Roman Hautala
University of Oulu, Department of History, Department Member
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The article contains the Latin text and annotated Russian translation of the letter from the supreme ruler of the Mongol Empire, Guyuk Khan, to Pope Innocent IV. The original letter was translated from Mongolian into Latin with the... more
The article contains the Latin text and annotated Russian translation of the letter from the supreme ruler of the Mongol Empire, Guyuk Khan, to Pope Innocent IV. The original letter was translated from Mongolian into Latin with the personal participation of the Pope’s envoy, Franciscan John of Plano Carpini, at Guyuk’s camp near the capital of the Empire, Qaraqorum, on November 11, 1246. In parallel, the original letter was translated into Persian and, together with the Latin translation, delivered to Pope Innocent IV. The original Persian translation is preserved in the Vatican Apostolic Archives. It was discovered in 1920 and published along with a French translation and annotation by Paul Pelliot in 1923. The Latin translation of the letter survives in two versions made at different times. The article contains the text of the Latin translation of the letter according to a copy in the autograph of Salimbene de Adam from the Vatican Apostolic Library. Salimbene de Adam inserted a copy of the letter into his chronicle written between 1283 and 1288. The Latin text from the chronicle of Salimbene de Adam has been collated with other copies of the Latin translation of the letter. The Russian translation based on a critical edition of the Latin version of the letter is published for the first time. The notes contain the necessary clarifications and correspondences in the translations of the Persian original into French and English
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The author of this article examines the gradual accumulation of information in the Hungarian Kingdom about the Mongol Western Campaign and the corresponding propagation of this information in Western Europe. The primary information was... more
The author of this article examines the gradual accumulation of information in the Hungarian Kingdom about the Mongol Western Campaign and the corresponding propagation of this information in Western Europe. The primary information was brought to Europe by the Dominican friar Julian after his return from his travel to the Volga Magyars at the end of 1235. The letter of friar Julian written at the beginning of 1238 is replete with information about Mongol tactical warfare, previous military campaigns of Chingis Khan and Jochi, and the first Mongol conquest in the early stages of the Western Campaign of Batu. He also brought an oral report of the Prince of Vladimir on the Mongol plans to attack the Hungarian Kingdom. Soon the content of Julian's letter became known in Western Europe. The Hungarian King Béla IV started to make preparations for the imminent Mongol invasion and attempted to organise resistance.
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The author of this article examines the circumstances of the visits of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich and Alexander Yaroslavovich to the Mongol rulers in an attempt to clarify the routes and dates of movement of the princes, as well as the final... more
The author of this article examines the circumstances of the visits of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich and Alexander Yaroslavovich to the Mongol rulers in an attempt to clarify the routes and dates of movement of the princes, as well as the final points of their travels. To achieve this goal, the author compares the scant accounts of the “Laurentian Chronicle” with information from Latin, Persian, Chinese, and Armenian sources. Comparison of heterogeneous synchronous sources allows him to draw the following conclusions with some certainty. The first time Yaroslav Vsevolodovich visited Batu in 1243 at his nomadic camp, which was either in the Pontic steppes or in the Lower Volga region. The second time Prince Yaroslav paid a short visit to Batu in the Lower Volga region in May 1246 and hurried further east, where he visited the nomadic camp of Güyük (but not Karakorum) in central Mongolia and where he died two months after his arrival. Alexander Yaroslavovich, for his part, visited the nomadic camp of Batu in the second half of 1248 in the south of modern Kazakhstan and then followed to the nomadic camp of Oghul Qaimish in Eastern Kazakhstan or Northern Xinjiang. Thus, Prince Alexander did not travel to Mongolia.
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Research objectives: An analysis of the main known synchronous written sources containing information about the Mongol conquest of the modern territory of Bashkortostan in the fall of 1236, aimed at finding out how these sources call the... more
Research objectives: An analysis of the main known synchronous written sources containing information about the Mongol conquest of the modern territory of Bashkortostan in the fall of 1236, aimed at finding out how these sources call the population of this region on the eve of the conquest and during its course, as well as immediately after submission to the Mongols.
Research materials: Among the central sources used in this study, here, first of all, we should mention the “Laurentian Chronicle”, which testifies both to the Mongol invasion of the territory of the Volga Bulgaria in 1232 and its final conquest in the fall of 1236. In addition, the chronicle contains valuable information about the subordination of the Mordvins in the winter of 1239/40.
In turn, Latin sources provide basic information for this study. In particular, the account of the first travel of friar Julian to the east, written by Riccardus in 1236 or early 1237, contains information about the eastern Magyars on the eve of the Mongol conquest. Julian’s letter of 1238, for its part, provides information about the course of the conquest, while a letter of the Hungarian king Bela IV addressed to the German king Conrad IV in July 1241, confirms Julian’s information. The “Hystoria Tartarorum” by Franciscan C. de Bridra makes it possible to clarify the details of the subjugation of the Mordvins in the winter of 1239/40 and refute the erroneous statement of John of Plano Carpini about the re-submission of the eastern Magyars. In turn, the “Ystoria mongalorum” by John of Plano Carpini conveys the name of the eastern Magyars, which circulated in the Mongol Empire along with their self-name. The “Itinerarium” by William of Rubruck was used here for the same purpose.
Finally, a fragment from Rashid al-Din’s “Compendium of Chronicles” was compared with a fragment from Juvaini’s work in an effort to clarify what Rashid al-Din meant when describing the subordination of the “Bashghird”.
Research novelty: The interpretation of written sources in recent publications of Bashkir colleagues has been criticized through a detailed analysis of the content of these sources. In addition, the author clarified the plausibility of John of Plano Carpini’s assertion regarding the re-submission of the eastern Magyars by comparing it with the corresponding passage in C. de Bridra’s “Hystoria Tartarorum”.
Research results: The author of this article has checked all the passages contained in the sources and related to the 1236 conquest, expanded the search in an attempt to understand the context that was implied in these fragments, and discussed a number of other parallel sources in an effort to identify their mutual influence or even direct, albeit paraphrased, borrowings. The result of this analysis was an even more firm conviction of the author that none of the cited and parallel written sources mentions the Bashkirs in connection with the Mongol conquests during the Western campaign of Batu (1236–1242), as well as on the eve of it and after its completion
Research materials: Among the central sources used in this study, here, first of all, we should mention the “Laurentian Chronicle”, which testifies both to the Mongol invasion of the territory of the Volga Bulgaria in 1232 and its final conquest in the fall of 1236. In addition, the chronicle contains valuable information about the subordination of the Mordvins in the winter of 1239/40.
In turn, Latin sources provide basic information for this study. In particular, the account of the first travel of friar Julian to the east, written by Riccardus in 1236 or early 1237, contains information about the eastern Magyars on the eve of the Mongol conquest. Julian’s letter of 1238, for its part, provides information about the course of the conquest, while a letter of the Hungarian king Bela IV addressed to the German king Conrad IV in July 1241, confirms Julian’s information. The “Hystoria Tartarorum” by Franciscan C. de Bridra makes it possible to clarify the details of the subjugation of the Mordvins in the winter of 1239/40 and refute the erroneous statement of John of Plano Carpini about the re-submission of the eastern Magyars. In turn, the “Ystoria mongalorum” by John of Plano Carpini conveys the name of the eastern Magyars, which circulated in the Mongol Empire along with their self-name. The “Itinerarium” by William of Rubruck was used here for the same purpose.
Finally, a fragment from Rashid al-Din’s “Compendium of Chronicles” was compared with a fragment from Juvaini’s work in an effort to clarify what Rashid al-Din meant when describing the subordination of the “Bashghird”.
Research novelty: The interpretation of written sources in recent publications of Bashkir colleagues has been criticized through a detailed analysis of the content of these sources. In addition, the author clarified the plausibility of John of Plano Carpini’s assertion regarding the re-submission of the eastern Magyars by comparing it with the corresponding passage in C. de Bridra’s “Hystoria Tartarorum”.
Research results: The author of this article has checked all the passages contained in the sources and related to the 1236 conquest, expanded the search in an attempt to understand the context that was implied in these fragments, and discussed a number of other parallel sources in an effort to identify their mutual influence or even direct, albeit paraphrased, borrowings. The result of this analysis was an even more firm conviction of the author that none of the cited and parallel written sources mentions the Bashkirs in connection with the Mongol conquests during the Western campaign of Batu (1236–1242), as well as on the eve of it and after its completion
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Research objectives: To analyze both the circumstances of the armed conflict of Genoese Caffa with the troops of the Golden Horde ruler, Toqta Khan, in 1307-1308, which ended with the temporary expulsion of Italian merchants from the... more
Research objectives: To analyze both the circumstances of the armed conflict of Genoese Caffa with the troops of the Golden Horde ruler, Toqta Khan, in 1307-1308, which ended with the temporary expulsion of Italian merchants from the Jöchid territory, and their return to Caffa under Toqta's nephew and successor, Özbeg Khan. Research materials: The information on the conflict between the Genoese and Toqta Khan is contained in an anonymous continuation of the chronicle of the Genoese Archbishop, Jacopo da Varagine, dating to the middle of the fourteenth century; in the chronicles of the Mamluk authors, Baybars al-Mansuri and al-Nuwayri; and in a local Greek source, namely the Sugdeian Synaxarion. In turn, sources that provide information about the circumstances and conditions of the return of the Genoese are much more diverse. Of course, the most important details are contained in the official documents of Genoa and Caffa. Valuable details are also contained in the missionary sources of the Franciscans preaching the gospel within the Golden Horde. For its part, the Franciscan information is useful to compare with that found in Rus'ian sources regarding the relations of Catholic and Orthodox prelates with the Khan of the Golden Horde. Research novelty: This study highlights that the use of Franciscan sources appears to be extremely useful to complement the analysis of the relationship of the Genoese entrepôt of Caffa with the local authorities. Research results: An analysis of the conflict between the Genoese and the local authorities, along with the conditions of their return negotiated with the new Khan of the Golden Horde, reveals the obvious fact that Caffa, having undoubtedly grown in the Golden Horde period due to the activities of the Genoese immigrants, had to recognize its submission to the Jöchid rulers from its very foundation. The Genoese administration likewise recognized this dependence during the restoration of Caffa in the first years of Özbeg Khan's reign.
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Abstract: Research objectives: To analyze the information contained in diverse written sources about the early Jochid conquests which preceded the start of Batu’s western campaign in Eastern Europe (1236–1242) and to discuss the role in... more
Abstract: Research objectives: To analyze the information contained in diverse written sources about the early Jochid conquests which preceded the start of Batu’s western campaign in Eastern Europe (1236–1242) and to discuss the role in the implementation of these
military campaigns that each of these diverse sources ascribes to Chinggis Khan’s eldest son, Jochi, and his progeny.
Research materials: The author exclusively used written and already published sources – namely: Arabic works of Ibn al-Athir and Qaratay al-Izzi al-Khaznadari (the work of the latter author is often mistakenly attributed to Ibn Wasil); Persian works of alNasawi, Juzjani, Juwayni, and Rashid al-Din; the Mongolian Secret History of the Mongols and the Chinese official annals Yuan Shi and Shengwu qinzheng lu; Latin accounts on two travels of the Dominican Julian to pre-Mongol Eastern Europe, subsequent Latin reports by John of Plano Carpini and C. de Bridia on the first European diplomatic mission to the Mongol Empire, as well as the bulls of Pope Gregory IX regarding the situation in the Balkans during the arrival of the first Qipchaq refugees from the Mongols; the Greek works of George Akropolites, Ephraim, and Nicephorus Gregoras regarding the same situation in the Balkans, as well as a fragment from the Life of St. Louis by Jean de Joinville.
Research novelty: Based on Christopher Atwood’s successful results in comparing the pro-Toluid sources with those written outside the Toluid courts, a similar method is employed here for Jochi’s last campaign as well as for the early campaigns of his successor, Batu.
Research results: A comparison of both types of sources allows us to trace the deliberate understatement of the role of the Jochids in the pro-Toluid sources. As well, we are able to restore their real role, based on information from parallel sources.
military campaigns that each of these diverse sources ascribes to Chinggis Khan’s eldest son, Jochi, and his progeny.
Research materials: The author exclusively used written and already published sources – namely: Arabic works of Ibn al-Athir and Qaratay al-Izzi al-Khaznadari (the work of the latter author is often mistakenly attributed to Ibn Wasil); Persian works of alNasawi, Juzjani, Juwayni, and Rashid al-Din; the Mongolian Secret History of the Mongols and the Chinese official annals Yuan Shi and Shengwu qinzheng lu; Latin accounts on two travels of the Dominican Julian to pre-Mongol Eastern Europe, subsequent Latin reports by John of Plano Carpini and C. de Bridia on the first European diplomatic mission to the Mongol Empire, as well as the bulls of Pope Gregory IX regarding the situation in the Balkans during the arrival of the first Qipchaq refugees from the Mongols; the Greek works of George Akropolites, Ephraim, and Nicephorus Gregoras regarding the same situation in the Balkans, as well as a fragment from the Life of St. Louis by Jean de Joinville.
Research novelty: Based on Christopher Atwood’s successful results in comparing the pro-Toluid sources with those written outside the Toluid courts, a similar method is employed here for Jochi’s last campaign as well as for the early campaigns of his successor, Batu.
Research results: A comparison of both types of sources allows us to trace the deliberate understatement of the role of the Jochids in the pro-Toluid sources. As well, we are able to restore their real role, based on information from parallel sources.
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Abstract: Research objectives: To both set the date for the appearance of Latin missionaries in the Jochid ulus and describe the gradual process of growth of the preaching activity of the Franciscans and Dominicans in the Golden Horde... more
Abstract: Research objectives: To both set the date for the appearance of Latin missionaries in the Jochid ulus and describe the gradual process of growth of the preaching activity of the Franciscans and Dominicans in the Golden Horde until the reign of Uzbek Khan.
Research materials: Reports of Latin missionaries compiled in the Golden Horde and addressed to the leadership of their mendicant orders in the west; papal bulls addressed to Latin missionaries in the Golden Horde and local rulers and residents converted to Catholicism through the work of European missionaries; chronicles of Franciscan authors compiled in Europe, but based on information from the Golden Horde.
Research novelty: A detailed analysis of written sources that were not previously used in the study of the religious policy of the Golden Horde rulers, as well as a comparison of information from these sources with medieval Muslim, Armenian and Russian sources.
Research results: Apparently, for the first time, Franciscans settled in the Jochid ulus around the mid-1270s, although the first reliable testimony of their intensive missionary activity dates back to 1287. By this time, Latin missionaries had established their convents in five cities of the Golden Horde, and several years later they were able to convert Kutukan, the brother of Toqta Khan, to Christianity. Thus, the Franciscans enjoyed the patronage of the members of the Jochid elite, and by the time of Uzbek Khan, they had established convents in all the main cities of the Golden Horde. In addition to the patronage of the Golden Horde rulers, the material support of Western merchants and local neophytes was a major factor contributing to the development of Latin missionary work in the Jochid ulus.
Keywords: Golden Horde history, religious policy of the Mongol khans, Latin missionary activity in the Middle Ages, Mendicant orders in the east, Latin sources
Research materials: Reports of Latin missionaries compiled in the Golden Horde and addressed to the leadership of their mendicant orders in the west; papal bulls addressed to Latin missionaries in the Golden Horde and local rulers and residents converted to Catholicism through the work of European missionaries; chronicles of Franciscan authors compiled in Europe, but based on information from the Golden Horde.
Research novelty: A detailed analysis of written sources that were not previously used in the study of the religious policy of the Golden Horde rulers, as well as a comparison of information from these sources with medieval Muslim, Armenian and Russian sources.
Research results: Apparently, for the first time, Franciscans settled in the Jochid ulus around the mid-1270s, although the first reliable testimony of their intensive missionary activity dates back to 1287. By this time, Latin missionaries had established their convents in five cities of the Golden Horde, and several years later they were able to convert Kutukan, the brother of Toqta Khan, to Christianity. Thus, the Franciscans enjoyed the patronage of the members of the Jochid elite, and by the time of Uzbek Khan, they had established convents in all the main cities of the Golden Horde. In addition to the patronage of the Golden Horde rulers, the material support of Western merchants and local neophytes was a major factor contributing to the development of Latin missionary work in the Jochid ulus.
Keywords: Golden Horde history, religious policy of the Mongol khans, Latin missionary activity in the Middle Ages, Mendicant orders in the east, Latin sources
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Khan Özbek's rise to power was a pivotal moment in the Islamisation of the Golden Horde nomads. Recently, Russian researchers have shown an increased interest in Özbek's religious policy and the degree to which Golden Horde nomads were... more
Khan Özbek's rise to power was a pivotal moment in the Islamisation of the Golden Horde nomads. Recently, Russian researchers have shown an increased interest in Özbek's religious policy and the degree to which Golden Horde nomads were Islamised during his reign. Several researchers argue that Özbek succeeded in completely Islamising his domain at the beginning of his reign. However, this interpretation is largely based on written Islamic sources that should not be taken at face value. Franciscan sources written within the Golden Horde suggest that Islam was not uniformly adopted in the Jochid ulus. A comparison with the neighbouring Ilkhanate at the end of the 13th c. shows that the Mongol rulers achieved relatively limited success in their attempts to forcibly impose Islam on their nomadic subjects.
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Research objectives: The author of this article seeks to draw the attention of researchers to the whole body of little-known Latin sources concerning the details of the development of Catholic missionary work in the territory of the... more
Research objectives: The author of this article seeks to draw the attention of researchers to the whole body of little-known Latin sources concerning the details of the development of Catholic missionary work in the territory of the Golden Horde since the
second half of the 13th century.
Research materials: These sources seem to be important primarily because they include “internal” sources, namely, reports of Catholic missionaries compiled in the territory of the Golden Horde and sent to the leadership of the Mendicant orders (mainly the Franciscan Order of the Friars Minor) in Europe. The body of writings also includes “external” sources, that is, papal bulls addressed to the Golden Horde rulers, the missionaries themselves in the dominions of these rulers, and their subjects in the steppes and cities of the Golden Horde whom the Roman curia regarded as immediate targets for their missionary activity. In addition, narrative descriptions of the Franciscan chroniclers who received information either directly from missionaries returning from the Golden Horde, or through their unpreserved letters, are discussed here as “external” Latin sources.
The novelty of this study stems from its comparison of the already well-known sources on the Golden Horde with the content of reports of the Mendicants, papal bulls, and Franciscan chronicles, which allows the author to significantly diversify the information on its history.
Research results: In particular, the author resorted to a comparison of missionary and Eastern (Mamluk, Persian, Russian, Greek, and Armenian) sources, completely independent of each other. In doing this, the author sought to demonstrate the usefulness of such a comparison to clarify the existed data and to obtaining new information. In addition, the author tried to justify the importance of the missionary sources presented in the article.
second half of the 13th century.
Research materials: These sources seem to be important primarily because they include “internal” sources, namely, reports of Catholic missionaries compiled in the territory of the Golden Horde and sent to the leadership of the Mendicant orders (mainly the Franciscan Order of the Friars Minor) in Europe. The body of writings also includes “external” sources, that is, papal bulls addressed to the Golden Horde rulers, the missionaries themselves in the dominions of these rulers, and their subjects in the steppes and cities of the Golden Horde whom the Roman curia regarded as immediate targets for their missionary activity. In addition, narrative descriptions of the Franciscan chroniclers who received information either directly from missionaries returning from the Golden Horde, or through their unpreserved letters, are discussed here as “external” Latin sources.
The novelty of this study stems from its comparison of the already well-known sources on the Golden Horde with the content of reports of the Mendicants, papal bulls, and Franciscan chronicles, which allows the author to significantly diversify the information on its history.
Research results: In particular, the author resorted to a comparison of missionary and Eastern (Mamluk, Persian, Russian, Greek, and Armenian) sources, completely independent of each other. In doing this, the author sought to demonstrate the usefulness of such a comparison to clarify the existed data and to obtaining new information. In addition, the author tried to justify the importance of the missionary sources presented in the article.
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The author of this article examines the details of interaction of a heterogeneous population of the Golden Horde with Catholic missionaries who deployed their most intense activity aimed at converting local nomads to Christianity during... more
The author of this article examines the details of interaction of a heterogeneous population of the Golden Horde with Catholic missionaries who deployed their most intense activity aimed at converting local nomads to Christianity during the reign of khan Uzbek (1313–1341). The details of this contact come to light by analyzing the little-known missionary reports from the Golden Horde as well as Papal letters to its rulers, and narratives of the Franciscanchroniclers in Europe who received information about the development of missionary work in Jochid ulus from their fellows in the East. These, for the most part, synchronous sources point to a continuation of the policy of religious tolerance traditional for the Chinggisids even during the apparent strengthening of Islam in the Golden Horde. Khan Uzbek’s tolerance earned praise from the Avignon curia and promoted active diplomatic relations with Popes John XXII and his successor Benedict XII. A more important consequence of the Golden Horde khan’s favor of Christians was an intensification of the missionary activity in his domains leading to close contacts of the Franciscans with the local population, which are reflected in the Latin sources considered in this study. These sources, hitherto known only to a narrow circle of specialists in the history of Catholic missionary work in the Middle Ages, contain valuable information about the circumstances of this contact and deserve a detailed analysis by the researchers of the Golden Horde history, since in contrast to “external” Persian and Arab chronicles (undoubtedly containing important information about internal policy of khan Uzbek) missionary sources reflect the views “from within” of Jochid ulus and contain information about the daily life of its inhabitants.
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The author of this article seeks to draw the attention of researchers to the whole body of little-known Latin sources concerning the details of the development of Catholic missionary work in the territory of the Golden Horde since the... more
The author of this article seeks to draw the attention of researchers to the whole body of little-known Latin sources concerning the details of the development of Catholic missionary work in the territory of the Golden Horde since the second half of the 13th century. These sources seem to be important primarily because they include “internal” sources, namely, reports of Catholic missionaries compiled on the territory of the Golden Horde and sent to the leadership of the Mendicant orders (mainly the Franciscan Order of the Friars Minor) in Europe. They also include “external” sources, that is, papal bulls addressed to the Golden Horde rulers, the missionaries themselves in the dominions of these rulers, as well as their subjects in the steppes and cities of the Golden Horde whom the Roman curia regarded as immediate objects of missionary activity. In addition, narrative descriptions of the Franciscan chroniclers who received information either directly from missionaries returning from the Golden Horde, or through their unpreserved letters, are discussed here as “external” Latin sources.
Comparison of the already well-known sources on the Golden Horde with the content of reports of the Mendicants, papal bulls and Franciscan chronicles allows the author to significantly diversify the information on its history and represents the main goal of this article. In particular, the author resorts to a comparison of missionary and eastern (Mamluk, Persian, Russian, Greek and Armenian) sources, completely independent of each other. In doing this, the author seeks to demonstrate the usefulness of such a comparison to clarify the existed data and to obtaining new information. In addition, the author tries to justify the importance of the missionary sources presented in the article
Comparison of the already well-known sources on the Golden Horde with the content of reports of the Mendicants, papal bulls and Franciscan chronicles allows the author to significantly diversify the information on its history and represents the main goal of this article. In particular, the author resorts to a comparison of missionary and eastern (Mamluk, Persian, Russian, Greek and Armenian) sources, completely independent of each other. In doing this, the author seeks to demonstrate the usefulness of such a comparison to clarify the existed data and to obtaining new information. In addition, the author tries to justify the importance of the missionary sources presented in the article
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Research objectives: to consider the interaction between Italian merchants and representatives of the Dominican Order, and more importantly the Franciscans, in the territory of the Mongol Empire (mainly the Juchid and Chaghadaid uluses)... more
Research objectives: to consider the interaction between Italian merchants and representatives of the Dominican Order, and more importantly the Franciscans, in the territory of the Mongol Empire (mainly the Juchid and Chaghadaid uluses) in the first half of the 14th century. The author focuses on the circumstances of the wide distribution of Latin missionary work in Asia and especially on the invaluable financial support of Italian merchants, without which the missionary work of the Mendicants could hardly have achieved such an unprecedented scale. In addition, the author of this article attempts to clarify the reasons that Italian merchants donated large amounts of money to support the activities of Western missionaries. At the end of this study, the author tries to explain the reason for a special favor of the Mongol rulers toward the missionaries from Europe.
Research materials: a number of synchronous Latin sources (including Papal bulls and missionary reports from the East) which provide information on the activities of European missionaries within the boundaries of the Mongol Empire.
Research results and novelty: the sources examined in this study suggest that the Mongol rulers’ favor toward the Italian merchants was related to the patronage of the Papal curia to certain extent – something which the Avignon Popes insistently pointed out in their letters to the khans of the Golden Horde and Chaghadaid ulus. The same sources equally clearly indicate that the favorable attitude of the khans extended to the Western missionaries who carried out their activity in their territories. Probably this favor originated from a desire to please Italian merchants who brought significant revenues to the treasury of the Mongol rulers. At the same time, the khans’ favor emerged from the fact that Western missionaries were official representatives of the pontiffs in the territories. The Mongol rulers, in turn, sought to use the missionaries’ influence to maintain diplomatic relations with the Avignon curia. Thus, the Western missionaries’ presence in the East proved beneficial both for Italian merchants and the Mongol rulers. By this consideration one can explain the widespread presence of Dominican and especially Franciscan convents in the vast Mongol Empire
Research materials: a number of synchronous Latin sources (including Papal bulls and missionary reports from the East) which provide information on the activities of European missionaries within the boundaries of the Mongol Empire.
Research results and novelty: the sources examined in this study suggest that the Mongol rulers’ favor toward the Italian merchants was related to the patronage of the Papal curia to certain extent – something which the Avignon Popes insistently pointed out in their letters to the khans of the Golden Horde and Chaghadaid ulus. The same sources equally clearly indicate that the favorable attitude of the khans extended to the Western missionaries who carried out their activity in their territories. Probably this favor originated from a desire to please Italian merchants who brought significant revenues to the treasury of the Mongol rulers. At the same time, the khans’ favor emerged from the fact that Western missionaries were official representatives of the pontiffs in the territories. The Mongol rulers, in turn, sought to use the missionaries’ influence to maintain diplomatic relations with the Avignon curia. Thus, the Western missionaries’ presence in the East proved beneficial both for Italian merchants and the Mongol rulers. By this consideration one can explain the widespread presence of Dominican and especially Franciscan convents in the vast Mongol Empire
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The author of this article examines the details of the interaction between the heterogeneous population of the Golden Horde and Catholic missionaries who aimed their most intense activity at converting local nomads to Christianity during... more
The author of this article examines the details of the interaction between the heterogeneous population of the Golden Horde and Catholic missionaries who aimed their most intense activity at converting local nomads to Christianity during the reign of Uzbek Khan (1313–1341). The details of this contact come to light by analyzing the little-known missionary reports from the Golden Horde as well as Papal letters to its rulers, and narratives of the Franciscan chroniclers in Europe who received information about the development of missionary work in Jochid ulus from their fellows in the East. These, for the most part, synchronous sources point to a continuation of the policy of religious tolerance which was traditional for Chinggisids even during the apparent strengthening of Islam in the Golden Horde. Uzbek Khan’s tolerance earned praise from the Avignon curia and promoted active diplomatic relations with Pope John XXII and his successor Benedict XII. A more important consequence of the Golden Horde khan’s favor of Christians was an intensification of missionary activity in his domains leading to close contacts between the Franciscans and the local population, which are reflected in the Latin sources considered in this study. These sources, hitherto known only to a narrow circle of specialists in the history of Catholic missionary work in the Middle Ages, contain valuable information about the circumstances of this contact and deserve a detailed analysis by researchers of Golden Horde history since, in contrast to “external” Persian and Arab chronicles (undoubtedly containing important information about internal policy of Uzbek Khan), missionary sources reflect the views “from within” the Jochid ulus and contain information about the daily life of its inhabitants.
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This article contains the original Italian text and a Russian translation of a letter describing the Ottoman conquest of Caffa in June 1475 in a copy from a sixteenth-century codex of the Ambrosian Library in Milan (Q 116 sup., fol.... more
This article contains the original Italian text and a Russian translation of a letter describing the Ottoman conquest of Caffa in June 1475 in a copy from a sixteenth-century codex of the Ambrosian Library in Milan (Q 116 sup., fol. 105r–106r). This letter was written on August 15, 1475 in Constantinople by an anonymous Tuscan merchant, probably of Pisan origin, judging by the undisguised antipathy which he expresses toward the Genoese government of Caffa. The author of the letter was in Caffa at the time of its fall and shared in all the hardships experienced by the city’s surrendered population, expressing these sufferings in a touching and eloquent manner. He also had to have a fairly high position based on his knowledge of the details of the negotiations of the Genoese rulers of Caffa with the Crimean khan Mengli Girey, the heads of the Tatar Shirin clan, and the Ottoman general Ahmed Pasha. His text, thus, abounds in details of the conflict with the Tatars, which began in February 1475, the subsequent Ottoman siege of Caffa, and the consequences of the city’s capitulation in early June of the same year.
Nevertheless, the epistle of the Tuscan anonym highlights the drivers that led to the onset of the conflict in a rather superficial form. Therefore, the authors of this article resorted to the analysis of parallel sources for the reconstruction of those preceding events that led to the fateful siege of Genoese Caffa in June 1475. To that end, we introduce the letter by providing a detailed description of the preceding events on the basis of various epistolary and narrative sources of Italian, Hungarian, Polish, Armenian and Ottoman origin.
Nevertheless, the epistle of the Tuscan anonym highlights the drivers that led to the onset of the conflict in a rather superficial form. Therefore, the authors of this article resorted to the analysis of parallel sources for the reconstruction of those preceding events that led to the fateful siege of Genoese Caffa in June 1475. To that end, we introduce the letter by providing a detailed description of the preceding events on the basis of various epistolary and narrative sources of Italian, Hungarian, Polish, Armenian and Ottoman origin.
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Research objectives: To consider and compare the processes of Islamization of nomads in the Hulaguid and Jochid uluses at the beginning of the rule of the Ilkhan Ghazan (1295–1304) and the Golden Horde’s Uzbek Khan (1313–1341). Research... more
Research objectives: To consider and compare the processes of Islamization of nomads in the Hulaguid and Jochid uluses at the beginning of the rule of the Ilkhan Ghazan (1295–1304) and the Golden Horde’s Uzbek Khan (1313–1341).
Research materials: Persian synchronous sources on the process of Islamization of the Ilkhanate’s nomads connected to the Ilkhan Ghazan’s ascension to power, significantly supplemented by the eyewitness report of the Sufi Sheikh Sadr al-Din Ibrahim b. Sa’d al-Din Hammuya, found in the work of al-Jazari. These are contrasted by the information found in local Armenian and Nestorian sources with the addition of more information provided by Latin authors.
The comparison is made of traditional information from Persian and Mamluk chronicles with that found in synchronous Latin sources compiled within the Juchid ulus in light of the events in the Golden Horde and an assessment of the religious policy of Uzbek Khan.
The novelty of this study is an attempt to compare the consequences of the ascensions of “Islamizing” khans in both uluses and in contraposition between the Muslim sources inclined to exaggerate successes regarding the Islamization of local nomads on one hand, and the information of Christian eyewitnesses to events on the other hand, allowing us to essentially diversify the notion of the religious policy both of Ilkhan Ghazan and the Golden Horde’s Uzbek Khan.
As a result of a comparison of heterogeneous sources, the author comes to the conclusion that the rulers of both uluses were forced to adhere to the traditional policy of religious tolerance after they encountered the fierce resistance of nomads when they initially made moves to reverse it.
Research materials: Persian synchronous sources on the process of Islamization of the Ilkhanate’s nomads connected to the Ilkhan Ghazan’s ascension to power, significantly supplemented by the eyewitness report of the Sufi Sheikh Sadr al-Din Ibrahim b. Sa’d al-Din Hammuya, found in the work of al-Jazari. These are contrasted by the information found in local Armenian and Nestorian sources with the addition of more information provided by Latin authors.
The comparison is made of traditional information from Persian and Mamluk chronicles with that found in synchronous Latin sources compiled within the Juchid ulus in light of the events in the Golden Horde and an assessment of the religious policy of Uzbek Khan.
The novelty of this study is an attempt to compare the consequences of the ascensions of “Islamizing” khans in both uluses and in contraposition between the Muslim sources inclined to exaggerate successes regarding the Islamization of local nomads on one hand, and the information of Christian eyewitnesses to events on the other hand, allowing us to essentially diversify the notion of the religious policy both of Ilkhan Ghazan and the Golden Horde’s Uzbek Khan.
As a result of a comparison of heterogeneous sources, the author comes to the conclusion that the rulers of both uluses were forced to adhere to the traditional policy of religious tolerance after they encountered the fierce resistance of nomads when they initially made moves to reverse it.
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From the point of view of Latin authors the Mongol expansion in the Middle East of the 13th century led to dramatic geopolitical changes, which primarily affected the foreign relations of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem with the... more
From the point of view of Latin authors the Mongol expansion in the Middle East of the 13th century led to dramatic geopolitical changes, which primarily affected the foreign relations of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem with the surrounding Muslim states. The Mamluks’ coming to power in Egypt and further strengthening of their Sultanate had as a consequence the formation of an extremely aggressive policy of Sultan Baybars in relation to the Frankish possessions in Palestine.
A number of synchronous Latin authors evince a natural interest toward the Mamluk Sultanate and indicates the main advantages of its administration that led to an obvious military superiority over the fragmented forces of the Latins.
In parallel, Christian writers did not hide their admiration with regard to the achievements of Baybars in his foreign policy: the Mamluks converged with the Golden Horde, an extremely strong military ally in their fight against the Ilkhanate of Persia. It is not surprising, therefore, that in contrast to the friendly agreement between Cairo and Sarai, Ilkhans of Persia concluded a military alliance with the Catholic Europe.
Thus, despite its specificity and rather biased view, the Latin sources relatively realistically reflect the geopolitical changes in the Middle East related to the centennial rule of the Mongols in Persia. In particular, the information of Western authors concerning the Mamluks’ administrative reforms and evolution of the Ilkhanide foreign policy is especially important.
A number of synchronous Latin authors evince a natural interest toward the Mamluk Sultanate and indicates the main advantages of its administration that led to an obvious military superiority over the fragmented forces of the Latins.
In parallel, Christian writers did not hide their admiration with regard to the achievements of Baybars in his foreign policy: the Mamluks converged with the Golden Horde, an extremely strong military ally in their fight against the Ilkhanate of Persia. It is not surprising, therefore, that in contrast to the friendly agreement between Cairo and Sarai, Ilkhans of Persia concluded a military alliance with the Catholic Europe.
Thus, despite its specificity and rather biased view, the Latin sources relatively realistically reflect the geopolitical changes in the Middle East related to the centennial rule of the Mongols in Persia. In particular, the information of Western authors concerning the Mamluks’ administrative reforms and evolution of the Ilkhanide foreign policy is especially important.
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This article contains the text of the lettter of the Hungarian king and the German emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg to the commune of Caffa, the Genoese colony in the Crimea. In his struggle against Venice, the Emperor hoped for the help of... more
This article contains the text of the lettter of the Hungarian king and the German emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg to the commune of Caffa, the Genoese colony in the Crimea. In his struggle against Venice, the Emperor hoped for the help of Genoa, which competed with the Republic of Saint Mark in the Levantine trade. To undermine the Venetian trade routes, Sigismund hoped to establish contact with the Horde’s Khan Jalal ad-Din, mediated by the administration of Caffa, and restore the transit trade of expensive Oriental goods from China to the Danube and further into Hungary and Germany. To this end, the official Hungarian embassy was sent to Caffa in 1412.
The letter rather meagerly reflects the opinion of the emperor about the distant Horde and its rulers. However, the circumstances of the embassy make it possible to understand the broader European context of Sigismund’s eastern policy, which in one way or another affected Genoa, the Ottoman Empire and the Polish Kingdom. The published source is of considerable interest to researchers of the history of the Horde, the Crimea and the Genoese colony of Caffa in connection with the scarcity of information on the Hungarian-Tatar relations in the early 15th century and taking into account the fact that Sigismund tried to implement his anti-Venetian plan in 1418 and possibly once again between 1419 and 1428.
Thus, this article contains the Latin text of the letter and its Russian translation as well as an introduction with explanation of the context of events both in Hungary and the distant Venetian colony of Tana (the Tatar Azaq) located at the mouth of the Don.
The letter rather meagerly reflects the opinion of the emperor about the distant Horde and its rulers. However, the circumstances of the embassy make it possible to understand the broader European context of Sigismund’s eastern policy, which in one way or another affected Genoa, the Ottoman Empire and the Polish Kingdom. The published source is of considerable interest to researchers of the history of the Horde, the Crimea and the Genoese colony of Caffa in connection with the scarcity of information on the Hungarian-Tatar relations in the early 15th century and taking into account the fact that Sigismund tried to implement his anti-Venetian plan in 1418 and possibly once again between 1419 and 1428.
Thus, this article contains the Latin text of the letter and its Russian translation as well as an introduction with explanation of the context of events both in Hungary and the distant Venetian colony of Tana (the Tatar Azaq) located at the mouth of the Don.
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Research objectives: to consider the interaction between Italian merchants and representatives of the Dominican Order, and more importantly the Franciscans, in the territory of the Mongol Empire (mainly the Juchid and Chaghadaid uluses)... more
Research objectives: to consider the interaction between Italian merchants and representatives of the Dominican Order, and more importantly the Franciscans, in the territory of the Mongol Empire (mainly the Juchid and Chaghadaid uluses) in the first half of the 14th century. The author focuses on the circumstances of the wide distribution of Latin missionary work in Asia and especially on the invaluable financial support of Italian merchants, without which the missionary work of the Mendicants could hardly have achieved such an unprecedented scale. In addition, the author of this article attempts to clarify the reasons that Italian merchants donated large amounts of money to support the activities of Western missionaries. At the end of this study, the author tries to explain the reason for a special favor of the Mongol rulers toward the missionaries from Europe.
Research materials: a number of synchronous Latin sources (including Papal bulls and missionary reports from the East) which provide information on the activities of European missionaries within the boundaries of the Mongol Empire.
Research results and novelty: the sources examined in this study suggest that the Mongol rulers’ favor toward the Italian merchants was related to the patronage of the Papal curia to certain extent – something which the Avignon Popes insistently pointed out in their letters to the khans of the Golden Horde and Chaghadaid ulus. The same sources equally clearly indicate that the favorable attitude of the khans extended to the Western missionaries who carried out their activity in their territories. Probably this favor originated from a desire to please Italian merchants who brought significant revenues to the treasury of the Mongol rulers. At the same time, the khans’ favor emerged from the fact that Western missionaries were official representatives of the pontiffs in the territories. The Mongol rulers, in turn, sought to use the missionaries’ influence to maintain diplomatic relations with the Avignon curia. Thus, the Western missionaries’ presence in the East proved beneficial both for Italian merchants and the Mongol rulers. By this consideration one can explain the widespread presence of Dominican and especially Franciscan convents in the vast Mongol Empire.
Research materials: a number of synchronous Latin sources (including Papal bulls and missionary reports from the East) which provide information on the activities of European missionaries within the boundaries of the Mongol Empire.
Research results and novelty: the sources examined in this study suggest that the Mongol rulers’ favor toward the Italian merchants was related to the patronage of the Papal curia to certain extent – something which the Avignon Popes insistently pointed out in their letters to the khans of the Golden Horde and Chaghadaid ulus. The same sources equally clearly indicate that the favorable attitude of the khans extended to the Western missionaries who carried out their activity in their territories. Probably this favor originated from a desire to please Italian merchants who brought significant revenues to the treasury of the Mongol rulers. At the same time, the khans’ favor emerged from the fact that Western missionaries were official representatives of the pontiffs in the territories. The Mongol rulers, in turn, sought to use the missionaries’ influence to maintain diplomatic relations with the Avignon curia. Thus, the Western missionaries’ presence in the East proved beneficial both for Italian merchants and the Mongol rulers. By this consideration one can explain the widespread presence of Dominican and especially Franciscan convents in the vast Mongol Empire.
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The author of present article examines the overall response of Russian medieval scribes to the ascension to power of khan Uzbek – the Golden Horde ruler who was a Muslim and made a major effort to spread Islam in the Jochid Empire. When... more
The author of present article examines the overall response of Russian medieval scribes to the ascension to power of khan Uzbek – the Golden Horde ruler who was a Muslim and made a major effort to spread Islam in the Jochid Empire. When analyzing Russian sources the author tries to answer the question to what extent can we trust the reliability of their information about the impact of Uzbek’s religious affiliation on the expected change in his relations with the Russian principalities?
The novelty of this study consists in comparison of Russian chronicles’ contents with information of little known written sources. In particular, Latin sources compiled within the ulus of Jochi in a relatively large amount exactly during the period under study, to some extent compensate the complete absence of Jochid own written sources. In this case, the content of the Latin sources will allow us to reconsider the established opinion about the total Islamization of the ulus of Jochi during Uzbek’s reign.
The use of heterogeneous written sources emphasizes the significance of the present study. Comparison of Russian chronicles’ contents with information of Catholic missionaries who preached the Gospel in the Golden Horde, allows the author to demonstrate that Muslim khan Uzbek adhered to the principles of traditional religious tolerance of the Chinggisids throughout his entire reign.
The novelty of this study consists in comparison of Russian chronicles’ contents with information of little known written sources. In particular, Latin sources compiled within the ulus of Jochi in a relatively large amount exactly during the period under study, to some extent compensate the complete absence of Jochid own written sources. In this case, the content of the Latin sources will allow us to reconsider the established opinion about the total Islamization of the ulus of Jochi during Uzbek’s reign.
The use of heterogeneous written sources emphasizes the significance of the present study. Comparison of Russian chronicles’ contents with information of Catholic missionaries who preached the Gospel in the Golden Horde, allows the author to demonstrate that Muslim khan Uzbek adhered to the principles of traditional religious tolerance of the Chinggisids throughout his entire reign.
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The present article contains the text of the letter sent by Polish hetman Jan Zamoyski to Cardinal Cinzio Aldobrandini 12 August 1594 describing the circumstances of the recent invasion of Tatar troops in Hungary. Judging by contents of... more
The present article contains the text of the letter sent by Polish hetman Jan Zamoyski to Cardinal Cinzio Aldobrandini 12 August 1594 describing the circumstances of the recent invasion of Tatar troops in Hungary. Judging by contents of the letter, Zamoyski did not hide his desire to be justified in the eyes of the Roman Curia for the ineffectiveness of his actions, which would have to prevent Tatars to invade Hungary through Ukrainian territory that was subordinated to Rzeczpospolita. Thus, this letter is interesting for two reasons. In the first place, Zamoyski’s letter contains detailed information about movement of Tartar troops to the west and stratagemme of khan Ghazi Giray, which allowed Tatars to lull Polish hetman and painlessly penetrate into Hungarian territory. On the other hand, the letter contains somewhat clumsy attempts of Zamoyski to justify his unsuccessful actions, which represent a particular interest.
This article, therefore, contains the Latin text of the letter and its Russian translation as well as the preface and necessary comments to the text explaining the reasons and the very course of Tatar invasion of the Kingdom of Hungary. In addition, the authors placed facsimiles of two handwritten copies of the letter from the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan at the end of the article.
This article, therefore, contains the Latin text of the letter and its Russian translation as well as the preface and necessary comments to the text explaining the reasons and the very course of Tatar invasion of the Kingdom of Hungary. In addition, the authors placed facsimiles of two handwritten copies of the letter from the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan at the end of the article.
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The Tatars became exemplary objects of Christian proselytism since their arrival in Eastern Europe. Apostolate of the Franciscans and Dominicans among the Tatars was fully consistent with the ideals of a Catholic missionary activity.... more
The Tatars became exemplary objects of Christian proselytism since their arrival in Eastern Europe. Apostolate of the Franciscans and Dominicans among the Tatars was fully consistent with the ideals of a Catholic missionary activity. Catholic missionaries put many efforts in order to organize the preaching of the gospel in the Golden Horde, in what the Western merchants exerted their invaluable service. Catholic missionaries moved to the East side by side with the Western merchants. Apparently, they appeared in the Golden Horde territory in parallel with establishment of the Genoese comptoir of Caffa. However, a patronage, with which the Jochid rulers provided the Catholic missionaries, was the main guarantee of unhindered preaching of the gospel throughout the Golden Horde territory
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The following text is reproduced from a handwritten copy of the letter made by the Italian humanist Gian Vincenzo Pinelli (1535–1601) and contained in one codex of Ambrosiana Library in Milan (R 104 sup., fol. 194r) [see the description... more
The following text is reproduced from a handwritten copy of the letter made by the Italian humanist Gian Vincenzo Pinelli (1535–1601) and contained in one codex of Ambrosiana Library in Milan (R 104 sup., fol. 194r) [see the description of codex in: 3, no. 341. p. 125]. This codex (588 folios) contains Italian and Latin texts of the 16th century of extremely diverse content, which does not allow to determe neither the name of the author of the reproduced letter, nor the date of its writing. Nevertheless, a reference to the name of “Luther” in the letter suggests that it must have been written in the 16th century and an indication of the main purpose of the letter – matchmaking to anonymous queen – makes it possible to put forward quite a bold (but, for now, unproven) hypothesis that this letter might be addressed to approximates of the Polish Queen Bona Sforza and the widow of King Sigismund I the Old starting with the April 1, 1548. Following this hypothesis, the alleged author of the letter could be the ruler of Astrakhan Yamgurchi or Crimean khan Sahib Giray. However, this assumption remains only a hypothesis, and the author of this article hopes that future researchers will be able to identify both the author of the letter and its recipients.
Be that as it may, this letter is of undoubtedly fictitious character since it does not indicate the name of its author and the date of writing and obviously differs from official form of Tatar rulers’ letters. Undoubtedly, this letter refers to the literary genre of fictional letters of the rulers, which became extremely popular in Europe since the second half of the 15th century. As an illustration of this genre, the author of this article presents a “letter” of the Turkish sultan to the Tatars and their “response” from the fictional collection of “Letters of the Great Turk” [1, fol. 18r] of Laudivius Hierosolymitanus, which was a relatively widespread in Europe in the last quarter of the 15th century, republished 18 times in different cities of Western Europe according to Incunabula Short Title Catalogue of British Library (http://istc.bl.uk/search/search.html) as well as published in Italian translation in 1563 by Lodovico Dolce [2, p. 51]
Be that as it may, this letter is of undoubtedly fictitious character since it does not indicate the name of its author and the date of writing and obviously differs from official form of Tatar rulers’ letters. Undoubtedly, this letter refers to the literary genre of fictional letters of the rulers, which became extremely popular in Europe since the second half of the 15th century. As an illustration of this genre, the author of this article presents a “letter” of the Turkish sultan to the Tatars and their “response” from the fictional collection of “Letters of the Great Turk” [1, fol. 18r] of Laudivius Hierosolymitanus, which was a relatively widespread in Europe in the last quarter of the 15th century, republished 18 times in different cities of Western Europe according to Incunabula Short Title Catalogue of British Library (http://istc.bl.uk/search/search.html) as well as published in Italian translation in 1563 by Lodovico Dolce [2, p. 51]
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The following letter of Friar Ladizlaus, Franciscan Custodian of Gazaria (that is, of the Northern Black Sea region), contains an interesting description of the collision between Catholic missionaries and Muslim residents of Solkhat. In... more
The following letter of Friar Ladizlaus, Franciscan Custodian of Gazaria (that is, of the Northern Black Sea region), contains an interesting description of the collision between Catholic missionaries and Muslim residents of Solkhat. In his letter, Friar Ladizalus describes the circumstances of the conflict that arose in the summer of 1286 between the Franciscans of Solkhat and local Muslim residents who were angered by Catholics’ habit of sound a bell on their church. During the conflict, Solkhat Muslims demolished this bell and destroyed the Catholic church. In turn, the Franciscans submitted a complaint against their actions to khan Tula-Buga and Nogay. In response to the Minorites’ petition, Jochid rulers sent their representatives to Solkhat. Despite personal commitment to the Muslim faith, these representatives severely punished Franciscans’ offenders and allowed the Minorites both to rebuild their church and to hang three bells instead of one destroyed earlier
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The author of this article traces in a compressed format the main stages of the Catholic Apostolate development in the ulus of Jochi. Latin sources on the Franciscan missionary activity in the Golden Horde contain valuable information... more
The author of this article traces in a compressed format the main stages of the Catholic Apostolate development in the ulus of Jochi. Latin sources on the Franciscan missionary activity in the Golden Horde contain valuable information about religious policy of the Jochid khans Mengu-Timur, Tokhta, and Uzbek, and, at the same time, provide information on everyday life both among the nomads and in the central Volga region cities during the Golden Horde period.
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The author of this article examines a number of military conflicts between the ulus of Jochi and both Hungary and Poland followed the first invasion of the Tatars in these lands in 1241. For the most part, the author’s analysis is based... more
The author of this article examines a number of military conflicts between the ulus of Jochi and both Hungary and Poland followed the first invasion of the Tatars in these lands in 1241.
For the most part, the author’s analysis is based on information of synchronous Latin sources in comparison with information contained in Russian and Mamluk chronicles. In addition to the Hungarian, Polish, and German chronicles, the author resorts to the use of the contents of the papal letters to Eastern Europe, which provide both the most reliable information about military conflicts and information on the Papal Curia’s measures to improve the defense of eastern borders of the Latin world from the Tatar raids.
During the reign of Batu, Latin sources indicate extreme concern about the possible resumption of the western expansion of the Tatars in spite of the fact that, in reality, Tatar military activity on the eastern borders of Catholic Europe had an extremely minor character. On the contrary, during the reign of Berke, Tatars carried a very destructive raid on Lesser Poland. However, further Tatar expansion was interrupted by an unexpected collapse of the Mongol Empire. The subsequent reign of khan MenguTimur was distinguished with relative tension with the Catholic Europe. However, the actual attack on Hungary and Poland took place only under the khans Tuda-Mengu and TulaBuga. Later, under the khans Tokhta and Uzbek, the tension between the Golden Horde and Catholic Europe weakened considerably, which, in particular, allowed the beginning of the Hungarian territorial expansion into Moldova. However, the end of the reign of khan Uzbek was characterized by a sharp deterioration of relations between the Golden Horde and Poland, which was associated with the beginning of the war of Galician succession. Analysis of the course of this war shows the apparent weakening of the influence of the Golden Horde in the former Galicia-Volyn principality, which contributed to the further expansion of Poland and Lithuania on the territory of modern Ukraine.
For the most part, the author’s analysis is based on information of synchronous Latin sources in comparison with information contained in Russian and Mamluk chronicles. In addition to the Hungarian, Polish, and German chronicles, the author resorts to the use of the contents of the papal letters to Eastern Europe, which provide both the most reliable information about military conflicts and information on the Papal Curia’s measures to improve the defense of eastern borders of the Latin world from the Tatar raids.
During the reign of Batu, Latin sources indicate extreme concern about the possible resumption of the western expansion of the Tatars in spite of the fact that, in reality, Tatar military activity on the eastern borders of Catholic Europe had an extremely minor character. On the contrary, during the reign of Berke, Tatars carried a very destructive raid on Lesser Poland. However, further Tatar expansion was interrupted by an unexpected collapse of the Mongol Empire. The subsequent reign of khan MenguTimur was distinguished with relative tension with the Catholic Europe. However, the actual attack on Hungary and Poland took place only under the khans Tuda-Mengu and TulaBuga. Later, under the khans Tokhta and Uzbek, the tension between the Golden Horde and Catholic Europe weakened considerably, which, in particular, allowed the beginning of the Hungarian territorial expansion into Moldova. However, the end of the reign of khan Uzbek was characterized by a sharp deterioration of relations between the Golden Horde and Poland, which was associated with the beginning of the war of Galician succession. Analysis of the course of this war shows the apparent weakening of the influence of the Golden Horde in the former Galicia-Volyn principality, which contributed to the further expansion of Poland and Lithuania on the territory of modern Ukraine.
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The author of this article examines a number of military conflicts between the ulus of Jochi and both Hungary and Poland followed the first invasion of the Tatars in these lands in 1241. For the most part, the author’s analysis is based... more
The author of this article examines a number of military conflicts between the ulus of Jochi and both Hungary and Poland followed the first invasion of the Tatars in these lands in 1241. For the most part, the author’s analysis is based on information of synchronous Latin sources in comparison with information contained in Russian and Mamluk chronicles. In addition to the Hungarian, Polish, and German chronicles, the author resorts to the use of the contents of the papal letters to Eastern Europe, which provide both the most reliable information about military conflicts and information on the Papal Curia’s measures to improve the defense of eastern borders of the Latin world from the Tatar raids.
The article examines the political events in chronological order, according to the reigns of the Jochid rulers. During the reign of Batu, Latin sources indicate extreme concern about the possible resumption of the western expansion of the Tatars in spite of the fact that, in reality, Tatar military activity on the eastern borders of Catholic Europe had an extremely minor character. On the contrary, during the reign of Berke, Tatars carried a very destructive raid on Lesser Poland. However, further Tatar expansion was interrupted by an unexpected collapse of the Mongol Empire. The subsequent reign of khan Mengu-Timur was distinguished with relative tension with the Catholic Europe, but the actual attack on Hungary and Poland took place only under the khans Tuda-Mengu and Tula-Buga.
Later, under the khans Tokhta and Uzbek, the tension between the Golden Horde and Catholic Europe weakened considerably, which, in particular, allowed the beginning of the Hungarian territorial expansion into Moldova. However, the end of the reign of Uzbek Khan was characterized by a sharp deterioration of relations between the Golden Horde and Poland, which was associated with the beginning of the war of Galician succession. Analysis of the course of this war shows the apparent weakening of the influence of the Golden Horde in the former Galicia-Volyn principality, which contributed to the further expansion of Poland and Lithuania on the territory of modern Ukraine.
The article examines the political events in chronological order, according to the reigns of the Jochid rulers. During the reign of Batu, Latin sources indicate extreme concern about the possible resumption of the western expansion of the Tatars in spite of the fact that, in reality, Tatar military activity on the eastern borders of Catholic Europe had an extremely minor character. On the contrary, during the reign of Berke, Tatars carried a very destructive raid on Lesser Poland. However, further Tatar expansion was interrupted by an unexpected collapse of the Mongol Empire. The subsequent reign of khan Mengu-Timur was distinguished with relative tension with the Catholic Europe, but the actual attack on Hungary and Poland took place only under the khans Tuda-Mengu and Tula-Buga.
Later, under the khans Tokhta and Uzbek, the tension between the Golden Horde and Catholic Europe weakened considerably, which, in particular, allowed the beginning of the Hungarian territorial expansion into Moldova. However, the end of the reign of Uzbek Khan was characterized by a sharp deterioration of relations between the Golden Horde and Poland, which was associated with the beginning of the war of Galician succession. Analysis of the course of this war shows the apparent weakening of the influence of the Golden Horde in the former Galicia-Volyn principality, which contributed to the further expansion of Poland and Lithuania on the territory of modern Ukraine.
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The author of this article tried to trace the evolution of the Mongols’ perception in Latin sources based on information about their military expansion in the Middle East. The first mention of the Mongols appear in Latin sources in 1221.... more
The author of this article tried to trace the evolution of the Mongols’ perception in Latin sources based on information about their military expansion in the Middle East.
The first mention of the Mongols appear in Latin sources in 1221. According to these sources, the Mongol army, which accomplished a number of conquests in Central Asia, Persia, and Transcaucasia, consisted of baptized nomads. Latin authors asserted that at the head of this army stood a certain David, “king of the Indies”, which sought to help the Middle Eastern Christians and “liberate” Jerusalem from Muslim rule. Undoubtedly, the Latin sources meant by the “deeds of king David” the first western campaign of the Mongols led by Genghis Khan, which began in 1219 and was directed against the Central Asian sultanate of Khwarezm. These Latin sources were written at the time, when the troops of Genghis Khan had already conquered Khwarezmian territory in Central Asia and began military actions in Khorasan, while the separate divisions of the Mongols led by Jebe and Subedei invaded Transcaucasia and inflicted the first serious defeat to the Christian kingdom of Georgia.
Later, however, a positive Mongols’ perception in the West began to gradually change. First of all, this change was affected by reports of the Georgian rulers expressing obvious doubts about former confidence that the Mongol army was entirely composed of Christians. Even greater impact had information about beginning of the Mongol re-conquest of Transcaucasia. An early report of the Patriarch of Jerusalem about the Mongol units’ appearance in Transcaucasia headed by Chormaqan noyan still reflected the hope for the Mongols’ adherence to the Christian faith. However, subsequent reports on the beginning of the Mongol conquest of Great Armenia radically changed European perceptions of the Mongols.
Starting from 1236, Latin sources began to represent the Mongols as fiends trying to interpret their appearance in accordance with apocalyptic scenarios of popular eschatological writings.
The first mention of the Mongols appear in Latin sources in 1221. According to these sources, the Mongol army, which accomplished a number of conquests in Central Asia, Persia, and Transcaucasia, consisted of baptized nomads. Latin authors asserted that at the head of this army stood a certain David, “king of the Indies”, which sought to help the Middle Eastern Christians and “liberate” Jerusalem from Muslim rule. Undoubtedly, the Latin sources meant by the “deeds of king David” the first western campaign of the Mongols led by Genghis Khan, which began in 1219 and was directed against the Central Asian sultanate of Khwarezm. These Latin sources were written at the time, when the troops of Genghis Khan had already conquered Khwarezmian territory in Central Asia and began military actions in Khorasan, while the separate divisions of the Mongols led by Jebe and Subedei invaded Transcaucasia and inflicted the first serious defeat to the Christian kingdom of Georgia.
Later, however, a positive Mongols’ perception in the West began to gradually change. First of all, this change was affected by reports of the Georgian rulers expressing obvious doubts about former confidence that the Mongol army was entirely composed of Christians. Even greater impact had information about beginning of the Mongol re-conquest of Transcaucasia. An early report of the Patriarch of Jerusalem about the Mongol units’ appearance in Transcaucasia headed by Chormaqan noyan still reflected the hope for the Mongols’ adherence to the Christian faith. However, subsequent reports on the beginning of the Mongol conquest of Great Armenia radically changed European perceptions of the Mongols.
Starting from 1236, Latin sources began to represent the Mongols as fiends trying to interpret their appearance in accordance with apocalyptic scenarios of popular eschatological writings.
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The author of this article analyzes the content of papal letters to Hungary concerning the issues of the Teutonic knights’ stay in Transylvania from 1211 to 1225. Analysis of the information contained in these letters shows that the... more
The author of this article analyzes the content of papal letters to Hungary concerning the issues of the Teutonic knights’ stay in Transylvania from 1211 to 1225. Analysis of the information contained in these letters shows that the Hungarian king Andrew II invited the Teutonic brethren in the Burzenland (located on the southeastern tip of Transylvania, in close proximity to the territory controlled by the Cumans) with the apparent aim to organize an effective defense of Transylvania against the frequent Cuman raids. Based on information from historical documents, the author concludes that the Cumans regularly invaded Transylvania precisely through the Burzenland and that these nomadic raids showed the ineffectiveness of the former defensive system of the region, thereby influencing the Andrew II’s decision to entrust the defense of Burzenland to the Teutonic Order, which possessed significant military capability. At the same time, the Hungarian monarch granted the brothers with a number of privileges, attempting to create in such a way favorable conditions for increasing the local population in order to ensure a constant flow of material resources and manpower to the Teutonic brothers.
The content of papal letters evinces an obvious satisfaction of the Hungarian king in respect of the Knights’ military successes expressed in the provision of additional privileges a year later after the brethren arrival in Transylvania. In parallel, historical documents indicate that the collision between the brothers and Cumans (who, apparently, sought to prevent the Teutonic knights to gain a foothold in the Burzenland) adopted a more toughened character. However, the same documents ascertain the fact that the Knights gradually took control over the Burzenland. Thus, the papal letters gives an insight into the evolution of the military successes of the Teutonic brethren in their struggle against the Cumans. In addition, historical documents provide valuable information about the further expansion of the Knights beyond the Carpathian Mountains after the final establishment of control over the Burzenland.
Apart from consideration of military clashes between the Teutonic knights and Cumans, the author of this article devotes considerable attention to the analysis of the reasons, which prompted the Hungarian king Andrew II to expel the brothers from Transylvania in 1225, despite their distinguished services to the Kingdom of Hungary.
Keywords: relations of the Latin world with the nomads in the Middle Ages, Cumans, Teutonic Order, Kingdom of Hungary, Transylvania.
The content of papal letters evinces an obvious satisfaction of the Hungarian king in respect of the Knights’ military successes expressed in the provision of additional privileges a year later after the brethren arrival in Transylvania. In parallel, historical documents indicate that the collision between the brothers and Cumans (who, apparently, sought to prevent the Teutonic knights to gain a foothold in the Burzenland) adopted a more toughened character. However, the same documents ascertain the fact that the Knights gradually took control over the Burzenland. Thus, the papal letters gives an insight into the evolution of the military successes of the Teutonic brethren in their struggle against the Cumans. In addition, historical documents provide valuable information about the further expansion of the Knights beyond the Carpathian Mountains after the final establishment of control over the Burzenland.
Apart from consideration of military clashes between the Teutonic knights and Cumans, the author of this article devotes considerable attention to the analysis of the reasons, which prompted the Hungarian king Andrew II to expel the brothers from Transylvania in 1225, despite their distinguished services to the Kingdom of Hungary.
Keywords: relations of the Latin world with the nomads in the Middle Ages, Cumans, Teutonic Order, Kingdom of Hungary, Transylvania.
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The author of this article analyzes the content of papal letters to Hungary concerning the issues of the Teutonic knights’ stay in Transylvania from 1211 to 1225. Analysis of the information contained in these letters shows that the... more
The author of this article analyzes the content of papal letters to Hungary concerning the issues of the Teutonic knights’ stay in Transylvania from 1211 to 1225. Analysis of the information contained in these letters shows that the Hungarian king Andrew II invited the Teutonic brethren in the Burzenland (located on the southeastern tip of Transylvania, in close proximity to the territory controlled by the Cumans) with the apparent aim to organize an effective defense of Transylvania against the frequent Cuman raids. Based on information from historical documents, the author concludes that the Cumans regularly invaded Transylvania precisely through the Burzenland and that these nomadic raids showed the ineffectiveness of the former defensive system of the region, thereby influencing the Andrew II’s decision to entrust the defense of Burzenland to the Teutonic Order, which possessed significant military capability. At the same time, the Hungarian monarch granted the brothers with a number of privileges, attempting to create in such a way favorable conditions for increasing the local population in order to ensure a constant flow of material resources and manpower to the Teutonic brothers.
The content of papal letters evinces an obvious satisfaction of the Hungarian king in respect of the Knights’ military successes expressed in the provision of additional privileges a year later after the brethren arrival in Transylvania. In parallel, historical documents indicate that the collision between the brothers and Cumans (who, apparently, sought to prevent the Teutonic knights to gain a foothold in the Burzenland) adopted a more toughened character. However, the same documents ascertain the fact that the Knights gradually took control over the Burzenland. Thus, the papal letters gives an insight into the evolution of the military successes of the Teutonic brethren in their struggle against the Cumans. In addition, historical documents provide valuable information about the further expansion of the Knights beyond the Carpathian Mountains after the final establishment of control over the Burzenland.
Apart from consideration of military clashes between the Teutonic knights and Cumans, the author of this article devotes considerable attention to the analysis of the reasons, which prompted the Hungarian king Andrew II to expel the brothers from Transylvania in 1225, despite their distinguished services to the Kingdom of Hungary.
The content of papal letters evinces an obvious satisfaction of the Hungarian king in respect of the Knights’ military successes expressed in the provision of additional privileges a year later after the brethren arrival in Transylvania. In parallel, historical documents indicate that the collision between the brothers and Cumans (who, apparently, sought to prevent the Teutonic knights to gain a foothold in the Burzenland) adopted a more toughened character. However, the same documents ascertain the fact that the Knights gradually took control over the Burzenland. Thus, the papal letters gives an insight into the evolution of the military successes of the Teutonic brethren in their struggle against the Cumans. In addition, historical documents provide valuable information about the further expansion of the Knights beyond the Carpathian Mountains after the final establishment of control over the Burzenland.
Apart from consideration of military clashes between the Teutonic knights and Cumans, the author of this article devotes considerable attention to the analysis of the reasons, which prompted the Hungarian king Andrew II to expel the brothers from Transylvania in 1225, despite their distinguished services to the Kingdom of Hungary.
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This article contains Latin texts, translations into Russian, and comments to four royal charters granted by the Hungarian king Andrew II (1205–1235) to the Teutonic knights, respectively, in 1211, 1212, 1215 (approximately), and 1222.... more
This article contains Latin texts, translations into Russian, and comments to four royal charters granted by the Hungarian king Andrew II (1205–1235) to the Teutonic knights, respectively, in 1211, 1212, 1215 (approximately), and 1222. These historical documents contain valuable information about the period of the Teutonic brethren stay in Transylvania. In 1211, the Hungarian king granted to the Knights the Burzenland in southeastern Transylvania in the unlimited possession, where they remained until their final expulsion from the Kingdom of Hungary in 1225.
The text of the first royal charter contained in this article shows that the Andrew II’s decision to invite the Teutonic brethren in Transylvania was caused by the frequent Cuman raids on the Kingdom and that the principal aim of the Hungarian monarch was to prevent these attacks by establishing lasting control over the Burzenland. The degree of importance of the task entrusted to the Knights was emphasized by a number of privileges granted by the Hungarian crown, that helped to create favorable conditions for increasing the local population in order to ensure a constant flow of material resources and manpower to the Teutonic brothers, which they could use to organize the defense of Burzenland against the attacks of nomads.
The content of subsequent royal charters shows that the Teutonic brothers not only fully used granted privileges in establishing durable control over the Burzenland, but also began to expand their landholdings in the Cuman territories. In particular, the last charter of 1222 gives an idea about the extent of the Teutonic knights’ conquests at the expense of the Cuman possessions beyond the Carpathian Mountains.
At the same time, the contents of the royal charters can partially identify the reasons for the deterioration in relations between the Teutonic knights and the Hungarian crown, which led both to the first attempt by Andrew II to confiscate the Teutonic brethren landholdings at the end of 1221 and, possibly, to the final expulsion of the Knights from the Kingdom of Hungary in 1225.
The text of the first royal charter contained in this article shows that the Andrew II’s decision to invite the Teutonic brethren in Transylvania was caused by the frequent Cuman raids on the Kingdom and that the principal aim of the Hungarian monarch was to prevent these attacks by establishing lasting control over the Burzenland. The degree of importance of the task entrusted to the Knights was emphasized by a number of privileges granted by the Hungarian crown, that helped to create favorable conditions for increasing the local population in order to ensure a constant flow of material resources and manpower to the Teutonic brothers, which they could use to organize the defense of Burzenland against the attacks of nomads.
The content of subsequent royal charters shows that the Teutonic brothers not only fully used granted privileges in establishing durable control over the Burzenland, but also began to expand their landholdings in the Cuman territories. In particular, the last charter of 1222 gives an idea about the extent of the Teutonic knights’ conquests at the expense of the Cuman possessions beyond the Carpathian Mountains.
At the same time, the contents of the royal charters can partially identify the reasons for the deterioration in relations between the Teutonic knights and the Hungarian crown, which led both to the first attempt by Andrew II to confiscate the Teutonic brethren landholdings at the end of 1221 and, possibly, to the final expulsion of the Knights from the Kingdom of Hungary in 1225.
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The author of this article examines the gradual accumulation of information in the Hungarian kingdom about the Mongol Western campaign and the corresponding propagation of this information in Western Europe. The primary information about... more
The author of this article examines the gradual accumulation of information in the Hungarian kingdom about the Mongol Western campaign and the corresponding propagation of this information in Western Europe.
The primary information about the beginning of the Mongol Western Cam-paign was brought to Europe by the Dominican friar Julian after his return from his travel to the Trans-Volga Magyars at the end of 1235. In particular, the report on the first Julian’s journey to the east contains interesting information about the appearance in the land of Magyars of representative of the Mongol power who informed the Magyars on the conclusion of general kuriltai of 1235, which made the decision to launch the Mongol campaign in the West.
In turn, the letter of friar Julian written at the beginning of 1238 is replete with information about the Mongol tactical warfare, previous military campaigns of Genghis Khan and Jochi, and the first Mongol conquest in the early stages of the Western campaign of Batu. But the most important news brought by friar Julian in Hungary was an oral report of the Prince of Vladimir on the Mongol plans to attack the Hungarian kingdom confirming both by the contents of the Batu’s ultimatum and eschatological interpretations of future events.
Obviously, the content of the Julian’s letter was soon known in Western Eu-rope. Also the Mongol rulers were quick to to inform Western rulers about their aggressive intentions. Concerns about the imminent invasion of the Mongols were reflected in the reports of several Western European chroniclers who, at the same time, clearly indicated that the Hungarian king Bela IV did not remain idle while waiting for an imminent Mongol invasion and attempted to organize resistance.
The primary information about the beginning of the Mongol Western Cam-paign was brought to Europe by the Dominican friar Julian after his return from his travel to the Trans-Volga Magyars at the end of 1235. In particular, the report on the first Julian’s journey to the east contains interesting information about the appearance in the land of Magyars of representative of the Mongol power who informed the Magyars on the conclusion of general kuriltai of 1235, which made the decision to launch the Mongol campaign in the West.
In turn, the letter of friar Julian written at the beginning of 1238 is replete with information about the Mongol tactical warfare, previous military campaigns of Genghis Khan and Jochi, and the first Mongol conquest in the early stages of the Western campaign of Batu. But the most important news brought by friar Julian in Hungary was an oral report of the Prince of Vladimir on the Mongol plans to attack the Hungarian kingdom confirming both by the contents of the Batu’s ultimatum and eschatological interpretations of future events.
Obviously, the content of the Julian’s letter was soon known in Western Eu-rope. Also the Mongol rulers were quick to to inform Western rulers about their aggressive intentions. Concerns about the imminent invasion of the Mongols were reflected in the reports of several Western European chroniclers who, at the same time, clearly indicated that the Hungarian king Bela IV did not remain idle while waiting for an imminent Mongol invasion and attempted to organize resistance.
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The first mention of the Mongols appear in Latin sources in 1221. According to these sources, the Mongol army, which accomplished a number of conquests in Central Asia, Persia, and Transcaucasia, consisted of baptized nomads. Latin... more
The first mention of the Mongols appear in Latin sources in 1221. According to these sources, the Mongol army, which accomplished a number of conquests in Central Asia, Persia, and Transcaucasia, consisted of baptized nomads. Latin authors asserted that at the head of this army stood a certain David, “king of the Indies”, which sought to help the Middle Eastern Christians and “liberate” Jerusalem from Muslim rule. Undoubtedly, the Latin sources meant by the “deeds of King David” the first western campaign of the Mongols led by Genghis Khan, which began in 1219 and was directed against the Central Asian sultanate of Khwarezm. These Latin sources were written at the time, when the troops of Genghis Khan had already conquered Khwarezmian territory in Central Asia and began military actions in Khorasan, while the separate divisions of the Mongols led by Jebe and Subedei invaded Transcaucasia and inflicted the first serious defeat to the Christian kingdom of Georgia.
Even though the later Oriental sources indicate the presence of certain baptized nomads in the Mongol army, at the moment it is known for certain that the bulk of the nomadic army of Genghis Khan did not adhere to the Christian religion and the Mongol divisions led by Jebe and Subedei were sent by Genghis Khan in the west in pursuit of the former Khwarezmian Sultan Muhammad rather than for the “liberation” of Jerusalem or provision of any tangible support to the Middle Eastern Christians.
Thus, the early Latin information about the Mongols contains relatively accurate description of the western conquests of Genghis Khan, but represent a specific explanation for the Mongol expansion, which does not correspond to historical reality.
This article represents an attempt to explain this distortion of reality.
In the first part of the article, the author gives a brief description of the Latin sources containing information about the “king David’s” advance to the west. In the second part, the author attempts to find an explanation for the distortion of historical reality in Latin sources by considering the information of these sources in the ideological context of the Fifth Crusade.
Even though the later Oriental sources indicate the presence of certain baptized nomads in the Mongol army, at the moment it is known for certain that the bulk of the nomadic army of Genghis Khan did not adhere to the Christian religion and the Mongol divisions led by Jebe and Subedei were sent by Genghis Khan in the west in pursuit of the former Khwarezmian Sultan Muhammad rather than for the “liberation” of Jerusalem or provision of any tangible support to the Middle Eastern Christians.
Thus, the early Latin information about the Mongols contains relatively accurate description of the western conquests of Genghis Khan, but represent a specific explanation for the Mongol expansion, which does not correspond to historical reality.
This article represents an attempt to explain this distortion of reality.
In the first part of the article, the author gives a brief description of the Latin sources containing information about the “king David’s” advance to the west. In the second part, the author attempts to find an explanation for the distortion of historical reality in Latin sources by considering the information of these sources in the ideological context of the Fifth Crusade.
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Despite a large number of academic publications, the process of early Islamization of the Golden Horde is still insufficiently studied. Review of contemporary studies, found at the beginning of this paper, serves both to present a general... more
Despite a large number of academic publications, the process of early Islamization of the Golden Horde is still insufficiently studied. Review of contemporary studies, found at the beginning of this paper, serves both to present a general view on the causes and nature of Islamization and demonstrate certain drawbacks of this opinion. The following brief overview of the sources used by researchers is intended to demonstrate the need to consider content of alternative sources. In this context, the most valuable are those written sources that were drawn up in the territory of the Golden Horde during the reign of Uzbek Khan. Therefore, the author finds it perfectly appropriate to present, in the second part of this paper, the content of those Latin sources that contain valuable information on the religious situation in the Golden Horde.
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Foundation of the Cuman Catholic Bishopric in 1227 represented the conclusive result of chain reaction consisted of a sequence of historical events that had been initially provoked by the increased conflict within Western Europe between... more
Foundation of the Cuman Catholic Bishopric in 1227 represented the conclusive result of chain reaction consisted of a sequence of historical events that had been initially provoked by the increased conflict within Western Europe between the secular institution of the Holy Roman Empire and the spiritual authority of the Latin Church. The relevant elaboration of ideological basis for the Roman Curia’s political ambitions both strengthened the Holy See’s control over the Catholic Church and contributed to the pontifical claims to immediate subordination addressed to the Eastern Christian communities. In that policy the Holy See’s protectorate provided for the Latin Empire of Constantinople was considered a suitable instrument of political pressure on the Greek Church. However, further weakening of the Catholic empire on the Bosphorus occurred in 1230’s in connection with the aggression of the Bulgarian Tsar, Ivan Asen II, drew the Holy See’s attention to the religious situation in the Balkans, where its main ally and plenipotentiary was the Hungarian king, Andrew II, who acted as an actual executor of the Papal political resolutions. Bilateral cooperation between Hungary and the Holy See was also strengthened by the Andrew II’s loyal implementation of the internal religious reform of the Catholic community considered by the Roman Curia as integral part of the European spiritual revival program. As a consequence, subsequent appearance of the new Dominican preachers in Hungary led to the parallel development of Catholic missionary work among the nomads of Eastern Europe, which resulted in the conversion to Christianity of a substantial part of the Cumans and in the foundation of the new Catholic Bishopric in 1227.
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The present article contains the Latin text, Russian translation, and commentary to the two letters addressed by the Franciscans of Kaffa on 15th May, 1323, both to the oncoming General Chapter of Minorits and to the cardinals of the... more
The present article contains the Latin text, Russian translation, and commentary to the two letters addressed by the Franciscans of Kaffa on 15th May, 1323, both to the oncoming General Chapter of Minorits and to the cardinals of the Papal curia in Avignon. In their first letter the Franciscans focus on the description of Minorits’ martyrdoms occurred in the western Mongol uluses including references to the two executions of Franciscans in India. The second more lengthy letter contains a detailed report on the successes and complexities of the Franciscan apostolate in Crimea. Content of the second letter uncovers the obvious reason that prompted the Crimean Franciscans to send these two letters to the leadership of their order: emphasizing and perhaps exaggerating to some extent their missionary successes, the Franciscans insist on the necessity of the departure of new missionaries from the west in the Crimea in order to strengthen the missionary work among the nomads of the Golden Horde.
The second letter also contains invaluable information about the Franciscan missionary activity among the nomads of the Crimea.The description of the Crimean Minorits’ apostolate includes a number of details that are similar with information contained in the parallel letter of the Franciscan Iohanca written in Bashkiria in the 1320 and addressed to Michele da Cesena, General Minister of the Franciscan Order. The text of Iohanca’s letter has been preserved in the same codex as the copy of the Crimean letters of 1323. Iohanca’s letter has long been known for the edition and Russian translation of Sergei Anninsky (1940). The Crimean letters, in turn, not only complement the content of Iohanca’s letter, but also provide new information that does not occur elsewhere.
The Crimean letters contain no less valuable information about the religious situation in the Golden Horde in the initial period of the Uzbek’s reign (1312/13–1341). Equally interesting is information about household aspects of daily life of the Crimean Kipchaks. The value of these details is highlighted by the consideration that unlike the most known Muslim sources, both letters were written within and not beyond the territory of the Golden Horde.
The second letter also contains invaluable information about the Franciscan missionary activity among the nomads of the Crimea.The description of the Crimean Minorits’ apostolate includes a number of details that are similar with information contained in the parallel letter of the Franciscan Iohanca written in Bashkiria in the 1320 and addressed to Michele da Cesena, General Minister of the Franciscan Order. The text of Iohanca’s letter has been preserved in the same codex as the copy of the Crimean letters of 1323. Iohanca’s letter has long been known for the edition and Russian translation of Sergei Anninsky (1940). The Crimean letters, in turn, not only complement the content of Iohanca’s letter, but also provide new information that does not occur elsewhere.
The Crimean letters contain no less valuable information about the religious situation in the Golden Horde in the initial period of the Uzbek’s reign (1312/13–1341). Equally interesting is information about household aspects of daily life of the Crimean Kipchaks. The value of these details is highlighted by the consideration that unlike the most known Muslim sources, both letters were written within and not beyond the territory of the Golden Horde.
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International Conference, University of Verona, 11th-12th July 2024
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A useful tool to quickly compare Rashid al-Din's translations
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A useful tool to quickly check any word or sentence in the text of Simon of Saint-Quentin
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A useful tool to quickly check any word or sentence in the text of C. de Bridra
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A useful tool to quickly check any word or sentence in the text of William of Rubruck
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A useful tool to quickly check any word or sentence in the text of John of Plano Carpini.
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The Mongol Zoominar presents: Book Launch: The Horde: How the Mongols Changed the World by Marie Favereau (Harvard University Press 2021) With: Marie Favereau (Nanterre University) Reuven Amitai (HUJI) Roman Hautala (University of... more
The Mongol Zoominar presents:
Book Launch:
The Horde: How the Mongols Changed the World
by Marie Favereau
(Harvard University Press 2021)
With:
Marie Favereau (Nanterre University)
Reuven Amitai (HUJI)
Roman Hautala (University of Oulu)
Qiu Yihao (Fudan University)
Friday October 29, 14:30 (IST time, GMT+3)
For Details and link:
Jonathan Brack: brackjon@bgu.ac.il
Wonhee Cho: wonheecho@gmail.com
Book Launch:
The Horde: How the Mongols Changed the World
by Marie Favereau
(Harvard University Press 2021)
With:
Marie Favereau (Nanterre University)
Reuven Amitai (HUJI)
Roman Hautala (University of Oulu)
Qiu Yihao (Fudan University)
Friday October 29, 14:30 (IST time, GMT+3)
For Details and link:
Jonathan Brack: brackjon@bgu.ac.il
Wonhee Cho: wonheecho@gmail.com
Research Interests:
The international conference The papacy and the Mongolian Reigns in the 13th and 14th Centuries ntends to investigate the phase of relations between Rome and the Far East which is to be placed in the first half of the 14th century, a... more
The international conference The papacy and the Mongolian Reigns in the 13th and 14th Centuries ntends to investigate the phase of relations between Rome and the Far East which is to be placed in the first half of the 14th century, a phase that went beyond the first evangelisation of the Mongols and aimed at the institutionalisation of these relations. The conference will take place simultaneously in Wuppertal for the European participants and in Beijing for the participants from China, connected via zoom, on the mornings of 18.-19.-20. July 2023 (9.00-13.00 CET)
zoom access cappuccio@uni-wuppertal.de
zoom access cappuccio@uni-wuppertal.de