in the Maintenance Manual, to establish that
the pitch change mechanism is operating. Phosphate compounds
The checks specified in the Maintenance Manual to confirm Isopropyl alcohol is flammable and must therefore be treated
satisfactory operation of the propeller system, including with respect. Both the fluid types are prone to solidifying to a
constant speed operation, feathering, operation of the propeller jelly type substance if left and the blades; this deposit if left to
pitch change throughout its range, synchronisation with other build up will clog up the distribution nozzles and the overshoe
propellers on the aircraft, and operation of associated warning grooves leading to uneven distribution, or no distribution at all.
and indicating systems, should be carried out. The usual method of keeping the pipes clear is to flush the
Engine running time should be kept to a minimum consistent system using methylated spirit and distilled water.
with satisfactory completion of the checks, and a careful watch 1. Fill the tank with the above mixture.
should be kept on engine temperatures to avoid overheating.
With turbine engines, changes to operating conditions should be 2. Operate the pump observing any time limitation on
carried out slowly, to avoid rapid engine temperature changes, the motor.
and to conserve engine life. 3. Turn the propeller by hand until the fluid is seen to
When all checks have been successfully carried out, the engine emerge from the delivery nozzles.
should be stopped, and a thorough inspection of all propeller 4. Empty the tank through the nozzles to ensure
system components should be carried out, checking for sufficient cleaning fluid has passed through the system.
security, chafing of pipes and cables, and signs of oil leaks.
5. Clean the blades with methylated spirit or warm
Note: If vibration was experienced during the engine run, the soapy water, paying particular attention to the grooves in
hub retaining nut should be re-tightened after the engine shaft the overshoes.
has cooled down.
6. If the system is to be left empty it should be inhibited
according to the manufacturer's instructions.

FUNCTIONAL CHECKS OF CHEMICAL DE-ICING SYSTEMS If uneven distribution is apparent the positioning of the feed pipe
and slinger ring should be examined as very little clearance is
Once the correct flow rate of the fluid supply has been
permitted. It is essential for the correct operation of the system
established the distribution of the fluid flow over the blades is
that the rotating slinger ring does not contact the feed pipe.
checked. This check is carried out with the engine(s) running
and of coarse all the necessary safety precautions have to be The delivery nozzle position should be check in relation to the
observed. The following operations are carried out prior to the overshoe grooves and it should be cleared of any deposits.
ground run.
The overshoe grooves must be straight and free from
The overshoe grooves are checked to ensure that there is no deformations and other damage.
build up of gummy deposits obstructing the flow of fluid
The adherence of the overshoe to the blade must be tested for
(cleaning will be discussed later in this booklet).
loss of adhesion to the cement.
The blades should be painted with a disclosing fluid or
Care must be observed on propeller removal or fitment to
whitewash, as directed by the propeller manufacturer.
prevent damage to the feed pipes and distortion of the slinger
A dye should be added to the contents of the de-icing tank. ring.
The engine is then run at the RPM laid down in the manual. Feed pipes must be correctly and adequately clamped to
prevent movement due to vibration.
For a specified period the system is turned on, and at the
correct rate if a rheostat is fitted.
ELECTRICAL DE-ICING SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
The fluid with added dye will stain the disclosing fluid and when
Tests of the system must be carried out when the servicing
the engine has stopped the blades van be examined for even
schedule required it or when a component has been replaced.
distribution.
Typical tests are outlined below.
Inspection Continuity and resistance checks should be carried out before
the installation of a propeller or when the efficiency of an
The ice protection system should be inspected regularly to
overshoe's heating surface is suspect. The values of resistance
ensure its efficient operation. The following points should be
that the elements should have are laid down in the Maintenance
examined.
Manual.

Insulation checks are required to ensure that there is no are fitted a contact check should be carried out to ensure an
breakdown of the element's insulation from the propeller blades 80% minimum area is touching the slip ring. Some brush box
or other metallic objects. assemblies are balanced so care must be taken to ensure that
the assembly's parts are kept together. On replacement of the
Voltage proof checks are used to ensure that no insulation
brush gear the engine should be run to bed in the brushes, after
breakdown exists between the blade and heater element. They
which a de-icing system test should be carried out.
involve applying a high voltage between the blade and element
and ensuring that no leakage exists. These checks are
normally carried out after repairs to the overshoe.
OVERSHOE INSPECTIONS
Functional tests of the ice protection system chan be carried out
noting the current displayed for each of the phases of a.c. The overshoes are prone to suffer damage due to their position
power on the flight deck ammeter. To prevent overheating of on the leading edges of the blades. The following inspections
the elements the engine must maintain a minimum speed while should be carried out frequently to detect any damage and
the heating is on, as this allows a flow of air over the blades and rectify it before more serious damage occurs.
engine intake. Some types of aircraft reduce the voltage of the Check for adhesion failures particularly at the tips and edges.
system when the air / ground sense is in the ground mode and
this lower voltage must be taken into account when monitoring Look for blisters in the rubber.
the ammeter. Look for erosion of the rubber that expose the protective gauze
or heater element.
Inspections & Servicing
Ensure the rubber has not turned spongy by being allowed to
Apart from frequency inspections of the overshoes for damage come into contact with solvents.
very little inspection is required on this type of ice protection
system. The brush gear must be checked at frequency intervals If a lightning strike is suspected look carefully for burnt out
and the brushes should be replaced when their length is below heater elements.
the minimum specified by the manufacturer. The brushes are
fragile and should be handled carefully. They should be free to
slide in their holder. Brushes wear more quickly in wet and
dusty conditions so more frequent monitoring is required where
these climatic conditions exist. The slip rings should be clean
and free from carbon build up. They can be cleaned using
white spirit and dried using lint free cloth. When new brushes

17.7 Propeller Storage and Preservation tubes and mounting cones, should be coated with lanolin and
waxed paper.
Installed Propellers
17.7.1 Preservation and De-preservation
Propellers installed on an engine which may be out of use for a
period of up to three months should be kept clean, and should When a variable-pitch propeller is disassembled for storage,
be inspected regularly for corrosion. The internal parts of a individual mechanical parts should be immersed in inhibiting oil,
variable-pitch propeller will be protected by exercising the then allowed to drain, bearings should be coated with mineral
propeller during weekly engine runs where these are possible, jelly, and electrical connections should be smeared with
but, if the engine cannot be run, the propeller should be petroleum jelly. All electrical equipment, such as motors and
feathered and unfeathered using the feathering pump. If the slip rings, should be thoroughly cleaned, the connections
engine is likely to be out of use for more than three months, the smeared with petroleum jelly, external surfaces should be
propeller mechanism should be flushed with inhibiting oil, and treated with a rust preventative, and each part sealed in a
all external parts of the propeller should be treated with lanolin moisture vapour proof bag. All parts of the propeller should be
or an approved rust preventative. The propeller operating wrapped in waxed paper and, if possible, packed in a suitable
mechanism should be covered with waxed paper, and all visible carton or crate.
parts should be regularly inspected for corrosion.
When assembled propellers or pre-loaded blade assemblies are
Uuninstalled Propellers held in storage, the bearings must be exercised after six months
and nine months. At the end of twelve months in storage the
Uninstalled propellers should be stored in conditions which are bearings must be removed and examined for brinelling and
clean, dry, warm and free from corrosive fumes. Two-bladed corrosion, and, if they are found to be satisfactory, they should
propellers are usually stored in racks to permit free circulation of be cleaned, greased, and re-assembled on the blade. They will
air, but propellers with more than two blades may be stored then be satisfactory for a further six months storage.
vertically, on stands, to minimise the amount of floor space they
occupy. Propellers should be retained in the manufacturer's
packaging whenever possible, or wrapped in mouldable wrap
and waxed paper. The external parts of metal propellers should
be coated with lanolin or an approved alternative. The pitch
change mechanism of a hydraulically operated propeller should
be inhibited with an approved oil, and all loose parts, such as oil

END OF MODULE

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Faculty of Transport Engineering Technologies

School of Aeronautical Engineering

Amendment Incorporated Date Annual Completed by Date

Table of Contents____________________________________ 3 17.3.2 Feathering and Reverse Pitch ___________________ 63

Summary __________________________________________ 4 17.3.2 FEATHERING AND REVERSE PITCH _______________ 80

EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 3 of 117

The information contained herein is for instructional purposes

The format used is based on EASA Regulation (EC) No

EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 4 of 117

As the science of Aerodynamics evolved in wing design with the

Fig. 1.3. Latest research and development Thrust

EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 5 of 117

The purpose of a propeller is to convert the rotary brake

Fig. 1.4. Thrust generation differences between

EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 6 of 117

A propeller usually consists of two or more aerofoil shaped

Fig.1.5. Fixed pitch laminated wood propeller design.

Aluminium propellers are the most commonly used types. They

Fig.1.7. Variable Pitch propeller design

EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 7 of 117

Fig.1.8. Tractor and Pusher Propeller installations.

Increase in power output has resulted in the development of

EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 8 of 117

17.1.1 Blade Element Theory

Fig.1.9. Comparison of Forces on an Aerofoil and

EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 9 of 117

It is important to know and understand the terminology used to

Angle of Attack - The acute angle between the cord line of a

Axis of Rotation - The centre-line about which the propeller

Back - ref; Propeller Blade. Also known as;- Blade Camber.-

Blade Reference line.- A position marked on the thrust face of

Blade Station.- A distance measured from the centre of the hub

Blade Twist – The reduction in pitch angle from blade shank to

Boss - The centre portion of a fixed pitch propeller.

EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 10 of 117

Cord Line.- An imaginary line extending from the tip of the

Face - The flat or thrust side of the blade corresponding to the

Hub - The centre of the propeller which is attached to the

Leading Edge - The most forward edge of the propeller blade.

Plane of Rotation - The plane in which the propeller rotates

Fig.1.12. Blade terminology and Station reference

Fig.1.11. Propeller blade terminology

EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 11 of 117

EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 12 of 117

Blade Twist With a fixed-pitch propeller, the amount of air propelled

The operational performance of propellers is based on

To get the optimum performance out of a propeller, the blade

A low A of A is required for Take-off and Climb . A high A of A

Fig.1.15. Path of blade section showing variation in

EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 13 of 117

With zero angle of attack the thrust is zero.

Fig.1.16. The four primary, blade angle settings of a variable

17.1.3 Propeller Slip

 Geometric Pitch. The distance the propeller would

Geometric Pitch - Advance / Rev

EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 14 of 117

17.1.4 Aerodynamic, Centrifugal and Thrust Forces

EASA Module 17 Propellers Page 15 of 117

Table of Contents__________________ 3 17.3.2 Feathering and Reverse Pitch _ 63

Summary ____________________________ 4 17.3.2 FEATHERING AND REVERSE PITCH _ 80