TOPIC: PLANT TAXONOMY

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

Plant taxonomy deals with the classification of plants according to certain set rules. The term taxonomy
was coined by the Swiss botanist A. P. de Candolle in his book “Théorie élémentaire de la botanique”.

Plant taxonomy can be defined as the branch of botany which deals with characterisation, identification,
classification and nomenclature of plants based on their similarities and differences.

The goals of plant taxonomy are:

1. Identification: identify the unknown species based on its characteristics and by comparing with
already existing species. Identification is the process of recognizing an organism’s essential
characteristics.
2. Characterization: to describe all the characteristics of the newly identified species
3. Classification: placing and arranging the known species into different groups or taxa according to
similarities and dissimilarities
4. Nomenclature: giving the scientific name according to the convention

Systems of biological classification

There are three main types of systems for plant classification. Here is the list of systems of plant taxonomy:

1. Artificial system of Classification

2. Natural system of Classification
3. Phylogenetic system of Classification
1. Artificial systems: Artificial systems were the earliest systems, which attempted to classify organisms
based on a few superficial characters.

Carl Linnaeus is known as the “Father of Modern Taxonomy”. In his book “Systema Naturae”
(1735), he gave the hierarchical system of classification of the natural world into the plant kingdom, the
animal kingdom and mineral kingdom..

Linnaeus kept on adding new work to his publications. In “Species Plantarum” (1753), he gave a brief
description of all the species known to him. He gave the Binomial nomenclature system. In “Philosophia
Botanica”, he had given rules for naming every species.

2. Natural systems:

In this system of classification, more characters were considered while classifying. It was based on the
natural similarities of vegetative and floral characters among the organisms.

Bentham and Hooker system of classification was the most important natural system of classification of
flowering plants. They classified plants into Cryptogams (non-flowering plants)
and Phanerogams (flowering plants).

The Bentham and Hooker system of classification was published in the book “Genera Plantarum” in three
issues over the years 1862 to 1883.
3. The Phylogenetic system of Classification:

This system is based on evolutionary sequence and genetic relationship. The phylogenetic system of
classification was developed after the publication of Darwin’s theory of evolution.

These are based on evolutionary relationships among organisms. This assumes that organisms in the same
taxa have a common ancestor.

The Kingdom Plantae

All members of the plant kingdom share common features.

Plants:
 are made of more than one cell. We call them multicellular
 have cell walls
 mainly cannot move
 make their own food
The plant kingdom can be divided into groups based on plant structures. Plants with similar structures are
grouped together. In the plant kingdom, these groups are called divisions.

Plant Divisions

Plants can first be divided into two groups.

These are plants that make seeds and plants
that do not make seeds. We call the subdivision
of plants that make seeds phanerogams. We
call the subdivision that does not make
seeds cryptogams.

A. Cryptogams - The word ‘Cryptogams

(Cryptogamae)’ means hidden reproduction. It is made up of two Greek words “KRYPTOS” which
means concealed and “GAMOS” which means marriage. Cryptogams are flowerless and seedless
plants. These plants bear no flowers and fruits. Cryptogams include all non-seed bearing plants.

a. ALGAE (CHLOROPHYTA)
- Simple, thalloid, autotrophic, chlorophyll-bearing and aquatic (fresh water & marine)
organisms.
-They also occur in moist stones, soils & wood.
-Some occur in association with fun (lichen) and animals (e.g. on sloth bear).
The form and size of algae is highly variable.
• Microscopic unicellular forms: E.g. Chlamydomonas.
• Colonial forms: E.g. Volvox.
• Filamentous forms: E.g. Ulothrix and Spirogyra.
Reproduction:
► Vegetative reproduction: By fragmentation. Each fragment develops into a thallus.
► Asexual reproduction: By the production of spores. E.g. zoospores (most common). They are flagellated
(motile). They germinate to give rise to new plants. Sexual reproduction: Through fusion of two gametes.

Sexual reproduction has many types:

 Isogamous: Fusion of gametes similar in size. They may be flagellated (e.g. Ulothrix) or non-
flagellated (non- motile, e.g. Spirogyra).
Anisogamous: Fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size.
E.g. Some species of Eudorina.
Oogamous: Fusion between one large, non-motile (static) female gamete and a smaller, motile male
gamete.
E.g. Volvox, Fucus.
Benefits of algae:
1. Through photosynthesis, they fix half of the total CO₂ on earth and increase the level of dissolved
oxygen.
2. They are the primary producers and the basis of the food cycles of all aquatic animals.
3. About 70 species of marine algae are used as food.
E.g. Porphyra, Laminaria & Sargassum.
4. Agar (from Gelidium & Gracilaria) is used to grow microbes and in ice- creams & jellies.
5.Some marine brown & red algae prodace hydrocolloids (water holding substances).
E.g. algin (brown algae) & carrageen (red algae). These are used commercially.
6. Protein-rich unicellular algae like Chlorella & Spirullina are used as food supplements by space travelers.
Classes of algae

1. Green algae (Chlorophyceae)

-Unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
-Usually grass green due to the pigments chlorophyll a & b in chloroplasts.
The chloroplasts may be discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-shaped in
different species.
- Most of them have one or more pyrenoids (storage bodies) located in chloroplasts. Pyrenoids
contain protein besides starch.
- Some algae store food as oil droplets.
- They have rigid cell wall made of an inner cellulose layer and an outer pectose layer.
E.g. Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra & Chara.
2. Brown Algae (Phaeophyceae)
- They are mostly marine forms.
- They show great variation in size & form. They range from simple branched,
filamentous forms (E.g. Ectocarpus) to profusely branched forms (e.g. kelps- 100 m in
height).
- They have chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids & xanthophylls.
- They vary in color from olive green to brown depending upon the amount of a
xanthophyll pigment, fucoxanthin.
- Food is stored as complex carbohydrates (laminarin or mannitol).
- The vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall covered by a gelatinous coating of algin.
- Protoplast contains plastids, central vacuole and nucleus.
- Plant body is attached to substratum by a holdfast, and has a stalk (stipe) and leaf like
photosynthetic organ (frond).
- E.g. Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum & Fucus.
3. Red algae ( Rhodophycease)
-They have red thalli due to the red pigment, r-phycoerythrin.
-Majority are marine especially in warmer areas.
-They occur in both well-lighted regions close to the surface of water and at -great depths in
oceans where relatively little light penetrates.
 -Most of them are multicellular.
-Some have complex body organisation.
-The food is stored as floridean starch which is structurally very similar to amylopectin &
glycogen.
E.g. Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracilaria and Gelidium.

b. BRYOPHYTES

-They are called amphibians of the plant kingdom because they can live in soil but need water for sexual
reproduction.
-They occur in damp, humid and shaded localities.
-Body is more differentiated than that of algae. It is thallus-like and prostrate or erect, and attached to the
substratum by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids.
-They lack true roots, stem or leaves. They may possess root-like, leaf-like or stem-like structures.
-The main plant body is haploid. It produces gametes, hence is called a gametophyte.
-Zygotes do not undergo meiosis immediately. They produce a multicellular body called a sporophyte.
-Sporophyte is not free-living but attached to the photosynthetic gametophyte and derives nourishment from
it. Some cells of the sporophyte undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores. These spores germinate to form
gametophyte.
Importance of Bryophytes
1. Some mosses provide food for herbaceous mammals, birds, etc.
2. Species of Sphagnum (a moss) provide peat. It is used as fuel. It has water holding capacity
so that used as packing material for trans-shipment of living material.
3. They are ecologically important because of their role in plant succession on bare rocks/soil.
Mosses along with lichens decompose rocks making the substrate suitable for the growth of
higher plants.
4. Since mosses form dense mats on the soil, they can prevent soil erosion.

TYPES OF BRYOPHYTES
1. Liverworts
-They grow usually in moist, shady habitats such as banks of streams, marshy ground, damp
soil, bark of trees and deep in the woods.
-Their plant body is thalloid. E.g. Marchantia.
-Thallus is dorsi-ventral and closely appressed to the substrate.
-The leafy members have tiny leaf-like appendages in two rows on the stem- like structures.
Reproduction:
a. Asexual reproduction
▸ By fragmentation of thalli, or by the formation of gemmae (sing. gemma).
Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds that develop in small receptacles (gemma
cups) on the thalli.
The gemmae are detached from the parent body and germinate to form new individuals.
b. Sexual reproduction
▸ Male and female sex organs are produced on the same or different thalli.
▸ Sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and capsule.
▸ After meiosis, spores are produced within the capsule.
▸ These spores germinate to form free- living gametophytes.
2. Mosses
- The predominant stage of the life cycle of a moss is the gametophyte.
It consists of two stages:
 First stage: Protonema stage -Protonema stage: It develops directly
from a spore. It is a creeping, green, branched and frequently filamentous stage.
Second stage: Leafy stage- Leafy stage: It develops from the
secondary protonema as a lateral bud. They consist of upright, slender axes bearing spirally
arranged leave They are attached to soil through multicellular and branched rhizoids. This
stage bears the sex organs.
Reproduction
a. Vegetative reproduction- By fragmentation and budding in the secondary protonema.
b. Sexual reproduction
-The antheridia & archegonia are produced at the apex of leafy shoots. After
fertilization, zygote develops to a sporophyte having a foot, seta & capsule.
-The sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate than that in liverworts.
-The capsule contains spores. Spores are formed after meiosis.
-Mosses have an elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal

C. PTERIDOPHYTES
-They include horsetails and ferns.
-They are found in cool, damp, shady places. Some flourish well in sandy soil conditions.
-Evolutionarily, they are the first terrestrial plants to possess vascular tissues (xylem & phloem).
-In bryophytes, the dominant phase is the gametophyte. In pteridophytes, the dominant phase (main plant
body) is a sporophyte. It is differentiated into true root, stem and leaves. -These organs have well-
differentiated vascular tissues. The leaves in pteridophyta are small (microphylls) as in Selaginella or large
(macrophylls) as in ferns.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
► They are used for medicinal purposes.
►They are used as soil- binders.
► They are grown as ornamentals.

REPRODUCTION:
-The sporophytes bear sporangia that are subtended by leaf-like appendages called sporophylls.
-In some cases, sporophylls form distinct compact structures called strobili or cones (E.g. Selaginella,
Equisetum).
-Sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore mother cells. The spores germinate to give inconspicuous,
small, multicellular, free-living, mostly photosynthetic thalloid gametophytes called prothallus.
-Prothallus requires cool, damp, shady places to grow. Also, it needs water for fertilization. So, the spread of
pteridophytes is limited and restricted to narrow geographical regions.
-The gametophytes (prothallus) bear male and female sex organs called antheridia and archegonia,
respectively.
-Water is needed for the transfer of antherozoids (male gametes from antheridia) to the mouth of
archegonium.
- Antherozoid fuses with the egg in the archegonium to form a zygote.
-Zygote develops to a multicellular well- well-differentiated sporophyte.
-Most of the pteridophytes produce similar kinds of spores (homosporous plants).
-Others produce two kinds of spores, macro (mega) & micro spores. They are heterosporous. E.g.
Selaginella & Salvinia.
-The megaspores & microspores germinate and give rise to female and male gametophytes, respectively.
The female gametophytes are retained on the parent sporophytes for variable periods.
CLASSES OF PTERIDOPHYTES
1. Psilopsida
2. Lycopsida
3. Sphenopsida
4. Pteropsida

B. Phanerogams -are seed bearing plants. These are most advanced plants. The word Phanerogams
(or Phanerogamae) is made up of two Greek words “FANEROS” which means evident and “GAMOS”
which means marriage. These are also known as spermatophytes. The word spermatophyte is also
made from two Greek words “SPERMA” which means seed and “PHYTON” which means plant.
Phanerogams are terrestrial plants and are more advanced than cryptogams. These are also called
flowering plants.

a. GYMNOSPERMS

- (gymnos: naked, sperma: seeds) are plants in which the ovules are not enclosed by
ovary wall and remain exposed before and after fertilization.

- Seeds that develop post- fertilization are not covered (naked).

- They include medium- sized trees or tall trees and shrubs.

- The gymnosperm, Sequoia (giant redwood) is the tallest tree species.

- The roots are generally tap roots.

- Roots in some genera have fungal association in the form of mycorrhiza (E.g. Pinus).

- In plants like Cycas, small specialized roots (coralloid roots) are associated with N₂-
fixing cyanobacteria.

- Stems are unbranched (Cycas) or branched (Pinus, Cedrus).

Reproduction:
► Gymnosperms are heterosporous. They produce haploid microspores and megaspores.
▸Some leaves are modified into sporophylls. They are compactly and spirally arranged along an axis
to form lax or strobili or cones.
▸ Sporophylls bear sporangia in which spores are produced.
▸ Sporophylls are 2 types:

1. Microsporophylls
- They are arranged to male strobili (microsporangiate).
- They bear microsporangia.
- The microspores develop into male gametophytes. It is highly reduced and confined to
only a limited number of cells. This gametophyte is called a pollen grain.
 - The pollen grains are developed within the microsporangia.

2. Megasporophylls
-They are arranged to female strobili (macrosporangiate).
- They bear megasporangia (ovules).
- Megasporangium mainly consists of a body called nucellus. It is protected by envelopes.
- The megaspore mother cell is differentiated from a cell of the nucellus.
-Megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to form four megaspores.
- One of the megaspores enclosed within the Megasporangium (nucellus) develops into a
multicellular female gametophyte that bears two or more archegonia.
- The multicellular female gametophyte is also retained within megasporangium.
Classes of Gymnosperms:
1. CYADALES
 They are dioecious (meaning: separate male or female).
 Cyadales group of gymnosperms are found in tropical areas that originally originated in the
Triassic period.
 Cyadales are represented by both living members and fossils.
 They are woody, wood is monoxylic.
 Leaves are pinnately compound. Young leaves with Circinate Ptyxix.
 Megasporophyll does not form female cones, Cyadales cones are large with many fertile
leaves. E.g. sporophylls arranged into cones.
 Male gamete is motile.
 Cycadales are commonly called pandas of the plant kingdom.
 They are used as ornamental plants because their shape is beautiful.
 Examples: Cycas, Zamia.
2. GINKGOALES
 Ginkgoales are represented by living members.
 Wood is pycnoxylic.
 Sperm are motile and contains spiral bands of flagella and multicillated.
 Dichotomous venation is generally present in the leaves.
 Ginkgoales contain only one extant species which is Ginkgo biloba.
3. CONIFERALES
 They have a sporophytic plant body and the sporophytes are richly branched trees or shrubs.
 Vessels are absent.
 Wood is monoxylic.
 Schizogenous canals present that form resin.
 Male gametes are non-motile and multicliated and male and female cones are present in
Coniferales.
 Example: Sequoia, pinus, Thuya, Taxus, Aravcaria, etc.
4. GNETALES
 They form connecting link between angiosperm and gymnosperms.
 Wood is pycnoxylic.
 Shrubs and small trees belong to Gnetales.
 The reproductive structure of Gnetales orders plants is almost similar to flowering plants.
 Embryo with 2 cotyledons.
 The ovule is nacked but bitegmic.
 Examples: Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwischia.

b. ANGIOSPERM
- Exceptionally large group of plants
- They range in size from tiny. almost microscopic Wolffia to tall trees of Eucalyptus (over 100
metres).
- Angiosperms are a plant group with flowers that produce seeds enclosed within a carpel. In other
words, these are flowering plants that produce seeds within a fruit.
 They are divided into two classes:
1. DICOTYLEDONS -Have 2 cotyledons in seeds.
-Reticulate venations in leaves.
-Tetramerous or pentamerous flowers (4 or 5 members in each floral
whorl).
2. MONOCOTYLEDONS -Have only one cotyledon.
-Parallel venation in leaves.
- Trimerous flowers (3 members in each floral whorl).
Reproduction:
-Flower is the reproductive structure.
-Male sex organ in a flower is the stamen.
-Each stamen consists of a filament with an anther at the tip. Within the anthers, the pollen mother
cell divides by meiosis to produce microspores which matures into pollen grains.
- Female sex organ in a flower is the pistil.
- It consists of a swollen ovary at its base, a long slender style & stigma.
- Ovary contains ovules.
- Pollen grains are dispersed from the anthers and carried by wind or other agencies to the stigma of a
pistil. It is called pollination.
- The pollen grains germinate on the stigma and the resulting pollen tubes grow through the tissues of
the stigma and style and reach the ovule.
- During these events, ovules develop into seeds and ovaries develop into fruit.
- The seeds are enclosed by fruits.
TOOLS FOR PLANT IDENTIFICATION (FLORAS, FIELD GUIDES)

INTRODUCTION:
A flora, which describes plants and their habitats, typically includes a dichotomous key for
identification and may feature range maps. The term "flora" originates from the Latin name of Flora, the
Roman goddess associated with plants, flowers, and fertility. Jules Thurmann is credited with creating the
first flora, focusing on the taxonomic composition of a community.
In ecology, flora broadly denotes the kingdom of plants but specifically refers to a group of plants in a
defined region or period. The counterpart for animals is called fauna. Hence, the combined term "flora and
fauna" encompasses the plant and animal life in a specific area. Scientists define flora as a group of plants
found in specific regions or geological periods. Flora, synonymous with vegetation, leafage, foliage, and
herbage, constitutes a kingdom with diverse members, ranging from small to giant plants, including trees.
CLASSIFICATION OF FLORA
Floras can be classified based on various criteria, including their scope, purpose, and the level of detail
they provide. Here are some common classifications:
Geographic Scope:
 Local Flora: Focuses on the plant life of a specific region or locality.
 Regional Flora: Covers a larger geographical area, such as a country or a continent.
 Global Flora: Encompasses the entire plant life of the world.
Taxonomic Scope:
 Complete Flora: Attempts to cover all plant species within a given region.
 Specialized Flora: Focuses on a specific group of plants, such as trees, wildflowers, or medicinal
plants.
Purpose and Content:
 General Flora: Provides basic information on a wide range of plants.
 Technical Flora: Includes detailed scientific information, often aimed at researchers and
professionals.
 Economic Flora: Emphasizes plants of economic importance, such as those used for food,
medicine, or industry.
Format:
  Printed Flora: Traditional, book-format publications that may include illustrations, keys, and
detailed descriptions.
 Digital Flora: Available in electronic formats, often interactive and linked to databases,
facilitating easier updates and searches.
Historical vs. Modern:
 Historical Flora: Represents early works that may lack modern taxonomic classifications and
use outdated nomenclature.
 Modern Flora: Incorporates contemporary taxonomic knowledge and follows current botanical
standards.
Level of Detail:
 Comprehensive Flora: Provides in-depth information on morphology, ecology, distribution, and
taxonomy.
 Concise Flora: Offers a more abbreviated account, often suitable for a general audience.
Collaborative vs. Individual Eff
 Collaborative Flora: Produced by a team of researchers, often covering a wide range of plant
species and incorporating diverse expertise.
 Individual Flora: Authored by a single botanist or a small group, focusing on a specific area or
group of plants.

TOOLS FOR IDENTIFYING PLANTS (FLORAS & FIELD GUIDES)

Plant identification can be facilitated by using various tools, including floras and field guides. Here are some
commonly used tools for plant identification:
Field Guides:
 Peterson Field Guides: These guides cover a wide range of flora and fauna and are known
for their detailed illustrations and concise information.
 National Audubon Society Field Guides: Similar to Peterson guides, Audubon guides are
popular for their detailed illustrations and comprehensive coverage.
 Sibley Guides: David Allen Sibley's guides are well-regarded for bird identification, but he
also has guides for trees and wildflowers.
Floras:
 Regional Floras: Many regions have specific floras that focus on the plant species found in
that particular area. Examples include "Flora of North America" or "Flora of the British Isles."
 Online Floras: Some floras are available online, providing digital resources for plant
identification. Websites like Flora of North America Online or the Flora of China are
examples.
Mobile Apps:
 PlantSnap: This app allows you to take a picture of a plant and uses image recognition
technology to identify it.
 iNaturalist: A citizen science app where users can upload pictures of plants (and other
organisms), and the community helps with identification.
 PlantNet: This app allows users to identify plants by taking pictures and comparing them to a
database of images.
Online Databases:
 USDA Plants Database: The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provides an
extensive database for plant identification.
 Flora Europaea Online: An online database for the flora of Europe.
 Botanical Gardens and Arboretums:
 Local botanical gardens and arboretums often have labeled plant collections, and some may
provide guides or maps to help visitors identify plants.

Keys and Dichotomous Guides:

 Botanical keys: Dichotomous keys are tools that use a series of choices to lead the user to the
correct identification of a plant.

Modern Taxonomic Advancements

With the advent of molecular biology, many techniques to identify genetic materials have been developed.
This has equipped us to compare individuals at different taxonomic levels and resolve the difficulties of
classifying them even if there is no fossil evidence.
1.Numerical taxonomy: It is done by using computers and all the observable characters are taken
into consideration. Each character is assigned with a code and a number. Hundreds of characters can
be considered together and given equal importance.
2. Cytotaxonomy: it utilizes cytological information like chromosome number, shape size, etc. to
understand the taxonomy.
3. Chemotaxonomy: The use of chemical constituents of plants for taxonomic studies is known as
chemotaxonomy. Proteins, amino acids, nucleic acids and peptides, starch grains, wax, fat, oil, and
phenols are studied in chemotaxonomy.
Importance of Plant Taxonomy
 It gives a detailed overview of various morphological and anatomical structures of a plant species
 It organizes all the information of plants in an orderly fashion
 It indicates the phylogenetic relationship between species and its ancestry
 Plant taxonomy enables to identify any unknown species and its place in the classification by
comparing with known species
 Analysis of genetic constituents can be done on the basis of systematics
 It is used to scientifically name any species, which helps in the uniformity of the name around the
world and avoids confusion
 It helps to understand the biodiversity present at a place
 It helps in recording all the living species known until now
 Taxonomy is widely used in agriculture, medicine and forestry