Snake Venom Antidote

Why a randomized double blind controlled study is missing ? Why we don’t have impartial independent truly scientific studies ? How an InVitro , claim of the manufacturer will constitute sufficient proof of effectiveness . As always , world play is substituted for actual effectiveness. What studies confirmed , the variations in nature & quality of venoms of snakes of the same species , but existing at geographically / regionally different locations ? 
How come everyone involved at the top are high ranking freemasons , british agents , and many non scientists.   
A major  reason  for  death  from a snakebite  is  fear.
When they say polyvalent antivenoms are only 25% effective ( while that too is actually not proven ) , how come its being administered extensively & promoted as if it is well proven ??
Detoxified ( how a detoxified venom is useful in creating immunity / resistence creating antivenom , since we are trying to create immunity / resistence against toxicity? what processes make it detoxified ? ) venom collected from 10’s of 1000’s of snakes of the same or different species ( for mono / poly valent ) injected into horse or certain other animals to make them immune / resistant  to  those venoms , then their blood is processed to make antivenom – the theory says .  How it is confirmed , these animals develop immunity / resistence to venoms – which study proves that ? How can polyvalent antivenom be effective at all , since the quantity of each will be much lesser than the quantity in monovalent? What about cross interactions between venoms , when put together – nullifying or even creating altogether different substance which could be dangerous or useless?  Is it proven scientifically ?  If at all , the particular animal becomes immune / resistant , what proof do we have to claim that the blood represents the immunity / resistence?  If at all the blood represents immunity / resistence , how do we isolate purified , immunity / resistence carrying material from that blood ? How do we identify / know that , a particular factor is the one carrying immunity / resistence ? What about the person taking the so called antivenom getting infested with the diseases of that animal? .  What about the health issues because of foreign bodies injected into human bodies? . What is the meaning of purification ? How it is made certain , that the so called purified antivenom is really safe , since we don’t know almost anything about what constitute blood? what processes make purified antivenom? 

Even when there is , supposedly,  randomized double blind control studies , proving the effectiveness & safety of medicines , we see them creating havocs and the products being recalled / banned for their previously unforeseen dangers and uselessness .  Since we don’t have any such studies in the cases of antivenom , what confirms the usefulness & safety ?
If death occurs after antivenom vaccine , how to confirm the cause of death –caused from venom or antivenom ??
Antivenom comes from the same people / gang that brought us , unproven virus & preventive vaccines & who claimed elephentiasis is caused by certain kinds of mosqitos & bcg is effective treatment for tuberculosis – All Fraudulent  , Baseless.   

What data do we have on snakes , its actions ?  when the bad effects of antivenom is confirmed / certain , grave , cab even cause death in many cases , do we have any credible truly scientific record proving the usefulness ? when death / complications occur , how do we identify the causes ? fear , effects of antivenom ? how the interpretation / confirmation by the medical cartel /mafia to be trusted ? what data do they have to substantiate their claims ?

More than 95% of the snakes are Non venomous . Of the venomous  ones , they will not be venomous all the time. Even when their fangs are full , mostly they give DRY bites , meaning they bite without injecting venom , seems like they don’t want to waste their venoms unnecessarily . 

Are we talking about truly scientific treatment , in the sense we perceive what science to be or it is modern day witchcraft ??  How much of science is scientific ?

What authority do the medical doctors , ascertaining / confirming these treatment to be truly scientific / useful  , really have . Do they study the concepts in deapth or they are just executives ? Why do we see even the very young doctors with just the basic medical degrees being so assertive on everything medical ( many a times even on non medical ) ? are they knowledgeable at all ?
Indian medical association is a member of world medical association , which has the top most pharma giants run by rothschilds , as their corporate partners . how genuine their intentions will be . bill gates & his wife run the whole show for queen of England & rothschilds .  They are Commanders of British Empire & Padma Vibhushan .
Bill Gates & his father – prominent in Planned Parenthood ,which kills millions of unborn children all over the world & recommending post birth abortion, up to one year after birth ( one of the prominent agent of which is Vegan Peter Singer ). Planned Parenthood, a branch of British Eugenics Society , the utmost racist ,depopulation promoting outfit.

Snakebites are common in tropical countries like Bangladesh where most snakebite victims dwell in rural areas. Among the
management options after snakebite in Bangladesh, snake charmers (Ozha in Bengali language) are the first contact following
a snakebite for more than 80% of the victims and they are treated mostly with the help of some medicinal plants. Our aim of the
study is to compile plants used for the treatment of snakebite occurrence in Bangladesh.The field survey was carried out in a period
of almost 3 years. Fieldwork was undertaken in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, including Chittagong, Rangamati, Bandarban,
and Khagrachari. Open-ended and semistructured questionnaire was used to interview a total of 110 people including traditional
healers and local people. A total of 116 plant species of 48 families were listed. Leaves were the most cited plant part used against
snake venom. Most of the reported species were herb in nature and paste mostly used externally is the mode of preparation. The
survey represents the preliminary information of certain medicinal plants having neutralizing effects against snake venoms, though
further phytochemical investigation, validation, and clinical trials should be conducted before using these plants as an alternative
to popular antivenom.

Poisonous snake envenomation is a complex neglected health problem implicated in mortality, disability, psychological morbidity, and socioeconomic losses recorded worldwide. An antivenin serum, the only medically recommended treatment for snakebites, has several drawbacks including, hypersensitivity, inability to prevent local tissue damage, are scarce and unaffordable in most snakebite endemic areas. In many rural communities all over the world, plants have been utilized for managing snakebites. This review seeks to identify plants reported as antivenom remedies in the East Africa and the scientific studies thereof which could support their use in the treatment of snake envenomation. A review of scientific articles was undertaken to identify information on traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used to treat snake envenomation in East Africa and their antivenom efficacy. A total of 361 plant species were retrieved to have been reported as traditional therapies for snakebites in East Africa. The review identified distinct cases of doctrine of signatures and zoopharmacognosy in snakes using Opilia amentacea, Hugonia castaneifolia and Microglossa pyrifolia respectively. Evaluations of the antivenom efficacy of 44 species (12.2%) have been done globally, and most species found to be effective in neutralizing the lethal activities of snake venoms. Ethnomedicinal plants play a revered holistic role in East African antisnake venom therapy. Conyza sumatrensis, Hyptis pectinata, Justicia betonica, and Maesa lanceolata used to treat specific snakebites merit further studies.

Many issues and complications in treating snakebite are a result of poor human social, economic and clinical intervention and management. As such, there is scope for significant improvements for reducing incidence and increasing patient outcomes. Snakes do not target humans as prey, but as our dwellings and farms expand ever farther and climate change increases snake activity periods, accidental encounters with snakes seeking water and prey increase drastically. Despite its long history, the snakebite crisis is neglected, ignored, underestimated and fundamentally misunderstood. Tens of thousands of lives are lost to snakebites each year and hundreds of thousands of people will survive with some form of permanent damage and reduced work capacity. These numbers are well recognized as being gross underestimations due to poor to non-existent record keeping in some of the most affected areas. These underestimations complicate achieving the proper recognition of snakebite's socioeconomic impact and thus securing foreign aid to help alleviate this global crisis. Antivenoms are expensive and hospitals are few and far between, leaving people to seek help from traditional healers or use other forms of ineffective treatment. In some cases, cheaper, inappropriately manufactured antivenom from other regions is used despite no evidence for their efficacy, with often robust data demonstrating they are woefully ineffective in neutralizing many venoms for which they are marketed for. Inappropriate first-aid and treatments include cutting the wound, tourniquets, electrical shock, immersion in ice water, and use of ineffective herbal remedies by traditional healers. Even in the developed world, there are fundamental controversies including fasciotomy, pressure bandages, antivenom dosage, premedication such as adrenalin, and lack of antivenom for exotic snakebites in the pet trade. This review explores the myriad of human-origin factors that influence the trajectory of global snakebite causes and treatment failures and illustrate that snakebite is as much a sociological and economic problem as it is a medical one. Reducing the incidence and frequency of such controllable factors are therefore realistic targets to help alleviate the global snakebite burden as incremental improvements across several areas will have a strong cumulative effect.

The eastern Russell's viper (Daboia siamensis) causes primarily hemotoxic envenomation. Applying shotgun proteomic approach, the present study unveiled the protein complexity and geographical variation of eastern D. siamensis venoms originated from Guangxi and Taiwan. The snake venoms from the two geographical locales shared comparable expression of major proteins notwithstanding variability in their toxin proteoforms. More than 90% of total venom proteins belong to the toxin families of Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitor, phospholipase A 2 , C-type lectin/lectin-like protein, serine protease and metalloproteinase. Daboia siamensis Monovalent Antivenom produced in Taiwan (DsMAV-Taiwan) was immunoreactive toward the Guangxi D. siamensis venom, and effectively neutralized the venom lethality at a potency of 1.41 mg venom per ml antivenom. This was corroborated by the antivenom effective neutralization against the venom procoagulant (ED = 0.044 ± 0.002 µl, 2.03 ± 0.12 mg/ml) and hemorrhagic (ED 50 = 0.871 ± 0.159 µl, 7.85 ± 3.70 mg/ ml) effects. The hetero-specific Chinese pit viper antivenoms i.e. Deinagkistrodon acutus Monovalent Antivenom and Gloydius brevicaudus Monovalent Antivenom showed negligible immunoreactivity and poor neutralization against the Guangxi D. siamensis venom. The findings suggest the need for improving treatment of D. siamensis envenomation in the region through the production and the use of appropriate antivenom. Daboia is a genus of the Viperinae subfamily (family: Viperidae), comprising a group of vipers commonly known as Russell's viper native to the Old World 1. The Russell's viper was previously recognised as monotypic Daboia rus-selii or Vipera russelii with at least seven subspecies following an extremely disjunct distribution over a large area of Asian countries, from Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Java and islands of Lesser Sunda in Indonesia, to South China (Guangdong and Guangxi) and the insular Taiwan. Based on mitochondrial DNA and multivariate morphological analyses, Thorpe et al. 2 suggested that the Russell's viper complex diverged approximately 7–11 mybp (million years before present) into the eastern and the western clades, separated by a narrow range of mountains in northwest Burma to the north of the Bay of Bengal. This led to the revision of the entire Russell's viper complex systematics, sinking several subspecies into synonyms that followed biogeographi-cal distribution while elevating Daboia russelii russelii and Daboia russelii siamensis to their respective full species status. Currently, Daboia russelii represents the Western Russell's viper that is indigenous to South Asia, while the Eastern Russell's viper (Daboia siamensis) distributes in Southeast and East Asia, comprising the former subspe-cies limitis, sublimitis and formosensis 2–4. The differences between the two species of Russell's vipers are, in fact, not limited to their morphology and molecular phylogenies. Differences in the envenoming effects of the Russell's viper have been reported, attributable to the plasticity of snake venom as an adaptive polygenic trait of venomous snakes 5,6. The observed variations of the envenomation, however, did not conform to the phylogenetics and systematics 7–9. This implies that within each Daboia species, venom variation is common and the investigation of the venom composition should be directed toward detailed venom characterization based on the distinctive species and the geographical locale from where the venom originates. Indeed, the pathogenesis of snakebite envenomation correlates with venom

Snakestones were exotic, manufactured pharmaceutical items used to treat snakebite. Drawing on a spectrum of accounts, and building on my previous work, this article explores the role of snakestones in early modern European society. Forming part of the gift-giving culture , snakestones were also subject to empirical trials by natural philosophers who sought to challenge established medical philosophy and advance the study of snakes and venom. Th eir high cost and limited medical use in comparison with remedies such as theriac and bezoar, resulted in snakestones having minimal eff ect on the British medical market, in contrast to other exotic imported pharmaceuticals.

A B S T R A C T A paradigm of venom research is adaptive evolution of toxins as part of a predator-prey chemical arms race. This study examined differential co-factor dependence, variations relative to dietary preference, and the impact upon relative neutralisation by antivenom of the procoagulant toxins in the venoms of a clade of Australian snakes. All genera were characterised by venoms rich in factor Xa which act upon endogenous prothrombin. Examination of toxin sequences revealed an extraordinary level of conservation, which indicates that adaptive evolution is not a feature of this toxin type. Consistent with this, the venoms did not display differences on the plasma of different taxa. Examination of the prothrombin target revealed endogenous blood proteins are under extreme negative selection pressure for diversification, this in turn puts a strong negative selection pressure upon the toxins as sequence diversification could result in a drift away from the target. Thus this study reveals that adaptive evolution is not a consistent feature in toxin evolution in cases where the target is under negative selection pressure for diversification. Consistent with this high level of toxin conservation, the antivenom showed extremely high-levels of cross-reactivity. There was however a strong statistical correlation between relative degree of phospholipid-dependence and clotting time, with the least dependent venoms producing faster clotting times than the other venoms even in the presence of phospholipid. The results of this study are not only of interest to evolutionary and ecological disciplines, but also have implications for clinical toxinology.

Venom can affect any part of the body reachable via the bloodstream. Toxins which specifically act upon the coagulation cascade do so either by anticoagulant or procoagulant mechanisms. Here we investigated the coagulotoxic effects of six species within the medically important pit viper genus Protobothrops (Habu) from the Chinese mainland and Japanese islands, a genus known to produce hemorrhagic shock in envenomed patients. Differential coagulotoxicity was revealed: P. jerdonii and P. mangshanensis produced an overall net anticoagulant effect through the pseudo-procoagulant clotting of fibrinogen; P. flavoviridis and P. tokarensis exhibit a strong anticoagulant activity through the destructive cleavage of fibrinogen; and while P. elegans and P. mucrosquamatus both cleaved the A-alpha and B-beta chains of fibrinogen they did not exhibit strong anticoagulant activity. These variations in coagulant properties were congruent with phylogeny, with the closest relatives exhibiting similar venom effects in their action upon fibrinogen. Ancestral state reconstruction indicated that anticoagulation mediated by pseudo-procoagulant cleavage of fibrinogen is the basal state, while anticoagulation produced by destructive cleavage of fibrinogen is the derived state within this genus. This is the first in depth study of its kind highlighting extreme enzymatic variability, functional diversification and clotting diversification within one genus surrounding one target site, governed by variability in co-factor dependency. The documentation that the same net overall function, anticoagulation, is mediated by differential underlying mechanics suggests limited antivenom cross-reactivity, although this must be tested in future work. These results add to the body of knowledge necessary to inform clinical management of the envenomed patient.

Poisonous snake envenomation is a complex neglected health problem implicated in mortality, disability, psychological morbidity, and socio-economic losses recorded worldwide. An antivenin serum, the only medically recommended treatment for snakebites, has several drawbacks including, hypersensitivity, inability to prevent local tissue damage, are scarce and unaffordable in most snakebite endemic areas. In many rural communities all over the world, plants have been utilized for managing snakebites. This review seeks to identify plants reported as antivenom remedies in the East Africa and the scientific studies thereof which could support their use in the treatment of snake envenomation. A review of scientific articles was undertaken to identify information on traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used to treat snake envenomation in East Africa and their antivenom efficacy. A total of 361 plant species were retrieved to have been reported as traditional therapies for snakebites in...

Poisonous snake envenomation is a complex neglected health problem implicated in mortality, disability, psychological morbidity, and socio-economic losses recorded worldwide. An antivenin serum, the only medically recommended treatment for snakebites, has several drawbacks including, hypersensitivity, inability to prevent local tissue damage, are scarce and unaffordable in most snakebite endemic areas. In many rural communities all over the world, plants have been utilized for managing snakebites. This review seeks to identify plants reported as antivenom remedies in the East Africa and the scientific studies thereof which could support their use in the treatment of snake envenomation. A review of scientific articles was undertaken to identify information on traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used to treat snake envenomation in East Africa and their antivenom efficacy. A total of 361 plant species were retrieved to have been reported as traditional therapies for snakebites in...

King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) serum was found to possess antihemorrhagic activity against king cobra hemorrhagin.
The activity was stronger than that in commercial king cobra antivenom. An antihemorrhagin has been purified by ion exchange
chromatography, affinity chromatography and gel filtration with a 22-fold purification and an overall yield of 12% of the total
antihemorrhagic activity contained in crude serum. The purified antihemorrhagin was homogeneous in disc-PAGE and SDS–
PAGE. Its apparent molecular weight determined by SDS–PAGE was 120 kDa. The antihemorrhagin was also active against
other hemorrhagic snake venoms obtained in Thailand and Japan such as Calloselasma rhodostoma, Trimeresurus albolabris,
Trimeresurus macrops and Trimeresurus flavoviridis (Japanese Habu). It inhibited the proteolytic activity of king cobra venom.
It is an acid- and thermolabile protein and does not form precipitin lines against king cobra venom.

Background: Snake bite is a common medical emergency and one of the important causes of mortality and morbidity in hill tracts of Bangladesh. Neurological and psychiatric features predominate as both early and late features of snake bite patients and need to be identified correctly for proper management.Objective: The aim of this study was to find out the pattern of early and late neuropsychiatric manifestations of snake bite in hill tracts with clinical outcomes.Materials and Methods: This descriptive hospital-based study was done on 121 snake bite patients during the period from January 2015 to July 2016 using simple, direct, standardized questionnaire with history, neurological examination and psychiatric evaluation.Results: Majority of cases (71.9%) were admitted into hospital after two hours of snake bite. Lower limb was the commonest site (75.2%) of bite. Generalized weakness (50.4%) and anxiety (52.9%) were the commonest early neurological and psychiatric manifestations. Numb...

Poisonous snake envenomation is a complex neglected health problem implicated in mortality, disability, psychological morbidity, and socio-economic losses recorded worldwide. An antivenin serum, the only medically recommended treatment for snakebites, has several drawbacks including, hypersensitivity, inability to prevent local tissue damage, are scarce and unaffordable in most snakebite endemic areas. In many rural communities all over the world, plants have been utilized for managing snakebites. This review seeks to identify plants reported as antivenom remedies in the East Africa and the scientific studies thereof which could support their use in the treatment of snake envenomation. A review of scientific articles was undertaken to identify information on traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used to treat snake envenomation in East Africa and their antivenom efficacy. A total of 361 plant species were retrieved to have been reported as traditional therapies for snakebites in...

A paradigm of venom research is adaptive evolution of toxins as part of a predator-prey chemical arms race. This examined differential co-factor dependence, variations relative to dietary preference, and the impact upon relative neutralisation by antivenom of the procoagulant toxins in the venoms of a clade of Australian snakes. All genera were characterised by venoms rich in factor Xa which act upon endogenous prothrombin. Examination of toxin sequences revealed an extraordinary level of conservation, which indicates that adaptive evolution is not a feature of this toxin type. Consistent with this, the venoms did not display differences on the plasma of different taxa. Examination of the prothrombin target revealed endogenous blood proteins are under extreme negative selection pressure for diversification, this in turn puts a strong negative selection pressure upon the toxins as sequence diversification could result in a drift away from the target. Thus this study reveals that adap...

A paradigm of venom research is adaptive evolution of toxins as part of a predator-prey chemical arms race. This examined differential co-factor dependence, variations relative to dietary preference, and the impact upon relative neutralisation by antivenom of the procoagulant toxins in the venoms of a clade of Australian snakes. All genera were characterised by venoms rich in factor Xa which act upon endogenous prothrombin. Examination of toxin sequences revealed an extraordinary level of conservation, which indicates that adaptive evolution is not a feature of this toxin type. Consistent with this, the venoms did not display differences on the plasma of different taxa. Examination of the prothrombin target revealed endogenous blood proteins are under extreme negative selection pressure for diversification, this in turn puts a strong negative selection pressure upon the toxins as sequence diversification could result in a drift away from the target. Thus this study reveals that adap...

Lancehead pit-vipers (Bothrops genus) are an extremely diverse and medically important group responsible for the greatest number of snakebite envenomations and deaths in South America. Bothrops atrox (common lancehead), responsible for majority of snakebites and related deaths within the Brazilian Amazon, is a highly adaptable and widely distributed species, whose venom variability has been related to several factors, including geographical distribution and habitat type. This study examined venoms from four B. atrox populations (Belterra and Santarém, PA; Pres. Figueiredo, AM and São Bento, MA), and two additional Bothrops species (B. jararaca and B. neuwiedi) from Southeastern region for their coagulotoxic effects upon different plasmas (human, amphibian, and avian). The results revealed inter– and intraspecific variations in coagulotoxicity, including distinct activities between the three plasmas, with variations in the latter two linked to ecological niche occupied by the snakes....

Background: Snake bite is a common medical emergency and one of the important causes of mortality and morbidity in hill tracts of Bangladesh. Neurological and psychiatric features predominate as both early and late features of snake bite patients and need to be identified correctly for proper management.Objective: The aim of this study was to find out the pattern of early and late neuropsychiatric manifestations of snake bite in hill tracts with clinical outcomes.Materials and Methods: This descriptive hospital-based study was done on 121 snake bite patients during the period from January 2015 to July 2016 using simple, direct, standardized questionnaire with history, neurological examination and psychiatric evaluation.Results: Majority of cases (71.9%) were admitted into hospital after two hours of snake bite. Lower limb was the commonest site (75.2%) of bite. Generalized weakness (50.4%) and anxiety (52.9%) were the commonest early neurological and psychiatric manifestations. Numb...

Poisonous snake envenomation is a complex neglected health problem implicated in mortality, disability, psychological morbidity, and socioeconomic losses recorded worldwide. An antivenin serum, the only medically recommended treatment for snakebites, has several drawbacks including, hypersensitivity, inability to prevent local tissue damage, are scarce and unaffordable in most snakebite endemic areas. In many rural communities all over the world, plants have been utilized for managing snakebites. This review seeks to identify plants reported as antivenom remedies in the East Africa and the scientific studies thereof which could support their use in the treatment of snake envenomation. A review of scientific articles was undertaken to identify information on traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used to treat snake envenomation in East Africa and their antivenom efficacy. A total of 361 plant species were retrieved to have been reported as traditional therapies for snakebites in ...