This article explores the little studied role of the Rus princes and the Rus prelates of the Byzantine Church in the establishment of immediate contacts between the papal court and the rulers of the Nicene Empire in the mid thirteenth century. These resulted in a new round of negotiations for the union of the Roman Church and the Byzantine Church. At the heart of these contacts was not only the mutual desire of the Latins and Greeks to restore church unity, but also the action of a third force, namely the political ambitions of the Mongol khan toward Christian rulers of the West and, above all, the pope. These rulers took the initiative to turn to him with a proposal for peace in the aftermath of the devastating Mongol invasion that reached Central Europe in 1241-2.

The important reasons behind the Mongolian successful rise of its Empire between 1210 and 1227 has been already overviewed, analysed and exemplified in so many contributions that it is quite useless to pursue on this path. However, it seems that one path has been left aside, the diplomatic channels opened through Tibet, Tangut territories and Armenian kingdoms, precisely between the years 1210 and 1219. Obviously, this new horizon of Western and Eastern exchange of letters, delegations and confidential missions kept on long after that period but we would wish to bring some light on this particular chain of events which led Mongolia almost towards European medieval borders.. Indeed, one of the main purposes of the Mongolian advance in the West was the relative weakness of the Holy Byzantine Empire in the Central Eastern regions. Therefore, our paper explores the possibility of using early Armenian chronicles and French Oriental stories to explore important less known aspects of Genghis Khan's life and strategical choices.

The Routledge Handbook of the Mongols and Central-Eastern Europe offers a comprehensive overview of the Mongols’ military, political, socio-economic and cultural relations with Central and Eastern European nations between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries. The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous land empire in history, and one which contributed to the establishment of political, commercial and cultural contacts between all Eurasian regions. The Golden Horde, founded in Eastern Europe by Chinggis Khan’s grandson, Batu, in the thirteenth century, was the dominant power in the region. For two hundred years, all of the countries and peoples of Central and Eastern Europe had to reckon with a powerful centralized state with enormous military potential. Some chose to submit to the Mongols whilst others defended their independence, but none could avoid the influence of this powerful empire. In this book, twenty-five chapters examine this crucial period in Central-Eastern European history, including trade, confrontation, and cultural and religious exchange between the Mongols and their neighbours. This book will be an essential reference for scholars and students of the Mongols, as well those interested in the political, social and economic history of medieval Central-Eastern Europe.

The Italian city-states of the 12th and 13th centuries – Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Florence, Milan, Siena, Lucca – have developed and gained strength with the speed, which was unusual for a leisurely Middle Ages. The expansion of European market, growth of trade with the East, plundering raids on the rich regions of Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, and the Balkans contributed, in the 14th century, to the flourishing of the Italian cities, located at the crossroads of major routes in the Mediterranean. Western merchants were willing to use ways via Asia Minor and Iran, gradually moving farther and farther to the sources of “fine spices”. In these countries, side by side, were advancing both Genoese merchants and missionaries of Franciscan and Dominican orders. The Genoese colonies, factories and leading trading posts were supporting bases of these order missions. Italské městské státy – Benátky, Janov, Pisa, Florencie, Milán, Siena, Lucca – se ve 12. a 13. století rozvíjely s rychlostí neobvyklou pro poklidný středověk. Rozšíření evropského trhu, růst obchodu s Východem, nájezdy do bohatých oblastí Sýrie, Palestiny, Malé Asie a Balkánu přispěly ve 14. století k rozkvětu italských měst, která se nacházela na křižovatce hlavních tras ve Středomoří. Obchodníci ze Západu ochotně využívali cesty přes Malou Asii a Írán, přičemž se postupně přesouvali dále ke zdrojům „jemného koření“. V těchto zemích souběžně postupovali jak janovští obchodníci, tak františkánští a dominikánští misionáři. Zejména janovské kolonie, faktorie a hlavní obchodní stanice se staly základnami těchto řádových misií.

This is the introduction to a special section in Asiatische Studien issue of December 2017: Michal Biran, ed. In the Service of the Khans: Elites in Transition in Mongol Eurasia, Asiatische Studien 71.4 (2017),1051-1245; 194pp. https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/asia.2017.71.issue-4/issue-files/asia.2017.71.issue-4.xml Abstract: The Mongol empire (1206–1368) caused massive transformations in the composition and functioning of elites across Eurasia. While the Mongols themselves obviously became the new Eurasian elite, their small number as compared to the huge territory over which they ruled and their initial inexperience in administrating sedentary realms meant that many of their subjects also became part of the new multi-ethnic imperial elite. Mongol preferences, and the high level of mobility—both spatial and social—that accompanied Mongol conquests and rule, dramatically changed the characteristics of elites in both China and the Muslim world: While noble birth could be instrumental in improving one’s status, early surrender to Chinggis Khan; membership in the Mongol imperial guards (keshig); and especially, qualifications—such as excellence in warfare, administration, writing in Mongolian script or astronomy to name but a few—became the main ways to enter elite circles. The present volume translates and analyzes biographies of ten members of this new elite—from princes through generals, administrators, and vassal kings, to scientists and artists; including Mongols, Koreans, Chinese and Muslims—studied by researchers working at the project “Mobility, Empire and Cross Cultural Contacts in Mongol Eurasia” at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The annotated biographies assembled here not only add new primary sources —translated from Chinese, Persian and Arabic—to the study of the Mongol Empire. They also provide important insights into the social history of the period, illuminating issues such as acculturation (of both the Mongols and their subjects), Islamization, family relations, ethnicity, imperial administration, and scientific exchange.