Effort

A tout instant, quoi que nous fassions, nous sommes environnés par des corps qui réduisent l’espace et opposent de la résistance. Que sont ces corps qui saturent notre quotidien et avec lesquels il nous faut constamment négocier l’espace ? Plus radicalement, pourquoi y a-t-il des corps ? Je soutiens dans cet ouvrage que la psychologie et la physique ne disposent plus des moyens de répondre à cette question. La désubstantialisation du réel amorcée par la révolution quantique sape les fondements de l’explication objectiviste de la perception privilégiée par la première, et elle évide de sa portée ontologique le discours de la seconde.
Expliquer pourquoi la réalité se présente sous la forme d’un agencement de corps exige en premier lieu de comprendre le rôle que remplit l’anticipation du possible dans la perception. Dans le toucher comme dans la vision, poser l’existence d’un corps implique d’anticiper les contraintes que ce corps exerce sur notre champ de possibilités pratiques, accréditer de manière présomptive la disponibilité ou l’indisponibilité de certaines possibilités d’action. C’est donc uniquement parce que notre subjectivité donne sens à ce qui est en le référant à ce qui peut être que la réalité macroscopique à laquelle nous introduit la perception consiste en un monde solide.
Pour développer cette idée, l’ouvrage dresse une critique de la conception actualiste du phénomène de corps, qui subordonne celui-ci à l’expérience en acte d’une résistance, et il déconstruit l’approche physicaliste et objectiviste, qui prétend dériver les propriétés des corps que nous percevons des propriétés de structures physiques qui leur seraient antécédentes ontologiquement. Si la sémantique des corps présuppose l’épaisseur du temps humain et une perspective foncièrement pragmatique sur l’environnement, il n’est plus question d’assimiler sans autre forme de procès le corps à une « structure physique », quelle qu’en soit la teneur. Les corps sont un produit de l’activité constructrice de notre subjectivité, et seule une incursion profonde dans les mécanismes et principes qui régissent cette activité pourra permettre d’accéder à leur vérité.

The evaluation of Game User Experience is an
emergent and important field in game and HCI research
due to its direct impact on the multi-billion dollar
interactive entertainment industry. Special attention
has been given to the shooter genre. This paper
focuses on evaluation of sports games. In particular, it
presents an ongoing project that aims to assess the
utility of triangulating several quantitative methods,
including eye-tracking, psycho-physiological data and
game telemetry. This research is an on-going
collaboration between Simon Fraser University and
Electronic Arts. Results of research including the
triangulation of this data for the evaluation of the NBA
Live 10 title and evaluation of these methods by EA’s
production team will be discussed.

"That singular feeling, woven of pleasure and displeasure, stunned my senses – overwhelmed me – cannot possibly resist – I ate the herring! "
(Opinions of Murr the Cat, E.T.A. Hoffmann)
Dedicating a book to Feelings of Being Alive we find ourselves in the position of this existential cat, asking questions of what makes our experience of the world a lively one – or even an experience of life – and what might be the experience of ‘being alive’. It could be that these feelings are something we only experience in passing, as an ability to carry out an ongoing experiential process of registering changes in ones mind, body or the world we engage in. Kant, in his Anthropology, famously characterized the experience of life in such a way as an act of movement/motion of the mind [Bewegungshandlung des Gemüts]: “To feel life, to feel pleasure is nothing else than to constantly feel that one is being driven on to leave one’s current state for another one”. Like pleasure, the feeling of being alive might be a state that cannot rest in itself, that would cease to be if consciousness just remained focussed on one object. In being characterized thus it might not be a state in the narrow sense at all. (...)

The purpose of this study was to find out the efforts that were being made by certified English teachers in teaching reading since reading is considered as one of the determiners of academic success. Descriptive qualitative research was used in this study; the subjects were two English teachers in Banda Aceh and the instrument was an interview guide. The interview questions were adapted from Fletcher, et al. (2012) that focused on curriculum, teacher preparation, teaching methodology, teaching instructions, authentic teaching materials, teachers' perceptions toward reading attitudes of learners, barriers in teaching reading, and teaching strategies for helping ineffective readers. The interviews revealed that the efforts made by the teachers played a pivotal role at assisting students to achieve reading competency. The attitude of students toward reading was also important in the teaching-learning process. The strategies of the teachers towards the students who were not reading effectively were not in line with the strategies as suggested by some experts: that the teacher should teach the students the strategies of how to read with interest, how to predict meanings, how to develop knowledge about the topic and so forth. These strategies were not implemented due to the situation and condition of the teaching environment. In brief, proper efforts by teachers to improve the learning environment could assist students to achieve better reading competency.

Writing in English is one of the language skills that are taught in the context of learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Indonesian senior high schools. According to previous studies, most of the students consider writing is the most difficult of the four skills. This research was aimed at finding out the main difficulties in writing faced by the grade XI students at SMA Negeri 10 Fajar Harapan, Banda Aceh, and the efforts made by their teacher to overcome those problems. The design of this study was a descriptive qualitative study. To obtain the data, the writers used document collection and interviews. The results from the document collection showed that the highest percentages of problems faced by the students were in the aspect of language use and the least problems were in the aspect of content. The results from the interviews showed that the most common correcting efforts made by the teacher were giving written feedback for all aspects of writing i.e. language use, m...

Man, even though he may sometimes dream of being a pure spirit free from all material constraints, actually exists as a body in a world which is itself essentially constructed as a spatialized system of bodies; and in this constructed world features such as resistance, impenetrability, inertia, weight and forces are not accidents or exceptions but the rule.
The reflexions presented in this work aim at elucidating on a phenomenological level the relation that man entertains with the tangible aspects of his environment, and the function that this relation plays in the construction of the different sectors of his existence. The first of the sectors is perception: the opening on an ambient world that is pregnant with organisation and meaning. On the one hand, we shall take into account and conceptualize the way in which the tangibility of the world (the testing experience that the individual can have of resistance of his environment in the frame of a direct bodily relation with that environment, but more generally the understanding that the individual possesses of the very possibility of such a relation) participates in setting up the rationality by which man renders his world intelligible. On the other hand, we shall identify the structures of “subjectivity” (to speak the language of psychology, the structures of cognition) which make possible the specific way in which man constructs his experience and understanding of tangible resistance – whether this resistance is perceived in the context of an actual bodily engagement, or whether it is envisaged “indirectly” in the guise of a “simple” possibility.
We shall show here, on the basis of phenomenological analyses as well as elements coming from empirical psychology (experimental psychology as well as neuropsychology), that the relation that man has with the resistance of his ambient world depends on an opening towards the possible; and that the organisation of the ambient world in the form of a space which can contain material structures, or structures capable of opposing a resistance to the body, depends on a rationality which consists of making phenomena intelligible by interpreting them with reference to those capacities for action and for passion which the body confers on us, to the power that the body provides us with and the constraints to which it submits us.
Thus, even though the realm of material things – tangible objects, bodies – functions as an archetype of “presence” and of “being” (indeed, what is more “real” than a body?), in the last resort it gains its phenomenal character from the fact that it crystallizes for the person who perceives it a stream of virtual possibilities; hence, the here-and-now presence of the “tangible world” is in an essential way indebted to the realm of that which is not actually realized.

In response to the claim that our sense of will is illusory, some philosophers have called for a better understanding of the phenomenology of agency. Although I am broadly sympathetic with the tenor of this response, I question whether the positive-theoretic blueprint it promotes truly heralds a tenable undertaking. Marshaling a Schopenhauerian insight, I examine the possibility that agency might not be amenable to phenomenological description. Framing this thesis in terms of Charles S. Peirce’s semiotic framework, I suggest a way to integrate the idea of streaming experiences with that of bodily strivings, which, owing to their primitive structure, can never be represented.

Writing in English is one of the language skills that are taught in the context of learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Indonesian senior high schools. According to previous studies, most of the students consider writing is the most difficult of the four skills. This research was aimed at finding out the main difficulties in writing faced by the grade XI students at SMA Negeri 10 Fajar Harapan, Banda Aceh, and the efforts made by their teacher to overcome those problems. The design of this study was a descriptive qualitative study. To obtain the data, the writers used document collection and interviews. The results from the document collection showed that the highest percentages of problems faced by the students were in the aspect of language use and the least problems were in the aspect of content. The results from the interviews showed that the most common correcting efforts made by the teacher were giving written feedback for all aspects of writing i.e. language use, mechanics, vocabulary, organization, and content. Likewise, teachers need to develop systemized forms of feedback and make it clear to students what the feedback means and what they are to do with them to assist students in improving their writing skills.

The Transformation of Love from Literature to Cinema (Reflections on adaptation caused by the adaptation of Cengiz Aytmatov's 'Al yazmalım, Selvi Boylum')

Art is a field where humans explain themselves. In other words, it is a way of
expressing themselves. Whatever the branch is, a work of art becomes concrete
by its form. Hence, the effort of forming a work of art is common in all branches
of art. The difference is material that is shaped into a form. For example, literature
shapes words. Cinema, on the other hand, tries to create a meaning by the help of
images. The form of a work of the art is distinguished generality by the symbol or
meaning that can be drawn from the shapes of objects which are reflected by its
artist who elaborates on their ordinary existence. There are differences between
the verbal description of a flower in literature and its image on the screen in cinema
due to the ways it is transformed. The differences caused by the ways of
transformation are mirrored in the reflection of the content due to their physical
conditions. Thus, the way the message is transformed becomes different. For
example, it is possible to claim that the image which makes the form of the
cinema is not only the carrier of the message but also itself.
Different branches of art which have different materials and different ways of
expression make use of each other from the aspects of their content and form in
addition to their themes. Among these, there has been a close relation between
especially literature and cinema since the birth of cinema. The most concrete
examples of this relation can be seen in the adaptations of literary works to the
works of cinema whose scenarios are based on the already existing material that
literature has. In this study, the adaptations from literature to cinema are
considered and the issue is being clarified by the help of a sample adaptation. This
study has revealed the necessity of re-constructing the core and message of the
original literary work which is being adapted for the cinema without destroying
its original atmosphere.
Key Words: Art, Literature, Cinema, Adaptation, Vision, Love, Effort.

The phenomenon of commitment is a cornerstone of human social life. Commitments make individuals' behavior predictable, thereby facilitating the planning and coordination of joint actions involving multiple agents. Moreover, commitments make people willing to rely upon each other, and thereby contribute to sustaining characteristically human social institutions such as jobs, money, government and marriage. However, it is not well understood how people identify and assess the level of their own and others' commitments. The Philosophy and Psychology of Commitment explores and explains the philosophical and cognitive intricacies of commitment. John Michael considers how commitments motivate us and their often implicit and tacit nature. To flesh out the philosophical framework of his argument he draws on experimental work with young children, adults and human-robot interaction within the context of joint action, considering the role of the emotions and whether very young children are sensitive to commitment. Providing an important account of the nature and operation of commitment, this book is essential reading for those working in philosophy of psychology, cognitive science, experimental philosophy, and social and developmental psychology. It will also be of interest to those working in emerging fields such as human-robot interaction and behavioral economics.

"The thesis vindicates the common-sense intuition that touch is more objective than the other senses.  The reason why it is so, it is argued, is that touch is the only sense essential of the experience of physical effort, and that this experience constitutes our only acquaintance with the mind-independence of the physical world.
The thesis is divided in tree parts.
Part I argues that sensory modalities are individuated by they proper objects, realistically construed.
Part II argues that the proper objects of touch are pressures and tensions, defined as pairs of real an antagonist forces.
Part III argues that experiences of pressures are an essential part of the experience of physical effort and that the experience of physical effort (which amounts to the experience of resistance to our will), constitutes our only immediate access to the mind-independence of the physical world."

The field of interactive music systems (IMSs), beginning in the 1980s, is still relatively young and fast moving. The field of music theory-analysis, during the same period (since 1980), has undergone a major transformation in terms of technological innovations, flexibility, and breadth. The two fields have not really caught up with each other. It will be interesting to see what arises as they do — especially as both fields have become more concerned with the role of the body and embodied cognition. Framed in terms of contrasting epistemological orientations, this essay considers some relevant developments in IMSs, music cognition, and music theory and analysis, leading up to the present.  The most popular approaches to music cognition and to IMS design are rationalist (Ashby 2010), exploiting the ‘correct’ embodiments of music (Godøy 2004, Leman 2007, Paine 2009) based on affordances (Gibson 1977, Kelso 1998). This essay, however, advocates a pragmatist (Ashby 2010) approach inspired by music analysis and exploiting the potential of kinesthetic learning (associative learning). Prompted by a progressive approach to music analysis, theory, perception, and cognition (Dubiel 1999, Mailman 2007), interactive music technology can also be constructive, flexible, and progressive, by exploiting kinesthetic learning from immersion in new and unusual motion-to-sound mappings derived from dynamic formal processes in analysed music. In this way, immersive interactive systems offer an opportunity systematically to learn new associations based on principles theorised in response to analysis. Experience of these systems essentially ‘rewires the brain’, thereby exemplifying what Korsyn (2004) has attributed to Lewin’s (1986, 1987) approach to music perception: the ironist approach, as formulated by Rorty (1989). Thus a pragmatist ironist experimental (PIE) approach is articulated. Rather than committing to any particular ways music is already embodied, this approach acknowledges the flexible nature of embodied musical experience. It forges and uses interactive music technologies continually to redescribe and therefore reform how music is embodied, thereby disembodying to re-embody music, expanding how music is heard, contemplated and experienced.

This study extends the literature by utilizing a three-component organizational commitment measure to identify ways for managers to drive salesperson effort. Using social exchange theory and survey data from industrial salespeople, an analysis reveals that perceived organizational support (POS) has a strong positive effect on affective commitment, no significant effect on normative commitment, and a negative effect on continuance commitment. Further, the findings show that only one component of organizational commitment-affective commitment-has a positive direct effect on sales effort, whereas normative and continuance commitment do not. However, normative commitment plays a supporting role as it positively moderates the relationship between affective commitment and effort. In addition, the study indicates that job satisfaction has positive effects on both affective and normative commitment, but no significant effect on continuance commitment.

Abstract
What is effort and why do we value it? This thesis examines various ways in which effort has been used to answer questions of distributive justice. I begin with effort’s role as the unique legitimate basis for justifying differences in the deserts people receive. This role focuses on either the burdens associated with effort, so that it is only when we try hard and suffer disutility that we deserve anything; or else it is because our effort is the only part of our person for which we can be held responsible. I then discuss the legitimacy of the demand for specifically productive reciprocal effort in light of a society’s institutional structure meeting certain thresholds of justice. I find problems with all three of these approaches because they miss important ways in which we use and understand effort in the course of our lives.
I examine the uses to which we put effort, developing a more inductive approach which draws on a particular reading of the concept of burden developed in the first half of the thesis. What are the costs associated with trying hard to do something and why are they important to how our lives go? I then frame this by a particular account of a character I call the ‘craftsman’. This is someone who enjoys a particularly ‘costly’ way of living. The craftsman desires to achieve a depth in her life that is negatively affected by contemporary social and economic demands. Finally, I propose an unconditional basic income as a means to protect the craftsman and the agitator, an additional character identified in response to the discussion on reciprocity, who helps us collectively approach the thresholds identified in the third chapter.

The study of effort provision in a controlled setting is a key research area in experimental economics. There are two major methodological paradigms in this literature: stated effort and real effort. In the stated-effort paradigm the researcher uses an " effort function " that maps choices to outcomes. In the real-effort paradigm, participants work on a task, and outcomes depend on their performance. The advantage of the stated-effort design is the control the researcher has over the cost of effort, which is particularly useful when testing theory. The advantage of the real-effort design is that it may be a better match to the field environment, particularly with respect to psychological aspects that affect behavior. An open question in the literature is the degree to which the results obtained by the two paradigms differ, and if they do, why. We present a review of methods used and discuss the results obtained from using these different approaches, and issues to consider when choosing and implementing a task.

What individual characteristics predict inequality acceptance? Previous literature has focused on economic and sociological determinants of accepting inequalities. Here, we present experimental evidence of one individual correlate of inequality acceptance: the personality trait known as locus of control. In our study, inequality is induced experimentally through the exogenous assignment to one of two experimental treatments. In one treatment, initial inequalities depend on individual performance in a previous real-effort task, that is, they are earned through effort, while in the other they are randomly determined. We report that people who show an internal locus of control (the belief that life’s outcomes are under one’s control) are significantly more likely to accept both arbitrary and effort-based inequalities, although they accept the latter more often.

It is important to note that the title of this paper comes from a line in a song. The song is titled, “O Death”. It is a traditional American folk song made most famous by the legendary American bluegrass artist, Ralph Stanley. Stanley died on June 23, 2016 at the age of eighty-nine due to skin cancer. The title of my paper is a tribute to his artistic greatness.
In this essay, I explore the subject of death. I do my best to confront the subject of death with compassion, humor, sincerity, and honesty. Death is, I believe, one of the most crucial aspects of human existence. Contrary to popular academia, I do not necessarily argue for any position on death. I explain in the essay that I write for myself and one other human being. I do not argue, claim, or intimidate in this essay. I write this way because I see philosophy as a great tool for navigating the suffering of existence. I do not view philosophy as a collection of arrogant ridden arguments. I wish for this essay to be a therapeutic session rather than means for a debate.
I simply speak of the importance of confronting our own mortality in this essay. I also expand upon living-death and how it leaves us a passionless corpse. In this essay, I use academic philosophy as an example of my living-death. I see the often far too rigid and argumentative philosophical writings as living-death. I do not see individuality, passion, and humor in many philosophical writings. Instead of having a love of philosophy, we seem to have a love of structure and correctness.

Ce texte vise à mettre en place une série d’éléments devant servir de fondement à une interprétation phénoménologique de la pesanteur, à savoir une caractérisation de la pesanteur telle qu’elle se montre et fait sens pour l’individu dans son rapport quotidien, « préréflexif », au monde. Bien que les réflexions ici proposées soient prioritairement à rattacher à la philosophie, nous convoquerons une série d’observations issues des sciences empiriques – au premier chef la psychologie – pour appuyer leur cheminement. Après avoir montré, sur la base d’un ensemble de résultats de la psychologie, que le poids d’un objet manipulé est spontanément évalué/perçu par l’individu sur la base de l’effort requis pour le soulever, et que l’amplitude de l’effort devant être fourni pour développer un niveau de force donné est elle-même proportionnée à la capacité de production de force variable dont dispose l’individu, nous proposerons une première caractérisation phénoménologique de la pesanteur. Nous chercherons à partir de là à mettre en lumière les structures qui, du côté du sujet percevant, rendent possible la manifestation de quelque chose de tel que le poids. Deux idées principales s’imposeront : d’une part, la pesanteur peut être comprise comme une des manières dont l’individu se rend intelligible son monde en référant l’objet qu’il manipule à la prise dont il dispose, au sens de la latitude de son pouvoir d’action ; d’autre part, parce que le poids n’est pas quelque chose que l’on voit mais quelque chose que l’on supporte, quelque chose qui pour être perçu doit être pris en charge, seul un percevant capable de se rapporter à soi comme à une puissance finie, un être en perpétuel épuisement, aura la conformation requise pour rencontrer quelque chose de tel que le poids – pour ouvrir un monde où règne la pesanteur.

Immersive virtual reality systems have the potential to provide users with an engaging and ecologically valid environment in which to practice motor and cognitive skills. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the usability of a virtual playground for three age groups (children, young adults, and older adults) who performed three tasks within an immersive virtual playground. All participants had an overall positive experiences and minimal cybersickness while playing in the virtual playground although there were some key differences between them.

We make efforts to lift heavy weights, to solve problems, to concentrate, to stop smoking, to climb mountains, to convince others, to stay calm, to understand obscure texts, to conceal one’s vices, to resist temptations, to gather information, to earn money, to overcome one’s shyness, to win games, etc. Not only do we make efforts, we also value efforts in various ways: we deem them unpleasant, praiseworthy, efficient, vain, irrational, tenacious, etc. Effort is a central concept not only of our ordinary psychology and ethics, but also of many sciences: efforts are recurrently invoked in psychology, economics, sociology, law, or philosophy. In spite of its ubiquity in ordinary and scientific thinking, virtually no attempt has been made so far to formulate a general theory of effort amenable to accommodate all varieties of efforts and to explain their values. The goal of this project is to remedy this deficiency by first, trying to identify what all the multifarious kinds of efforts have in common–the nature of effort; and second, by elucidating the main values which accrue to efforts in virtue of their nature. What are efforts, and what are they worth?

Based on recent findings, we propose a framework for a relationship among attention, effort and optimal performance. Optimal performance often refers to an effortless and automatic, flow-like state of performance. Mindfulness regulates the focus of attention to optimal focus on the core component of the action, avoiding too much attention that could be detrimental for elite performance. Balanced attention is a trained state that can optimize any particular attentional activity on the dual-process spectrum.

"""This paper defends the action-theory of the Will, according to which willing G is doing F (F≠G) in order to make G happen. In a nutshell, willing something is doing something else in order to get what we want.

I argue that only the action-theory can reconcile two essential features of the Will. (i) its EFFECTIVITY: willing is closer to acting than desiring. (ii) its FALLIBILITY: one might want something in vain. The action-theory of the will explains EFFECTIVITY by claiming that each time one wants G, one accomplishes the action of doing F ( it is argued following Von Wright that every action has a result as a proper part, here F). And the action-theory explains  FALLIBILITY by claiming that although willing G entails making some F happen –the result of the action of willing–, it does not entail that G –the intended consequence of our willing– will happen.

By contrast, behaviorist accounts of the will (which merely equate willing with an action) captures its EFFECTIVITY but loose its FALLIBILITY. And volitionist accounts (which introduce naked volitions lacking any essential results) capture the FALLIBILITY of the will, but loose its EFFECTIVITY.

I consider disjunctivist accounts  of trying  (such as O'Shaughnessy and Hornsby's ones) as an alternative way to reconcile EFFECTIVITY and FALLIBILITY. I argue that though the view manages to reconcile these two constraints, it does so only at the price of gerrymandering the concept of willing (or trying): failed tryings end up having nothing in common with successful ones.

I then address three objections to the action-theory of the will, to the effect (i) that not all actions have a result (ii) that total failures are possible (iii) that willing is  more fundamental than acting. I argue in answer (i) that all actions have results (results which can be irrelevant to the production of the goal, pr which can be merely mental images), (ii) that total failures do not correspond to  acts of will, but mere desires or wishes, and (iii) that given the possibility of basic actions, acting has to be more fundamental than willing (and trying)."""

Based on Self Determination Theory in this study we tested
the relationship between perceived coach autonomy support, satisfaction of the three basic needs and three outcomes or components define coaching effectiveness in a sample of 159 elite taekwondo athletes (Mean age = 18.63 ± 4.05 years). Results revealed that perceived coach autonomy support predicted satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Furthermore, the need of autonomy and the need or relatedness were associated with extra effort, effectiveness and satisfaction with their coach leadership, while the need of competence was associated with satisfaction with their coach leadership.

Previous research has shown that if a robot invests physical effort in teaching human partners a new skill, the teaching will be more effective and the partners will reciprocate by investing more effort and patience when their turn to teach comes. In the current study, we extend this research to child-robot interaction. To this end, we devised a scenario in which a humanoid robot (iCub) and a child participant alternated in teaching each other new skills. In the robot teaching phase iCub taught participants sequences of movements, which they had to memorize and repeat. The robot then repeated the demonstration a second time: in the high effort (or Adaptive) condition, the iCub slowed down its movements when repeating the demonstration whereas in the low effort (or Unadap-tive) condition he sped the movements up. In the participant teaching phase, children were asked to give the robot a demonstration of three symbols, and then to repeat it if the robot had not understood. The results reveal that children learned the sequences more effectively when the iCub adapted its movements to the learner, and that, when their turn to teach to the robot came, they slowed down and increased segmentation when repeating the demonstration.

The recoil of a shotgun can result in both an increase in perceived exertion and pain by the shooter and the occurrence of muscle fatigue phenomena. This represents a critical aspect of the disciplines of clay pigeon shooting where it is expected to hit a large number of targets by means of a fi rearm, which is typically the over/under shotgun. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the eff ects of the recoil on the shooter and how the use of diff erent weapons can modify these eff ects. Both qualitative and quantitative tests allowed to assess eff ort and pain perceived by the shooter (Rate of Perceived Exertion, RPE, and Visual Analog Scale, VAS) and his muscular force variation (Hand Grip Test, HGT, and Isometric Maximum Voluntary Contraction, IMVC) between rest condition and after the competition. 8 shooters (age 26.8±4.6 years; BMI 22.9±1.5 kg/m 2) with at least 4 years of shooting experience were recruited. Each shooter has fi red with three diff erent shotguns having diff erent technical characteristics (balance and ergonomics) during three Compak Sporting competition. The reproducibility of rest conditions during the three competition days was assessed by Intraclass Correlation Coeffi cient (ICC). Subsequently, Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to compare the results of each test before and after the shooting session. Moreover, to determine any dependence on the technical features of the shotgun on the shooter's fatigue, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to highlight any diff erences between the three tested weapons. Signifi cance was set a priori at p<0.05 for all tests. Thanks to the proposed experimental protocol, signifi cant diff erences were observed between rest condition and after Compak Sporting competition on HGT (p=0.036) and ET (p=4.5·10-5) for muscle fatigue and VAS (p=1.5·10-5) and RPE (p=1.4·10-3) for self-perceived fatigue. Signifi cant diff erences in muscle fatigue levels were found when comparing the three types of gun, especially with regard to the upper part of the non-dominant shooter's body.

Historically, effort has been viewed as aversive. Most supporting evidence comes from studies demonstrating increased force/effort requirements reduce operant responding. Changes in force/effort requirements, however, are often accompanied by changes in response definition when mechanical devices are used to define the response. As a consequence, responses measured at one point in a study may go unmeasured at other points. In an alternative approach, we used a continuous measurement strategy that provided a means to fix the threshold force defining the response class and simultaneously allowed independent manipulation of the force criteria required to produce reinforcement. Rats pressed a force transducer according to a fixed-ratio 5 schedule of food delivery. The criterion force was systematically increased and decreased; the threshold for response detection was constant. When response rates included only criterion responses, overall rate decreased when force requirements increased. By contrast, when all responses, both those meeting force criteria and those that did not (above the threshold but below the criteria for reinforcement) were included in the rate calculation, increases in force increased response rate. Increases in force criteria also increased the maximum force (g) and time-integral of force (g-s) of operant behavior. Control conditions showed increases in responding could be explained by the emergence of subcriterion responses, irrespective of force. We conclude that prior results showing effort decreases response rates are due to an artifact arising from inadvertent changes in response definitions. Increases in effort may better be understood as changes in the response:reinforcer payoff owing to the emergence of a subcriterion response class.

I defend the view that the experience of resistance gives us a direct phenomenal access to the mind-independence of perceptual objects. In the first part, I address a humean objection against the very possibility of experiencing existential mind-independence. The possibility of an experience of mind-independence being secured, I argue in the second part that the experience of resistance is the only kind of experience by which we directly access existential mind-independence.

The act of making a choice, apart from any outcomes the choice may yield, has, paradoxically, been linked to both the enhancement and the detriment of intrinsic motivation. Research has implicated two factors in potentially mediating these contradictory effects: the personal control conferred by a choice and the costs associated with a choice. Across four experiments, utilizing a physical effort task disguised as a simple video game, we systematically varied costs across two levels of physical effort requirements (Low-Requirement, High-Requirement) and control over effort costs across three levels of choice (Free-Choice, Restricted-Choice, and No-Choice) to disambiguate how these factors affect the motivational consequences of choosing within an effortful task. Together, our results indicated that, in the face of effort requirements, illusory control alone may not sufficiently enhance perceptions of personal control to boost intrinsic motivation; rather, the experience of actual control may be necessary to overcome effort costs and elevate performance. Additionally, we demonstrated that conditions of illusory control, while otherwise unmotivating, can through association with the experience of free-choice, be transformed to have a positive effect on motivation.

In this Introduction, I identify seven discrete aspects of attention brought to the fore by by considering the phenomenon of effortless attention: effort, decision-making, action syntax, agency, automaticity, expertise, and mental training. For each, I provide an overview of recent research, identify challenges to or gaps in current attention theory with respect to it, consider how attention theory can be advanced by including current research, and explain how relevant chapters of this volume offer such advances.

Because psychological studies of attention and cognition are most commonly performed within the strict confines of the laboratory or take cognitively impaired patients as subjects (Parasuraman 1998b; Pashler 1998; Posner 2004; Underwood 1993), it is difficult to be sure that resultant models of attention adequately account for the phenomenon of effortless attention. The problem is not only that effortless attention is resistant to laboratory study (but see Moller, Meier, and Wall, chapter 9, this volume). A further issue is that because the laboratory is the most common way to approach attention, models resulting from such studies are naturally the most widely propagated, these models naturally tend to be biased toward features of attention most amenable to laboratory study, and these models by their implications set the agenda for future study that leads back to the laboratory. In this self-reinforcing system, features of attention not amenable to laboratory study are naturally neglected by researchers. Being that they are neglected, one can surmise that they are not adequately accounted for in current models, and such models, therefore, fail to indicate potentially important areas for future study. In this chapter, I will suggest an alternative model of attention as a heuristic for opening paths to further profitable research. The features of attention emphasized in this model are not new, but the synthesis is novel and sheds some light on issues relevant to the topic of effortless attention. I begin with the five following observations: 1. One naturally pays attention to a task of current interest. 2. There are (at least) two distinct modes of attention—selective and diffuse. 3. Attention is a constantly shifting avenue for the assimilation of information. 4. Information is not forced in from outside but is captured through internal sensitization. 5. Human information processing is fundamentally syntactic. Combining these five observations yields an explanatory model of attention that is not only consistent with the data from the many studies on attention in recent decades but also allows us to investigate the neglected phenomenon of effortless In Brian Bruya (ed.), Effortless Attention: A New Perspective in the Cognitive Science of Attention and Action. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010.

Writing in English is one of the language skills that are taught in the context of learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Indonesian senior high schools. According to previous studies, most of the students consider writing is the most difficult of the four skills. This research was aimed at finding out the main difficulties in writing faced by the grade XI students at SMA Negeri 10 Fajar Harapan, Banda Aceh, and the efforts made by their teacher to overcome those problems. The design of this study was a descriptive qualitative study. To obtain the data, the writers used document collection and interviews. The results from the document collection showed that the highest percentages of problems faced by the students were in the aspect of language use and the least problems were in the aspect of content. The results from the interviews showed that the most common correcting efforts made by the teacher were giving written feedback for all aspects of writing i.e. language use, m...

Risk and Effort: Decisive Factors in Translation' Revision
Abstract: indiscriminate revision of translations is useless if it is not effective, since, as a "value added" service, it involves costs and risks which must be assessed in order to decide whether it is necessary. The objective of this article is to present some analysis guidelines to facilitate and systematize coherent decision-making for the relevance of revisions, considering the risk and effort (Pym, 2010) involved in project management and for the revision process. With this aim, the main factors which determine the compulsory or necessary revision of translations are addressed in Section 1. The situational factors of greatest risk for the revision process will be identified in Section 2, in order to highlight the interaction of the risk factors analyzed, both for the effectiveness of the revision and for those involved in the translation project: translator, reviser, intermediary translation service provider (TSP) and client (Section 3).
Keywords: Translation revision; risk factors; effort in translation revision; revision interventions; ISO 17100.

Riesgo y esfuerzo: factores decisivos en la revisión de traducciones
Resumen:
La revisión indiscriminada de las traducciones carece de sentido si no es eficaz, puesto que, como servicio de «valor añadido», implica un coste y unos riesgos que se deben valorar para decidir si es necesaria. El objetivo de este artículo es presentar unas pautas de análisis que
contribuyan a facilitar y sistematizar una toma de decisiones coherente acerca de la pertinencia de la revisión, considerando el riesgo y el esfuerzo (Pym, 2010) que conlleva en la gestión del proyecto y para el proceso de revisión. Con este propósito, en el primer epígrafe, se abordan los factores que suelen determinar la obligación y la necesidad de revisar las traducciones. En el segundo, se identifican los factores situacionales de mayor riesgo para el proceso de revisión. En el tercer epígrafe, se ponen de manifiesto algunas repercusiones de la interacción de los factores de riesgo analizados, tanto para la eficacia de la revisión como para las personas implicadas en el proyecto de traducción: traductor, revisor, proveedor de servicios de traducción (PST) intermediario y cliente.
Palabras clave: Revisión de traducciones; factores de riesgo; esfuerzo en revisión; intervenciones de revisión; ISO 17100.