Introduction of Phaeophyceae (Brown Algae):

It is a large group of algae consisting of 240 genera and over 1,500 species out of
which 32 genera and 93 species are reported from India. They are commonly known
as brown algae, due to the presence of a golden brown xanthophyll pigment,
fucoxanthin (C40H54O6) in the chromatophores.
About 99.7% members are marine and a few grow in fresh water. The fresh water
members are Pleurocladia, Heribaudiella, Pseudobodanella, Lithoderma and
Sphacelaria. Members like Pleurocladia lacustris grow both in fresh water and
marine habitats.

The important characteristics of the class Phaeophyceae are given

below:
1. Plant body is immobile, multicellular and highly differentiated both externally and
internally. [Unicellular, colonial (motile and non-motile) and unbranched
filamentous forms are completely absent).

2. They range from simple microscopic heterotrichous filament (Ectocarpus) to

largest alga (Macrocystis pyrifera), which attains a length of 60-90 meters. (The
largest forms are known as kelps or rockweeds. Lessonia davicans reachs a length of
4 meters and looks like a miniature tree. Nereocystis luelkeana, the bladder kelp
which attains a length of 25-30 meters. Postelsia palmae- formis appears like a palm
tree and commonly known as Sea Palm) (Fig. 3.109).
3. Commonly the plant body is differentiated into hold fast, a short or elongated
stipe and an expanded blade. The blade performs photosynthesis and bears
reproductive structures. Many species remain afloat by having air bladders.
4. The photosynthetic pigments include chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c, β-carotene and
xanthophylls like lutein, fucoxanthin, flavoxanthin and violaxanthin. The fucoxan-
thin is however present sufficiently which partially mask the chlorophyll and
carotenoid, thereby giving the characteristic brown colouration.

5. The growth of the plant body may be apical (Fucales, Dictyotales), intercalary
(Laminariales) or trichothallic (Ectocarpales).

6. The cell wall is differentiated into outer and inner layers. The outer mucilaginous
layer has fucinic and alginic acid, but the inner layer is mainly cellulosic. [The alginic
acid is used to manufacture artificial silk and adhesive, obtained commercially from
Sargassum, Laminaria etc].

7. The cells usually have many small vesicles and white granules. The granules are
called fucosan vesicles.

8. Pyrenoides are usually absent, but, if present, is of single stalk type.

9. Motile structures (zoospores and gametes) have two laterally inserted unequal
flagella, of which larger one is tinsel or pantonema- tic and the smaller one is
whiplash or acronematic type.

10. The reserve foods are commonly laminarin and mannitol. Sucrose and glycerol
are also present in some members.

11. They reproduce by all the three means: vegetative, asexual and sexual.

a. Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation. Special reproductive bran-

ches, the propagules, are developed in some members of Sphacelariales; those
develop to new plants after detachment.

b. Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores except Tilopteridales, Dictyotales

and Fucales. The zoospores produced in unilocular sporangia are haploid, while in
pleurilocular sporangia they are diploid.

c. Sexual reproduction ranges from isogamy (Ectocarpales and Sphacelariales) to

oogamy (Fucales, Dictyotales and Laminariales) through anisogamy (Cutleriales and
Tilopteridales).
12. In most of the members fertilisation is external. Zygote does not undergo meiotic
division and on germination it develops diploid thallus.

13. The members show various types of alternation of generations i.e., isomorphic
(Ectocarpus), heteromorphic (Laminaria) or diplontic (Sargassum).

Phaeophyta Classification
Domain Eukaryota (Presence of membrane-bound cell organelles.)
Kingdo
Protista - Simple organisms, usually microscopic, seaweed are exceptions.
m
Phylum Heterokontophyta - Algae with chlorophyll a and c.
Class Phaeophyceae - Brown algae having pigment fucoxanthin.
Order Fucales, Laminarales, Dictyotales, Ectocarpales
Family Fucaceae
Genus Fucus
Species distichus, serratus, spiralis, vesiculosus

Orders;-
Important orders in the Phaeophyceae class as formulated by Dr. F.E.
Fritsch are as follows:
According to Dr. F.E. Fritsch, there are nine orders in this class:

1.Ectocarpales, 2. Tilopteridales 3. Cutleriales, 4. Sporochnales, 5.

Desmarestiales, 6. Laminariales 7. Sphacelariales, 8. Dictyotales, 9. Fucales.

The outline of Taylor’s system is as follows. About 12 orders are included in this
sytstem. The whole class is divided into three sub-classes.

Three sub-classes are:

I. Isogeneratae. Isomorphic alternation of generations.

II. Heterogeneratae. Heteromorphic alternation of genemaions.

III. Cylosporeae. Diplontic type of life cycle.

The sub-class Isogeneratae includes 5 orders.

1. Ectocarpales:
Branched heterotrichous filamentous body; trichothallic growth; reproductive
bodies terminal or intercalary, single or in chain; the sporophyte produces zoospores
or neutral spors (2n); isogamy.

2. Sphacelariales:
Growth by single large apical cell segments formed which frequently divide
lengthwise in a regular polysiphonous manner; sporophyte may produce haploid or
diploid zoospores; iso or anisogamy.

3. Tilopteridales:

Thallus freely branched showing trichothallic growth, upper portion

monosiphonous; lower portion polysiphonous; sporophytes produce unilocular
sporangia only, each containing a single quadrinucleate aplanospore; gametangia are
intercalary; doubtful oogamy.

4. Cutleriales:
Thallus flattened, blade-like or disc-like, dichotomously branched, trichothallic
growth; the sporophyte produces unilocular sporangia only; anisogamy.

5. Dictyotales:
Erect flattened dichotomously branched parenchymatous thallus; growth by a single
apical cell or a marginal row of special cells; the unicellular sporangia of sporophyte
each produces 4 or 8 aplanospores; oogamy.

The sub-class Heterogeneratae includes two series and six orders.

Series 1. Haplostichineae. Growth trichothallic; thallus consists of one or more

filaments.
Series 2. Polystichineae. Trichothallic growth absent; longitudinal and transverse
intercalary cells form a parenchyma.

Three orders are included in Series Haplostichineae.

1. Chordariales:
Branched filamentous sporophyte; isogamous.

2. Sporochanles:
Each branch of the sporophyte terminates in a tuft of hairs; growth is trichothallic
due to intercalary cell division at the base of each hair; the unicellular sporangia are
borne terminally in dense clusters; plurilocular sporangia absent; oogamy.

3. Desmarestiales:
The thallus has a single filament of each growing apex posterior to which there is
pseudoparenchymatous cortication, the thallus is macroscopic; oogamy,
gametophyte microscopic.

Three orders are included in Series Polystichineae.

1. Punctariales:
Parenchymatous, sporophyte of medium size; reproductive organs may or may not
be borne in sori; the sporophyte reproduces by zoospores; iso or Anisogamy.
gametophyte microscopic.

2. Dictyosiphonales:
Profusely branched cylindrical thallus, growth by single apical cells; sporophyte
produces unilocular sporangia only; isogamy, gametophyte microscopic.

3. Laminariales:
Sporophyte differentiated into a holdfast stipe, and blades; growth by intercalary
meristem; internal structure of thallus is differentiated into epidermis, cortex and
medulla, the medulla shows ‘trumpet hyphae’ with callus pads; oogamy,
gametophyte microscopic; the sporophyte bears only unicellular sporangia in sori.

The sub-class Cyclosporeae includes a single order Fucales.

Order-Fucales:
Life cycle is diplontic; growth by single apical cell, thallus parenchymatous;
unilocular sporangia borne in conceptacles; the egg is liberated in the water prior to
fusion.

The phaeophyte life cycle

Most brown algae have a sexual alternation of generations between two different
multicellular stages. The differences in life cycle define a number of orders, some
with a dominant diploid phase, and some with isomorphic phases, that is, they are
quite similar in appearance to each other. Some, such as the Fucales, have no free-
living gametophyte stage at all.

The largest kelps are diploid, and release flagellated swimming sperm into the water
to find egg cells. It has been shown that chemical signals called pheromones aid the
sperm in their quest in at least some phaeophytes.

Introduction of Rhodophyceae (Red Algae):

It is a large group of algae consisting of about 831 genera and over 5;250 species.
They are commonly known as red algae due to the presence of a water soluble red
pigment, r- phycoerythrin. The r-phycoerythrin is, however, present sufficiently and
completely to mask the chlorophyll a, giving the characteristic red colouration. More
than 98% members are marine and the rest grow in fresh water.

The fresh water members grow in stagnant water (e.g., Asterocystis, Compsopogon
etc.) as well as in flowing water (e.g., Lamanea, Thorea, Batrachospermum etc.). The
marine species have the ability to live at greater depth (even at 30-90 meters) than
the other members of different classes. They also exhibit a high degree of parasitism
and epiphytism. The parasitic members show great reduction in their size and
pigmentation.

Some parasitic members are Ceramium condicola on Codium fragile, Polysiphonia

lanosa on Ascophyllum nodosum etc. The epiphytic members like Rhodochorton,
Ceratocolax etc. grow on other members of Rhodophyceae. Porphyridium, a
unicellular member, is terrestrial and grow on damp soil. Marine members
commonly grow in sublittorial zone, but a few members like Rhodocorton, Corallina
and Bostrychia grow in intertidal zone.

Characteristics of Rhodophyceae (Red Algae):

1. Most of the members (more than 98%) are marine and 20 species (as per report)
grow in fresh water. The members may grow either as saprophytes, parasites and
also as epiphytes.

2. The plant body may be unicellular (Porphyridium) or multicellular. The multi-

cellular form may be filamentous (Gonio- trichum), parenchymatous (Porphyra,
Crinellia), pseudoparenchymatous (Helmin- thocladia), feathery (Polysiphonia) or
ribbon like (Chondrus) (Fig. 3.130).

3. They do not attain the size like that of the brown algae (Phaeophyceae), but may
reach up to 2 meters in Schizymenia (Abbott, 1967).

4. The flagellated motile stages are totally absent.

5. The cell wall consists of outer pectic and inner cellulosic layer. The mucilaginous
material of the outer layer mainly consists of agar-agar and carrageenans and
constitute major portion of dry weight of the cell wall.

6. In multicellular forms, the cell walls have pits, through which cytoplasmic connec-
tions are maintained. These cytoplasmic threads are the so-called plasmodesmata.
(E.M. studies have not confirmed it.)
7. The members of Rhodophyceae show much variation in the number of nuclei in a
cell. In the subclass Bangioideae, cells are uninucleate, but in the subclass Florideae
most of the members are multinucleate and the number of nuclei is 3,000-4,000 in
Griffithsia.

8. The cells may have one chromatophore with a central pyrenoid (Bangioideae) or
many discoid and parietal chromatophores with pyrenoids (Florideae).

9. The photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b; α- and β-carotene;

xantho- phylls like teraxanthin, lutein, violaxanthin, zeaxanthin, flavoxanthin and
biliproteins such as r-phycoerythrin and r-phycocyanin. The characteristic red
colouration of the algae is due to the sufficient presence of r-phycoerythrin which
completely masks the chlorophyll a. [The chief Xanthcphyll is teraxanthin and
chlorophyll b is absent.]

10. The reserve food is floridean starch, floridi- side and mannoglycerate.

11. Reproduction takes place by all the three means: vegetative, asexual and sexual.

a. Vegetative reproduction takes place only in unicellular form.

b. Asexual reproduction takes place by monospore, neutral spore, carpospore,

bispore, and tetraspore.

c. Sexual reproduction is of advanced oogamous types.

i. The male sex organs are known as spermatangium. Single non- flagellate male
gamete is produced in each spermatangium, called spermatium.

ii. The female sex organs are called carpogonia or procarp. Carpogonia are flask-
shaped with a long neck, the trichogyne.

12. During fertilisation, the spermatium comes in contact with the trichogyne with
the help of water current.
13. In Rhodophyceae the post-fertilization changes are highly elaborate. They
develop carposporophyte. Carposporangia are developed from each carposporophyte
and each carposporangium produces single carpospore.

14. Most of the Rhodophycean members show biphasic or triphasic life cycle
patterns.

Classification of Rhodophyceae (Red Algae):

Fritsch (1935, 45) classified the Class. Rhodophyceae into two sub-classes and seven
orders.

The outline of the classification is given:

Class. Rhodophyceae

Sub-class Bangioideae

Order. 1. Bangiales

Sub-class Florideae

Order. 1. Nemalionales

2. Gelidiales

3. Cryptonemiales

4. Gigartinales

5. Rhodymeniales

6. Ceramiales

Gelidiales ;-
 The Gelidiales is a relatively small order of red algae containing ca.
130-140 species placed in ten recognized genera. Many gelidialean
species are economically important as sources of high quality
agars. The order is defined by the unique set of characters listed
below.

Species within the Gelidiales share a unique set of characters that make
this a well-defined order of red algae. These characters include:

• a triphasic life history with isomorphic gameto- and

tetrasporophytes

• agar as a cell wall component

• pit plugs with a single cap layer

• a special "Gelidium-type" spore germination pattern

• uniaxial filaments that branch in three planes forming a

pseudoparenchyma

• intercalary carpogonia that after fertilization produce

gonimoblasts that connect to nutritive cells

• transversely divided spermatangia

Creamiales ;-
It iscomposed of reddish filaments with a distinct main axis with hexagonal-
shaped cells and smaller, pinnate, determinate lateral branches that may
rebranch. The apical cell is typically quite long in B. prieurii (43–89 μm in
length). Plants typically are small (3–15 mm). They can reproduce by the
production of monosporangia. Choi et al.(2000) have proposed that marine
species of this genus from Australia are not members of the Ceramiales,
based on the presence of two pit plug cap layers and positioning in 18S rRNA
gene trees. However, they were unable to resolve the status of the freshwater
species, B. prieurii.
Life cycle of rhydophtya;-
Red algae are haplo-diplonts with a complicated life cycle that often involves three phases.
Characteristical for Red algae is that no motile stage occurs during the entire life cycle. The spores and
gametes are transported by the water in a passive manner. In the sexual reproduction only oogamy is
observed. oogamy is a type of anisogamy (unegual gamets) in whch the egg cell is large and non-motile,
in contrast to the sperms. In red algae the egg cell develops in a female gametangium, called
carpogonium. It is here that fertilization occurs. The sperms are produced in a own spermatangium
(male gametangium), but lack an own motility apparatus.

During the life cycle of Polysiphonia, the three following phases can be distinguished (scheme here
above):
A. (Orange background)
Starting from spores, male and female heterothallic (different thalli) gametophytes develop after
germination. On a fertile side-trichoblast spermatangia develop which eventually give rise to spermatia
(male gametes). On (short) trichoblasts on the female part, carpogonia are formed that give rise to egg
cells.
B. (Green background)
The egg cell is fertilized in the carpogonium and also the outgrowth of the zygote happens in the female
gametophyte. The thus formed carposporophyte remains on the gametophyte! On the carposporophyte
sporangiae surrounded by sterile "tissue" develop: the cystocarp. Through mitotic divisions spores are
released from these carposporangia in the cystocarp. These spores are called carposporen.
C. (Blue background)
The carpospores don't develop to a gametophyte (which should be the case if the alternation of
generation was diphasic), but they grow to form so-called tetrasporophytes. On this second kind of
sporophyte tetrasporangia are formed which go through meiosis and produce tetraspores. From the
four (= tetra) spores in the average two male and two female gametophyte develop. In tetraspore
heterospory occurs.