Defence Mechanisms

Brassica crops are grown worldwide for oil, food and feed purposes, and constitute a significant economic value due to their nutritional, medicinal, bioindustrial, biocontrol and crop rotation properties. Insect pests cause enormous yield and economic losses in Brassica crop production every year, and are a threat to global agriculture. In order to overcome these insect pests, Brassica species themselves use multiple defence mechanisms, which can be constitutive, inducible, induced, direct or indirect depending upon the insect or the degree of insect attack. Firstly, we give an overview of different Brassica species with the main focus on cultivated brassicas. Secondly, we describe insect pests that attack brassicas. Thirdly, we address multiple defence mechanisms, with the main focus on phytoalexins, sulphur, glucosinolates, the glucosinolate-myrosinase system and their breakdown products. In order to develop pest control strategies, it is important to study the chemical ecology, and insect behaviour. We review studies on oviposition regulation, multitrophic interactions involving feeding and host selection behaviour of parasitoids and predators of herbivores on brassicas. Regarding oviposition and trophic interactions, we outline insect oviposition behaviour, the importance of chemical stimulation, oviposition-deterring pheromones, glucosinolates, isothiocyanates, nitriles, and phytoalexins and their importance towards pest management. Finally, we review brassicas as cover and trap crops, and as biocontrol, biofumigant and biocidal agents against insects and pathogens. Again, we emphasise glucosinolates, their breakdown products, and plant volatile compounds as key components in these processes, which have been considered beneficial in the past and hold great prospects for the future with respect to an integrated pest management.

This paper describes an approach to detecting distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks that is based on fundamentals of Information Theory, specifically Kolmogorov Complexity. A theorem derived using principles of Kolmogorov Complexity states that the joint complexity measure of random strings is lower than the sum of the complexities of the individual strings when the strings exhibit some correlation. Furthermore, the joint complexity measure varies inversely with the amount of correlation. We propose a distributed active network-based algorithm that exploits this property to correlate arbitrary traffic flows in the network to detect possible denial-of-service attacks. One of the strengths of this algorithm is that it does not require special filtering rules and hence it can be used to detect any type of DDoS attack. We implement and investigate the performance of the algorithm in an active network. Our results show that DDoS attacks can be detected in a manner that is not sensitive to legitimate background traffic.

BHS: Cilj ovog rada je prikaz slučaja imaginarnog lika, dr Hannibala Lectera, na osnovu analize sadržaja četiri knjige („Hannibal“, „Hannibal: postanak“, „Kad jaganjci utihnu“ i „Crveni zmaj“), četiri filma sa istoimenim nazivima i dvije sezone od po 13 epizoda serije „Hannibal“. U prvom dijelu, analiza se odnosi na razmatranje pomenutog slučaja uzimajući u obzir dijagnostičke kriterijume sljedećih klasifikacija bolesti: DSM-IV, DSM-V i ICD-10. Potom, ponuđena je deskripcija ličnosti dr Lectera kroz savremene modele strukture ličnosti: Model velikih pet, HEXACO model, Model velikih sedam, Dvofaktorski model i Jednofaktorski model. Posebno smo se osvrnuli na tumačenje bihevioralnih obrazaca ovog fiktivnog lika iz ugla klasičnih psihodinamskih teorija, te kroz prizmu teorijskog stanovišta Jacquesa Lacana. Dodatno, njegovo ponašanje je objašnjeno rukovodeći se postulatima kognitivno-bihevioralne paradigme, te evolucione psihologije. Na kraju rada, pobrojani su zaključci, nastali kao sinteza prethodnih interpretacija, odnosno eklektičkog pristupa korištenog prilikom pomenute analize. Istaknuti su i nedostaci ovakve vrste analize, u vidu metodoloških ograničenja kvalitativnog istraživanja na jednom ispitaniku (studije slučaja) i problema diferencijalne dijagnostike u slučaju kontroverznog lika kakav je dr Hannibal Lecter.
ENG: The aim of this study was to review the case of the imaginary character, Dr. Hannibal Lecter, based on content analysis of four books (“Hannibal”, “Hannibal Rising”,    “Silence of the Lambs”  and “Red Dragon”), four films with the same title and two seasons of 13 episodes of the serial “Hannibal”. In the first part, the analysis refers to the consideration of the aforementioned case, taking into account the following diagnostic classifications: DSM-IV, DSM-5 and ICD-10. Then, we offered a description of Dr. Lecter’s personality through modern models of personality structure: Big Five Model, HEXACO Model, The Big Seven Model, Two-factor Model and One-factor Model. In particular, we address the interpretation of behavioral patterns of this fictional character from the perspective of classical psychodynamic theory, and through the prism of a theoretical point of Jacques Lacan. In addition, his behavior is explained by applying the postulates of cognitive-behavioral paradigm as well as evolutionary psychology. At the end of the paper are listed conclusions, created as a synthesis of previous interpretations, or an eclectic approach used in these analyses. In addition, there are featured disadvantages of this type of analysis, in the form of methodological limitations of qualitative research in one subject (case studies) and problems of differential diagnosis in the case of a controversial character such as Dr. Hannibal Lecter.

Öz Bu çalışmanın amacı kadercilik eğiliminin özyeterlik inancı ve savunma mekanizmalarını yordayıp yordamadığını ve kadercilik eğiliminin cinsiyet değişkenine göre farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığını incelemektir. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu 428 üniversite öğrencisi (277 kadın, 171 erkek) oluşturmaktadır. Verilerin analizinde Pearson Momentler Çarpım Korelasyon Katsayısı, bağımsız örneklemler için t testi ve aşamalı çoklu doğrusal regresyon analizi tekniklerinden yararlanılmıştır. Yapılan analizler sonucunda kadercilik eğilimi ve kadercilik eğiliminin alt boyutları ile özyeterlik inancı ve olgun (matür) savunma biçimleri arasında negatif ve anlamlı bir ilişki olduğu gözlenmiştir. Kadercilik eğilimi ile olgun olmayan (immatür) savunma biçimleri ve nevrotik savunma biçimleri arasında ise pozitif ve anlamlı bir ilişki olduğu saptanmıştır. Yapılan aşamalı çoklu doğrusal regresyon analizinin sonucunda kadercilik eğiliminin kişisel kontrol eksikliği ve şans alt boyutlarının özyeterlik inancının anlamlı yordayıcıları olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Kadercilik eğiliminin kişisel kontrol eksikliği altboyutunun olgun savunmaların, şans ve batıl inanç alt boyutlarının olgun olmayan savunma biçimlerinin, önceden belirlenmişlik ve kişisel kontrol eksikliğinin ise nevrotik savunma biçimlerinin anlamlı yordayıcıları olduğu gözlenmiştir. Yapılan analizlerde kadınların erkeklere oranla daha fazla kaderci eğilime sahip oldukları sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Sonuç olarak kadercilik eğiliminin genel özyeterlik inancı ve savunma mekanizmalarıyla ilişkili olması ve bu değişkenleri yordaması, ayrıca kadercilik eğiliminin cinsiyete göre farklılaşması bireysel ve toplumsal faktörlerin karşılıklı olarak birbirini etkilediğini göstermesi açısından önemlidir.

This essay emerged from a discussion thread about Agency at www.academia.edu. So, I dedicate it to both Helen Steward (Leeds) and Michael Hauskeller (Liverpool), because I noticed clear tendencies in thinking as a red thread along the whole discussion: universalistic style in the case of HS (focus on right half of the brain) and thoroughgoing style in the case of MH (focus on left half of the brain). So, my actual personal interest is to build additional bridges, because both qualities are equally valuable and important to consider.
NEW: the second chapter concerning Corona virus
Latest change: Detailed Revision of the Mind Map in Chapter 5

Plant suspension cell cultures display many features of the innate immune responses observed in planta and have been extensively applied to the study of basal and race-specific defences. However, no single model including photosynthetic cultured cells has been used for the exhaustive characterization of both basal and race-specific defences to date. In this article, we report the activation of basal and race-specific defences in green cultured cells from Arabidopsis thaliana. Inoculation of cultured cells with isogenic virulent or avirulent strains of Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 (Pst) was used to evaluate race-specific defences. The proliferation of avirulent Pst was found to be lower than that of virulent Pst in the inoculated cultures. Extracellular pH changes, sustained oxidative burst (5–13 h post-inoculation), enhancement of salicylic acid, and massive cell death were specifically stimulated by the avirulent bacterium. Neither avirulent nor virulent Pst induced markers of basal resistance, such as callose deposition or early oxidative burst (1–5 h post-inoculation). However, both basal defences were activated when cells were exposed to Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola or to the Pst mutant defective in the type III secretion system (TTSS), Pst-hrpL−. Thus, in these cells, basal defences may be inhibited by Pst in a TTSS-dependent manner. Recapitulation of classical defence features demonstrates the usefulness of this system for the fine characterization of plant innate immune components.

Far from being a natural kind, ‘emotion’ turns out to be a conventional label that captures quite diverse phenomena; and such phenomena can no longer be relegated, as the ideology of passions suggested, to a ‘lower’ and ‘primitive’ psychic sphere, which threatens the nobility of ‘the thinking thing’. They belong to the unlevelled universe to which all psychological events belong. In general, cognitive sciences have brought to light the heterogeneity not only of emotions, but also of what is traditionally meant by ‘reason’. The experimental investigation of rationality and reasoning by the cognitive sciences has shown that there is no unitary cognitive sphere. There is instead a toolbox of imperfect analytic and operative tools that is heterogeneous and scattered, and consequently lacks the hierarchical structure that, according to the Cartesian model, culminated in self-conscious rationality. Thus, a paradigm shift is underway. Some research areas in cognitive sciences adopt a Bacon...

This paper describes an approach to detecting distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks that is based on fundamentals of Information Theory, specifically Kolmogorov Complexity. A theorem derived using principles of Kolmogorov Complexity states that the joint complexity measure of random strings is lower than the sum of the complexities of the individual strings when the strings exhibit some correlation. Furthermore, the joint complexity measure varies inversely with the amount of correlation. We propose a distributed active network-based algorithm that exploits this property to correlate arbitrary traffic flows in the network to detect possible denial-of-service attacks. One of the strengths of this algorithm is that it does not require special filtering rules and hence it can be used to detect any type of DDoS attack. We implement and investigate the performance of the algorithm in an active network. Our results show that DDoS attacks can be detected in a manner that is not sensitive to legitimate background traffic.

Identifying factors which allow the evolution and persistence of cooperative interactions between species is a fundamental issue in evolutionary ecology. Various hypotheses have been suggested which generally focus on mechanisms that allow cooperative genotypes in different species to maintain interactions over space and time. Here, we emphasise the fact that even within mutualisms (interactions with net positive fitness effects for both partners), there may still be inherent costs, such as the occasional predation by ants upon aphids. Individuals engaged in mutualisms benefit from minimising these costs as long as it is not at the expense of breaking the interspecific interaction, which offers a net positive benefit. The most common and obvious defence traits to minimise interspecific interaction costs are resistance traits, which act to reduce encounter rate between two organisms. Tolerance traits, in contrast, minimise fitness costs to the actor, but without reducing encounter rate. Given that, by definition, it is beneficial to remain in mutualistic interactions, the only viable traits to minimise costs are tolerance-based ‘defence’ strategies. Thus, we propose that tolerance traits are an important factor promoting stability in mutualisms. Furthermore, because resistance traits tend to propagate coevolutionary arms races between antagonists, whilst tolerance traits do not, we also suggest that tolerance-based defence strategies may be important in facilitating the transition from antagonistic interactions into mutualisms. For example, the mutualism between ants and aphids has been suggested to have evolved from parasitism. We describe how phenotypic plasticity in honeydew production may be a tolerance trait that has prevented escalation into an antagonistic arms race and instead led to mutualistic coevolution.

Acarinaria are specialised structures on the bodies of insects that harbour dispersing mites, providing a secure attachment place for the mites. The structures are best known among bees and wasps. Their presence remains enigmatic, however, since the associated mites often have negative or neutral effects on their hosts. A new hypothesis explaining the origin of the acarinarium as a specialised defence mechanism is proposed. In nests with partitions (as constructed by many bees and wasps), parasitic or cleptoparasitic mites are rarely found in all cells. They negatively interact only with host larvae developing in infested cells and apparently cannot disperse within the nest to attack others in the developing brood before bee emergence. Only when emerging bees break the partitions can the mites reach other hosts. We propose that acarinaria serve to concentrate unwanted mites, reducing the chance that they will disperse to other members of the brood as the infested host leaves the nes...

Lysin motifs (LysMs) have been recognized in prokaryotes and plants as carbohydrate-binding protein modules. Recently, a novel virulence factor with LysMs was characterized from the plant pathogenic fungus Cladosporium fulvum. Here, we present a survey of public sequence data of 70 fungal species to demonstrate that putatively secreted LysM-containing proteins are widespread in the fungal kingdom, as they are found in mammalian and plant pathogenic species, in addition to saprophytes. We propose that these putative LysM effectors might have a role in sequestration of chitin oligosaccharides – breakdown products of fungal cell walls that are released during invasion and act as triggers of host immunity – to dampen host defence.

1.  Notwithstanding the growing amount of literature emphasizing the link between habitat, life-history traits and behaviour, few empirical studies investigated the combined effect of these parameters on individual predation risk. We investigated direct and indirect consequences of habitat composition at multiple spatial scales on predation risk by red foxes on 151 radio-monitored roe deer fawns. We hypothesized that the higher resource availability in fragmented agricultural areas increased predation risk because of: (i) shorter prey movements, which may increase predictability; (ii) larger litter size and faster growth rates, which may increase detectability in species adopting a hiding neonatal anti-predator strategy. The sharing of risky habitat among littermates was expected to promote whole-litter losses as a result of predation.2.  The landscape-scale availability of agricultural areas negatively affected pre-weaning movements, but did not influence growth rates or litter size. Predation risk was best described by the interplay between movements and fine-scale habitat fragmentation: a higher mobility increased the encounter rate and predation risk in highly fragmented home ranges, while it reduced predation risk in forest-dominated areas with clumped resources because of decreased predictability. This is one of the first demonstrations that movement patterns can be an efficient anti-predator strategy when adjusted to local conditions.3.  In accordance with previous studies documenting the existence of family effects (i.e. non-independence among siblings) in survival, littermates survived or died together more often than expected by chance. In addition, our study specifically demonstrated the occurrence of behaviourally mediated family effects in predation risk: after a fox killed one fawn the probability of a sibling being killed within a few days rose from 20% to 47%, likely because of the win-stay strategy (i.e. return to a previously rewarding site) adopted by the predator. Hence, the predator’s hunting strategy has the potential to raise fawn mortality disproportionately to predator abundance.4.  There is increasing evidence that fawns inhabiting highly productive predator-free habitats are granted lifetime fitness benefits; these potential advantages, however, can be cancelled out when predation risk increases in the very same high-productivity areas, which might thus turn into attractive sinks.