Lead Acid Batteries

Renewable energy sources (RESs) such as wind and solar are frequently hit by fluctuations due to, for example, insufficient wind or sunshine. Energy storage technologies (ESTs) mitigate the problem by storing excess energy generated and then making it accessible on demand. While there are various EST studies, the literature remains isolated and dated. The comparison of the characteristics of ESTs and their potential applications is also short. This paper fills this gap. Using selected criteria, it identifies key ESTs and provides an updated review of the literature on ESTs and their application potential to the renewable energy sector. The critical review shows a high potential application for Li-ion batteries and most fit to mitigate the fluctuation of RESs in utility grid integration sector. However, for Li-ion batteries to be fully adopted in the RESs utility grid integration, their cost needs to be reduced.

The main purpose of this paper is to offer a useful battery model for simulation of stand-alone photovoltaic applications. At present, many models for battery behaviour simulation are available. Owing to the complex response of this element, these models are mainly concerned with stationary working point conditions. This paper presents an enhancement of a generic battery model, achieving a dynamic battery model for photovoltaic applications. It includes the use of automatic parameter extraction techniques and the solving of numerical calculation problems. It also introduces some new concepts, such as the maximum available capacity and the level of energy. Finally, a battery state of health estimation, has been added to complete the battery behaviour description, including non-ideal effects, such as battery capacity reduction and self-discharging current. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The fuel economy and all-electric range (AER) of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are highly dependent on the on-board energy-storage system (ESS) of the vehicle. Energy-storage devices charge during low power demands and discharge during high power demands, acting as catalysts to provide energy boost. Batteries are the primary energy-storage devices in ground vehicles. Increasing the AER of vehicles by 15% almost doubles the incremental cost of the ESS. This is due to the fact that the ESS of HEVs requires higher peak power while preserving high energy density. Ultracapacitors (UCs) are the options with higher power densities in comparison with batteries. A hybrid ESS composed of batteries, UCs, and/or fuel cells (FCs) could be a more appropriate option for advanced hybrid vehicular ESSs. This paper presents state-of-the-art energy-storage topologies for HEVs and plug-in HEVs (PHEVs). Battery, UC, and FC technologies are discussed and compared in this paper. In addition, various hybrid ESSs that combine two or more storage devices are addressed. Index Terms-Battery, energy storage, fuel cell (FC), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in HEVs (PHEVs), ultracapac-itor (UC).

—Voltage interruption can be happened by several reasons like blackout, brownout, noise, spike etc. Those incidents have consequential effect on computer's hardware such as data losses, burning of sensitive equipment etc. So, UPS broadly called an uninterruptible power supply device is used in computer to provide a backup power source which will maintain the consistency in voltage and flow of electricity which in turn will provide consistent power input. Batteries are used as energy storage device in UPS which store electric energy during charging state and discharge that electric energy during any kind of interruption to provide backup as additional power source for the computer. So, the most important integral part of UPS is the battery pack which is used as energy storage device in UPS. Main goal of this paper is to design the suitable battery pack for UPS so that it can give maximum backup range to the computer within a certain economical range or cost limit. Also, another goal is to analyze the electrical and thermal parameters of the designed battery pack and cell and suggest better solutions to make the wet battery cell maintenance free (no need of addition of water). Index Terms—uninterruptable power supply, energy storage device, lead acid battery, battery maintenance, wet cell battery.

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 Abstract—The renewable energy is vital for today's world as in near future the non renewable sources that we are using are going to get exhausted. The solar vehicle is a step in saving these non renewable sources of energy. The basic principle of solar car is to use energy that is stored in a battery during and after charging it from a solar panel. The charged batteries are used to drive the motor which serves here as an engine and moves the vehicle in reverse or forward direction. The electrical tapping rheostat is provided so as to control the motor speed. This avoids excess flow of current when the vehicle is supposed to be stopped suddenly as it is in normal cars with regards to fuel. This idea, in future, may help protect our fuels from getting extinguished. All recent electric vehicles present drive on AC power supplied motor. The setup requires an inverter set connected to battery through which DC power is converted to AC power. During this conversion many losses take p...

Renewable energy sources (RESs) such as wind and solar are frequently hit by fluctuations due to, for example, insufficient wind or sunshine. Energy storage technologies (ESTs) mitigate the problem by storing excess energy generated and then making it accessible on demand. While there are various EST studies, the literature remains isolated and dated. The comparison of the characteristics of ESTs and their potential applications is also short. This paper fills this gap. Using selected criteria, it identifies key ESTs and provides an updated review of the literature on ESTs and their application potential to the renewable energy sector. The critical review shows a high potential application for Li-ion batteries and most fit to mitigate the fluctuation of RESs in utility grid integration sector. However, for Li-ion batteries to be fully adopted in the RESs utility grid integration, their cost needs to be reduced.

The paper presents some multilayer recurrent neural networks (RNNs) to improve the highly non linear behaviour modelling of lead acid cell battery. Dynamic RNNs, keeping into account the non-linear dynamic behavior of both input-output variables of the battery charge-discharge processes, provide a powerful tools in the above mentioned problem, despite the higher computational burden involved respect to the feed-forward networks. Since the electric current supplied by the battery is dependent upon the user application, it can be regarded as the only effective external input of the dynamic system described by the equations, and then of the RNNs. The basic variables of the discharge process are in fact both voltage and SOC.

This paper presents for the first time an impedance-based non-linear model for lead-acid batteries that is applicable in all operational modes. An overcharging model describes the accumulation and depletion of the dissolved Pb 2+ ions. This physical model has been added to the earlier presented model to expand the model validity. To properly represent the charge acceptance during dynamic operation, a concept of " hardening crystals " has been introduced in the model. Moreover, a detailed gassing and oxygen recombination model has been integrated. A realistic simulation of the overcharging behavior is now possible. The mathematical description is given in the paper. Simplifications are introduced that allow for an efficient implementation and for model parameterization in the time domain. A comparison between experimental data and simulation results demonstrates the achieved accuracy. The model enhancement is of major importance to analyze charging strategies especially in partial-cycling operation with limited charging time, e.g. in electrically assisted or hybrid cars and autonomous power supply systems.

Electric shuttle buses are in operation for the past eight years to transport the students and faculty members within Chulalongkorn university campus. Due to limited fleet size and increased passenger demands, passengers have a long wait time at the bus stations during peak hour. The service time also depends on the energy storage system. Lead-acid equipped with supercapacitor were compared in this study to exhibit the improved performance. This paper presents the integrate simulation of energy storage system combined with bus scheduling simulation. The supercapacitor hybrid provides an improvement of 14% in discharge energy. Average wait time and passenger agreed time are observed in this regard. The system is simulated by Arena software for the bus scheduling. The solution dictates the change of the bus schedule; the resulting change of wait time is then observed. The supercapacitor hybrid was shown to reduce battery stress as well as improved driving dynamics and also can reduce the waiting time by 18%. In addition, the feasibility of new shutter-bus schedule and energy storage system can be carried out to obtain the service levels with passenger satisfaction.

The paper investigates the feasibility of employing a battery thermal management system (BTMS) in different applications based on a techno economic analysis considering the battery lifetime and application profile, i.e. current requirement. The preliminary objective is to set the decision criteria of employing a BTMS and if the outcome of the decision is positive, to determine the type of the employed BTMS. However, employing a BTMS needs to meet a number of application requirements and different BTMS associates a different amount of capital cost to ensure the battery performance over its lifetime. Hence, the objective of this paper is to develop and detail the method of the feasibility for commissioning BTMS called “The decision tool frame-work” (DTF) and to investigate its sensitivity to major factors (e.g. lifetime and application requirement) which are well-known to influence the battery pack thermal performance, battery pack performance and ultimately the performance as well as utility of the desired application. This DTF is designed to provide a common frame-work of a BTMS manufacturer and designer to evaluate the options of different BTMS applicable for different applications and operating conditions. The results provide insight into the feasibility and the required specifi-cation and configuration of a BTMS.

In this paper, a Delay-Locked Loop (DLL) and Phase Locked Loop (PLL) interleaving control scheme is demonstrated for multi-phase dc-dc converters in a light electric vehicle (LEV) application. Three interleaved non-inverting buck-boost (NIBB) sub-converters operate in peak current mode control (PCMC), and a fully digital off-time generator (OTG) is used in lieu of slope compensation for more accurate battery current sensing and improved converter dynamics. A DLL adjusts the master sub-converter off-time to maintain quasi fixed-frequency operation, while a PLL adjusts the two slave sub-converter off-times to achieve inductor current interleaving. Active series balancing is achieved by adding a single switch to the NIBB that connects to the adjacent series battery. The modified topology reuses the NIBB inductor to reduce system cost, complexity and weight, while providing balancing capabilities. The series balancing scheme is validated in simulation, and the DLL/PLL interleaving control schemes are demonstrated experimentally on a 12 V, 270 W dc-dc converter running at 555 kHz. With the DLL and PLL based frequency control, multi-phase dc-dc converter interleaving is achieved within 150 µs, and stable QFF operation and interleaving are maintained through step-up and step-down transient events.

This work presents a battery management system for lead–acid batteries that integrates a battery-block (12 V) sensor that allows the online monitoring of a cell’s temperature, voltage, and impedance spectra. The monitoring and diagnostic capabilities enable the implementation of improved battery management algorithms in order to increase the life expectancy of lead–acid batteries and report the battery health conditions. The novelty is based on the online monitoring of the evolution of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) over a battery’s life as a way to monitor the battery’s performance. Active cell balancing is also proposed as an alternative to traditional charge equalization to minimize excessive electrolyte consumption. A battery-block sensor (VTZ) was validated by using the correlation between experimental data collected from electrochemical impedance spectroscopy lab-testing equipment and sensors that were implemented in a series of 12 V lead–acid battery blocks. The...

Graphene based nano-sheets have gained prominence in batteries and super-capacitors owing to their  high aspect ratio, tunable transport properties, diverse ionic functionalities, and dependent surface characteristics.  Variants like pristine graphene, graphene oxide, or chemically/thermally reduced graphene are not equal in ionic and transport properties owing to the presence or grafting of functional groups in the honey-comb carbon structure. Therefore, the conductivity or ionic functionality are synergistic in providing the combination of properties needed to function in energy systems or electronics. This research enhances the performance of lead acid battery using three graphene variants, demonstrates the in-situ electrochemical reduction of graphene, and furthering the understanding by the study of the electronic properties of electrochemically reduced graphene for opto-electronic applications.
Technological demands in hybrid electric vehicles, large scale storage and portable power stations has furthered more research interests in Lead Acid Batteries (LAB), in addition to the advantage of power rating per cost.  The LAB positive active materials (PAM), due to low utilization and life cycle, severely limits the competitiveness of the traditional battery. The combination of cathode materials with tailored graphene based additives: Graphene Oxide (GO-PAM), chemically converted graphene (CCG-PAM) and pristine graphene (GX-PAM) resulted in improved discharge capacity and cycle life. PAM-GO had the best performance with the highest utilization of 41.8%, followed by CCG-PAM (37.7%), control-PAM (29.7%), and GX-PAM (28.7%) at 2.5C rate. CCG-PAM had better charging performance such as lower internal resistance, but poorer cycle life compared to GO-PAM. Cycled at 2.5C rate, all samples but the control, had increasing capacity till after ~50 cycles. Electrochemical interaction of the graphene sheets which changed the of PbO2 crystals in the gel zone.  Ion transfer model was developed showing the optimization of gel zone ion transfer induced by the electrochemical activity of graphene additives.
The mechanistic interfacial characteristics of graphene enhancements in LABs were further evaluated based on the capacitance of the double layer (Cdl) and charge transfer resistance (Rct). The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) curves were obtained from Pb/PbO2/HgSO4 system and evaluated using the Randles EIS circuit model, while Randles-Sevcik Equation also helped in understanding the cyclic voltametry (CV) curves. Enhanced samples had lower Rct and were marked by increased peak current values indicating increased faradaic and non-faradaic pseudo-capacitive processes. GO, CCG and GX within the electrode interphase enhanced charge storage in the presence of gel zone ions. The double layer capacitances of the graphene electrodes were higher at maximum charge partly due to agglomeration.
Graphene-based papers are notable for their mechanical strength and applications to large scale electronics. This work established the ex-situ electrochemical transition in the chemistry, electrical and fracture properties of graphene oxide paper (GO) in at the anode (aERGO) and cathode (cERGO). Higher thermal stability and lower weight loss of aERGO (34wt% at 800 °C) with XRD peak at 2ϴ = 10.5° showed the reduction of the ordinary GO paper (95wt% at 800 °C). The fractographs from the SEM showed that the cERGO failed by ductile rupture of a higher degree than the ordinary GO paper, while that of the aERGO was less ductile. UV-Vis, FT-IR and XPS showed the changes in functional groups, via the interaction of graphene oxide functional groups with protons, adsorbed oxygen containing ions. The aERGO and cERGO showed superior electrical conductivity of 1.61 x 106 S/m and 4.27 X 105 S/m respectively. The temperature and frequency dependent electronic characteristics of electrochemically reduced graphene paper (ERGO) were compared with those of graphene oxide paper (GO). The conductivity, permittivity and di-electric losses in ERGO papers were clearly leading those of GO paper by ~ 2 order of magnitude. Strongly polarized ionized cloud of charge carriers in the ERGO were due to higher concentration of conductive clusters. Frequency dependent properties were governed by dipole mobility while temperature dependent electronic characteristics were governed by thermally activated transport of charge carriers affecting their residence time, and increase in sp2 clusters.

—Voltage interruption can be happened by several reasons like blackout, brownout, noise, spike etc. Those incidents have consequential effect on computer's hardware such as data losses, burning of sensitive equipment etc. So, UPS broadly called an uninterruptible power supply device is used in computer to provide a backup power source which will maintain the consistency in voltage and flow of electricity which in turn will provide consistent power input. Batteries are used as energy storage device in UPS which store electric energy during charging state and discharge that electric energy during any kind of interruption to provide backup as additional power source for the computer. So, the most important integral part of UPS is the battery pack which is used as energy storage device in UPS. Main goal of this paper is to design the suitable battery pack for UPS so that it can give maximum backup range to the computer within a certain economical range or cost limit. Also, another goal is to analyze the electrical and thermal parameters of the designed battery pack and cell and suggest better solutions to make the wet battery cell maintenance free (no need of addition of water). Index Terms—uninterruptable power supply, energy storage device, lead acid battery, battery maintenance, wet cell battery.