Mark Rathbone

The purpose of this article is to argue that Adam Smith’s assessment of agrarian economics is based on the transdisciplinary engagement between moral theory and economics in An inquiry into nature and causes of the wealth of nations (first published in 1776). This assessment draws on recent scholarship that underscores that Smith’s earlier work The Theory of Moral Sentiments (first published in 1759) is not in conflict with Smith’s economic theory; it rather presents the moral point of departure of his economics. This transdisciplinary interaction derails the divergent perspectives of contemporary scholars that either view Smith as an agrarian economist or an antagonist of industrialisation. The reason for this view of Smith’s economics is due to the failure to emphasise the engagement between agrarian economic and Smith’s moral theory that championed liberty. Secondarily, this engagement between economics and moral theory highlights Smith’s contribution to sustainable economics tha...

The prophetic discourse about economic justice in South Africa has been mainly influenced by Black theology, Latin American Liberation theology and African theology. In the case of influences from the Americas, economics justice is a salient dimension, with Marxism as a main critical tool of society and mode of discourse. This prophetic mode of discourse limits dialogue and economic transformation because it is an exclusive mode of discourse. We argue that a dialogical discourse, informed by the ideas of justice imbedded in economic theories (in example Adam Smith, John M. Keynes and John Rawls) and their implications for contemporary society, is required. The document 'The Oikos Journey' reflects the priority of economic justice in contemporary South African society with a more inclusive and holistic approach. Although this document is deeply indebted to the propethic discourse, it contains exemplary motives towards a future dialogical mode of discourse.http://srpc.ukzn.ac.za/journal-of-theology-for-southern-africa.asp

Reductionism and some aspects of modernism often collude in order that colonial forces may gain control of geographical spaces and peoples. Modernism contributes in this process through its “reductionist ontology of land” that in certain instances is also theologically supported and views geographical spaces as objects of description, demarcation and development. In the South African context the so-called Natives Land Act of 1913 is an example of the collusion of British (and Afrikaner) imperialism and reductive aspects of modernism. De-colonial strategies respond to this functionalistic ontology to address the injustice of “accumulation through dispossession” of land, also reflected in African Theologies. The problem is that in general these de-colonial strategies are also influenced by modernism that reduces land to cultural concepts, to the exclusion of others, thus eroding justice for all people in South Africa. This is reflected in the problems relating to the redistribution of land in South Africa. The current debate in South Africa about redistribution of land is thus retarded by these reductive ontologies of land, amongst others, that in general reduce land to functionalistic and cultural concepts. When the collusive power of modernism and reductionism are coupled with capitalism and globalization, it does not only have destructive theological and ecological consequences, but also constrains reconciliation. Thus, alternative ontologies of land are required that reflect the complexity of the reality of land and the huge historical implications of land.

The current debate in South Africa about the redistribution of land is retarded by a modernistic ontology of land that in general reduces land to functionalistic and cultural concepts. An alternative ontology of land is required that reflects the complexity of the reality of land and the huge historical implications of land. We argue that theologies of creation, informed by the narrative philosophy of Paul Ricoeur create a more “encompassing ontology of land”. It is an ontology which resists the collusive power of reductionism and modernism that is present in colonial and de-colonial strategies. Alternatively, it introduces perspectives that are helpful to address the practical problems regarding land redistribution and reconciliation. It is at this point that the theology of creation can enrich the debate as an expansion of the ontology of land through the interface of life and land. This can provide ethical criteria for addressing the injustice of reductionism in the current redistribution of land process.

Unemployment is a serious problem in South Africa that is probably being exacerbated by the destabilising tension between neo-liberal and Marxist perspectives (and in some cases neo-Marxist perspectives) that is being used to address this situation. This tension is based on reductions that may arise from the embedded ontologies that inform these economic philosophies and limit dialogue because of the binary nature of these ontological reductions. The purpose of this study is to enquire whether deconstruction and specifically Jacques Derrida’s view of the gift can provide an alternative for the destructive tension between neo-liberal and Marxist perspectives. In this regard it will be argued that the impossibility of the gift, according to Derrida, provides the basis for hospitable narcissism - an economics of recognition and humility.

The Tower of Babel narrative is profoundly connected to the history of South Africa and its interpretation in the Dutch Reformed Church document entitled Human Relations and the South African Scene in the Light of Scripture (1976), which was used to justify apartheid. In this article, it is argued that this understanding of the narrative is due to racist framing that morally justified the larger apartheid narrative. The Tower of Babel narrative was later reframed for liberation and reconciliation by Desmond Tutu. However, apartheid had an impact not only on the sociopolitical dynamics of South Africa. Submissions to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission by business and labour highlight the impact of apartheid on the economy and specifically black labour. These revelations are responsible for new questions regarding the economics of the narrative that arise and may enrich the understanding of the Tower of Babel narrative. This focus on the economic aspect of the narrative is also s...

The purpose of this article was to investigate the potential that the labour and subjective theory of value in the agricultural context may have for the interpretation of Matthew 20:1–16. This investigation highlighted the divergence in wages between workers, the exuberant remuneration strategy of the landowner, his generosity, the indignation of the labourers hired first and the landowner’s reluctance to reimburse them. I argued that the classic labour theory of value provides an explanation of why the indignant labourers were angry and felt unjustly treated. However, it fails to account for the divergence in remuneration more appropriately addressed by subjective theory of value that focuses on the use value of goods and marginal utility. Finally, the agrarian theory provides perspective on the unwillingness of the landowner to reimburse the indignant labourers and the mystery of meaningful labour in agriculture that serves as a metaphor for the kingdom of heaven.Contribution: In ...

Economic inequality and trust from a Smithian perspective Globally, and specifically in South Africa, income and wealth inequality are on the increase. This has negative consequences for socio-political stability and sustainable economic growth. These negative consequences are in many cases directly linked to the breakdown of trust in financial institutions and society in general. However, the breakdown is encompassing and also includes interpersonal relations, trust in institutions and systems, and general perceptions of the unfair distribution of wealth. Trust is one of the pillars of economics and social stability in the work of Adam Smith. Although the economics of Smith's time (18th century) were far less complex and technologically not as advanced as contemporary economics and markets, his work is the foundation of contemporary economics and it remains important because it provides a valuedriven and empirical perspective on economics. This value-driven and empirical perspective delves into the cognitive aspects of our being and instincts that are crucial to build trust. The purpose of this article is to revisit the notion of trust in the work of Smith to provide an analysis of trust and possible alternatives for sustainable economics and the flourishing of society. Generally, Smith views trust as multidimensional, with two dimensions of trust that can be distinguished, namely relational and structural trust. I will argue that multidimensional trust is important for the functioning of society and for economic justice.

The transtormation of biblical research to contextual approaches and beyond is a important consequence wider cultural and epistemological landscape known as postmodernity. An importapmentm Bitie this transformation is the focus on the dialogue between acadenmic and ordinary read

Panopticism is Michel Foucault's term for the internalisation of surveillance and cultural control that is closely linked to the panopticon or surveillance architecture (associated with prisons) of Jeremy Bentham during the 18 th and 19 th centuries. The purpose of this article is to argue that Adam Smith's concept of the impartial spectator provides an alternative perspective of internal surveillance that may enhance moral development and resistance to oppressive forms of control. For Smith, this is established through analogical imagination that is used for self-observation to enhance prudent behaviour. The impartial spectator and its resistance to totalitarian behaviour is specifically relevant in contemporary society because of the dominant role of digital technology and scandals that have exposed digital media as participating in digital forms of surveillance, digital personae, artificial intelligence and control. It will also be highlighted that digital surveillance is closely connected to the capitalism that has infiltrated all domains of society, from socio-personal relationships to the workplace.

Laughter is relatively unexplored in Adam Smith’s economic philosophy. In this article, laughter in Smith’s two major works The theory of moral sentiments and An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations will be surveyed to assess the role it possibly played in his work, and whether there is a link between laughter and economics. It will be argued that although it is not a major theme in Smith’s work, there is a link between laughter and economics. Laughter is understood from the perspective of the instincts of self-interest and sympathy with the corresponding socio-ethical assessment in which the impartial spectator plays a central role. Hence, Smith understood laughter as a social deliberated phenomenon, and not an individual response to an event. This social dimension is where the assessment of laughter takes place to gauge propriety. It will be highlighted that the assessment in many of the references that Smith makes to laughter are mostly embedded in a disjunction or binary connective that consists of self-interest and sympathy. This disjunction is cross-categorical and often of the weak type which results in a tension between self-interest and sympathy. It will be argued that disjunction resists reduction of self-interest that is seen in the excess and narcissism of contemporary capitalism.

In this paper, the economic philosophies of Adam Smith (1723–1790) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) are discussed, with special reference to their respective views on money. It is argued that self-love plays an important role in their philosophies of money. For Smith, self-love is the foundation of economic activity and a means to quantify exchange relations. Rousseau, in turn, rejects money because of the possibility that it may give rise to destructive and narcissistic forms of self-love—which he calls amour-propre. It seems that Smith's and Rousseau's views of money are in opposition to each other; however, both argue that their view of money becomes unsustainable, if not qualified, by the embedded tension present in self-love. For Smith, self-love must remain in tension with sympathy for the economy to function, as discussed in his Theory of Moral Sentiments. Rousseau concedes that in society both amour-propre and amour de soi (passionate, sacrificial love) are necessary. This tension introduces a moment of madness that may have important implications when contemporary philosophies of economics engage issues such as economic inequality and poverty.

This article argues that Adam Smith's notion of sympathy and the impartial spectator in his work The Theory of Moral Sentiments [1759] connects the individual to society. In this work, Smith's economics are far more complex than mere self-interest as a driver of commerce. Self-interest functions within a socio-ethical framework that limits excess and narcissism. However, morality was not based on normative assumptions for Smith and Hume. Morality was directly linked to social and cognitive processes in which the approbation of others was important. In other words, behaviour was based on the perceptions of others; therefore, action was to be adjusted to obtain sympathy. The impartial spectator refers to the cognitive process in which moral assessments are made. Therefore, the empiricism of Smith differs from determinism as related to physical causation because it operates through habituation and/or socialisation that can accommodate change and variation. Clearly, the socio-cultural presupposition of society directly influences the moral judgment of the individual. However, this deterministic tendency may result in an uncritical assessment of moral behaviour. To address this potential limitation of determinism, the embodied phenomenology of Merleau-Ponty is explored as an alternative theory which attempts to move beyond a dualism rooted in materialism/idealism. This perspective may expand on Smith's economics by adding a more inclusive assessment of behaviour. Specifically, Merleau-Ponty's corporeality provides a theory of behaviour that goes beyond a particular society's perceptions of acceptable behaviour. This framework may provide the impartial spectator with a more encompassing perspective on moral assessment that may also be beneficial for sustainable commerce. It will be proposed that Merleau-Ponty's embodied phenomenology and the hyper-dialectic of the flesh highlights the role of accountability and dialogue in moral assessment that may contribute to responsible economics in the South African context.

This article argues that Adam Smith's notion of sympathy and the impartial spectator in his work The Theory of Moral Sentiments [1759] connects the individual to society. In this work, Smith's economics are far more complex than mere self-interest as a driver of commerce. Self-interest functions within a socio-ethical framework that limits excess and narcissism. However, morality was not based on normative assumptions for Smith and Hume. Morality was directly linked to social and cognitive processes in which the approbation of others was important. In other words, behaviour was based on the perceptions of others; therefore, action was to be adjusted to obtain sympathy. The impartial spectator refers to the cognitive process in which moral assessments are made. Therefore, the empiricism of Smith differs from determinism as related to physical causation because it operates through habituation and/or socialisation that can accommodate change and variation. Clearly, the socio-cultural presupposition of society directly influences the moral judgment of the individual. However, this deterministic tendency may result in an uncritical assessment of moral behaviour. To address this potential limitation of determinism, the embodied phenomenology of Merleau-Ponty is explored as an alternative theory which attempts to move beyond a dualism rooted in materialism/idealism. This perspective may expand on Smith's economics by adding a more inclusive assessment of behaviour. Specifically, Merleau-Ponty's corporeality provides a theory of behaviour that goes beyond a particular society's perceptions of acceptable behaviour. This framework may provide the impartial spectator with a more encompassing perspective on moral assessment that may also be beneficial for sustainable commerce. It will be proposed that Merleau-Ponty's embodied phenomenology and the hyper-dialectic of the flesh highlights the role of accountability and dialogue in moral assessment that may contribute to responsible economics in the South African context.

Unemployment is a serious problem in South Africa that is probably being exacerbated by the destabilising tension between neo-liberal and Marxist perspectives (and in some cases neo-Marxist perspectives) that is being used to address this situation. This tension is based on reductions that may arise from the embedded ontologies that inform these economic philosophies and limit dialogue because of the binary nature of these ontological reductions. The purpose of this study is to enquire whether deconstruction and specifically Jacques Derrida's view of the gift can provide an alternative for the destructive tension between neo-liberal and Marxist perspectives. In this regard it will be argued that the impossibility of the gift, according to Derrida, provides the basis for hospitable narcissism-an economics of recognition and humility.

Abstract
    The transformation of Biblical research to contextual approaches and beyond is a development in the wider cultural and epistemological landscape known as postmodernity. An important consequence of this transformation is the focus on the dialogue between academic - and ordinary readers of the Bible as an interpretative praxis. This is a function of the changing nature of truth and authority, moving beyond élitist academic institutions, to an inclusive dialogical hermeneutic. The aim of this article, is to introduce the work of Jacques Derrida as a perspective for the dialogue between academic - and ordinary readers of the Bible. Derrida’s open-critical hermeneutic transforms the modernist views of textuality from absolute and exclusive assumptions to an open, inclusive and critical process that functions as a critique of the academic-/ordinary reader dichotomy. The importance of Derridean hermeneutics for a post-modern dialogical process will be illustrated by deconstructing the perspectives of Habermas, Rorty and Fish, Boff and Tracy.
Nederduitse Gereformeerde Teologiese Tydskrif 1999; 40(1&2): 140-152

The purpose of this article is to critically discuss the tragedy that occurred between 11 and 16 August 2012 at the Lonmin Mine in Marikana, South Africa. Although the events leading up to the Marikana massacre were complex and not one single factor was responsible for the tragedy we will focus on the philosophical and anthropological aspect that may have influenced the breakdown of engagement between the management of Lonmin and workers. It will be argued that this breakdown may have been the result of reductionist anthropological trends that arise in capitalism. These trends selectively utilize modern economic principles to advance the profit motive of business and dehumanises workers. This dehumanisation is clear in the view of workers by the Lonmin management and breakdown of communication. In order to provide an alternative anthropology the philosophy of Paul Ricoeur with special reference to his work Fallible man (1986) is explored and applied as an alternative anthropology for the reductionist trends related to labour that sporadically arise in capitalism. This offers a balanced view that incorporates the aim of responsible business to make profit with that of a sustainable labour market. Die doel van hierdie artikel is om 'n kritiese bespreking te doen van die tragedie wat tussen 11 en 16 Augustus 2012 afgespeel het by die Lonmin-myn in Marikana, Suid-Afrika. Hoewel die gebeure wat aanleiding gegee het tot die Marikana-slagting kompleks is en nie gereduseer kan word tot een enkele faktor wat verantwoordelik was vir die tragedie nie, sal ons fokus op die filosofiese en antropologiese aspekte wat gelei het tot die ineenstorting van die kommunikasie tussen die bestuur van Lonmin en die werkers. Daar sal aangevoer word dat hierdie ineenstorting die gevolg kon wees van reduksionistiese antropologiese neigings wat binne die raamwerk van kapitalisme ontwikkel. Hierdie neigings maak op 'n selektiewe basis gebruik van modern ekonomiese beginsels om die winsmotief van besighede te bevorder, en dit lei tot die ontmensliking van die werker. Hierdie ontmensliking is duidelik sigbaar uit die oogpunt van die werkers teenoor die agtergrond van die Lonmin-bestuur en die ineenstorting van kommunikasie tussen die partye. Om 'n alternatiewe antropologie voor te stel, word ondersoek ingestel na die filosofie van Paul Ricoeur, met spesifieke verwysing na sy werk Fallible man (1986) en dit word toegepas as 'n alternatiewe antropologie vir die reduksionistiese neigings wat saamhang met arbeid soos wat dit sporadies in kapitalisme opduik. Dit bied 'n gebalanseerde gesigspunt wat die doel van verantwoordelike besighedspraktyke (om wins te maak) inkorporeer met 'n volhoubare arbeidsmark.

The Tower of Babel narrative is profoundly connected to the history of South Africa and its interpretation in the Dutch Reformed Church document entitled Human relations and the South African scene in the light of Scripture (1976) that was used to justify apartheid. In this paper, it will be argued that this understanding of the narrative is due to racist framing that morally justified the larger apartheid narrative. The Tower of Babel narrative was later re-framed for liberation and reconciliation by Desmond Tutu. However, apartheid did not only have an impact on the socio-political dynamics of South Africa. Submissions to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission by business and labour highlight the impact of apartheid on the economy and specifically black labour. These revelations are responsible for new questions regarding the economics of the narrative that arise and may enrich the understanding of the Tower of Babel narrative. This focus on the economic aspect of the narrative is also supported by historical research on the Tower of Babel narrative that reveals that the dispersion of the people on the plain of Shinar may refer to the demise of the Sumerian empire that was among other influences brought about by a labour revolt. In this regard, the narrative is a theological reflection on the demise of an unjust economic system that exploited workers. The purpose of this article is to critically explore this economic justice aspect embedded in the narrative in order to determine whether this re-framing of the narrative is plausible. This is particularly important within the post-apartheid context and the increase of economic problems such as unemployment, poverty and economic inequality.

The current debate in South Africa about the redistribution of land is retarded by a modernistic ontology of land that in general reduces land to functionalistic and cultural reality of land and the enormous historical implications of land. We argue that theologies of creation, informed by the narrative philosophy of Paul Ricoeur, create a more " encompassing ontology of land ". It is an ontology which resists the collusive power of reductionism and modernism that is present in colonial and de-colonial strategies. Alternatively, it introduces perspectives that are helpful to address the practical problems regarding land redistribution and reconciliation. It is at this point that the theology of creation can enrich the debate as an expansion of the ontology of land through the interface of life and land. This can provide ethical criteria for addressing the injustice of reductionism in the current redistribution of land process.

The purpose of this article is to highlight the notion that the concept of sphere sovereignty as postulated by Abraham Kuyper was used in an ambiguous if not invidious manner in the history of South Africa, specifically during the time of apartheid. On the one hand, it is associated with the justification of apartheid, which is particularly evident in the document Human relations and the South African scene in the light of Scripture (1976). On the other hand, it is also associated with Black Liberation Theology, specifically by Alan Boesak, who resisted apartheid. The problem is that both these perspectives reduce the complexity of reality to race. According to Kuyper sphere sovereignty meant that no aspect of reality could be an absolute point of departure to structure the whole and each aspect is sovereign in its own domain. Thus, race or any other aspect cannot be the norm to structure reality. The unity and the structure of creation are located in God as creator of all reality. It is precisely this irreducible perspective of Kuyper that can be beneficial for post-apartheid South Africa because it views reality as a complex connectivity. Die doel van hierdie artikel is om aan te dui dat die konsep sfeersoewereiniteit soos gepostuleer deur Abraham Kuyper op 'n dubbelsinnige manier gebruik is in die geskiedenis van Suid-Afrika, spesifiek gedurende die tyd van apartheid. Aan die een kant, word dit geassosieer met die regverdiging van apartheid, wat spesifiek uitkomin die dokument Ras, volk en nasie en volkereverhoudinge in die lig van die Skrif (1976). Aan die ander kant word dit geassosieer met Swart Bevrydingsteologie, spesifiek dié van Alan Boesak, wat weerstand teen apartheid gebied het. Die probleem is dat albei hierdie perspektiewe die kompleksiteit van die werklikheid reduseer tot ras. Volgens Kuyper verwys sfeersoewereiniteit daarna dat geen aspek van die realiteit 'n absolute verwysingspunt kan wees vir die strukturering van die geheel nie en elke aspek is soewerein binne sy eie gebied. Daarom kan nie ras of enige ander aspek 'n norm wees om die realiteit te struktureer nie. Die eenheid en struktuur van die realiteit is gesetel in God as skepper van alle dinge. Dit is juis hierdie anti-reduksionistiese perspektief van Kuyper wat voordele mag bied vir post-apartheid Suid-Afrika.

In this paper, the economic philosophies of Adam Smith (1723–1790) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) are discussed, with special reference to their respective views on money. It is argued that self-love plays an important role in their philosophies of money. For Smith, self-love is the foundation of economic activity and a means to quantify exchange relations. Rousseau, in turn, rejects money because of the possibility that it may give rise to destructive and narcissistic forms of self-love—which he calls amour-propre. It seems that Smith's and Rousseau's views of money are in opposition to each other; however, both argue that their view of money becomes unsustainable, if not qualified, by the embedded tension present in self-love. For Smith, self-love must remain in tension with sympathy for the economy to function, as discussed in his Theory of Moral Sentiments. Rousseau concedes that in society both amour-propre and amour de soi (passionate, sacrificial love) are necessary. This tension introduces a moment of madness that may have important implications when contemporary philosophies of economics engage issues such as economic inequality and poverty.

Biblical scholarship from the African context provides possible new and creative perspectives for the interpretation of the Tower of Babel narrative because of uniquely African questions that structure the interpretative process. These unique questions relate to the cultures of African people, the injustice of colonialism, apartheid and so forth. The problem is that some of these new perspectives are influenced by rationalism that may result in reductionist interpretations of the Tower of Babel narrative. This is clear in the African cultural hermeneutics of Solomon Avotri and Black African hermeneutics of emeritus archbishop Desmond Tutu. The contemporary move among some biblical scholars from the African context that focus on the interaction between scholarly and non-scholarly interpreters of the Bible is an attempt to address the problems associated with rationalism. The art of Azaria Mbatha will be used to illustrate the potential of this contemporary move.

The interaction between scholarly and non-scholarly readings of Genesis 11:1-9 in the South African context refers to the transformation in biblical hermeneutics from the world of the text to the world of the reader and the post-colonial critique of Western essentialist scholarly modes of reading the Bible. This study explored three essentialist modes of scholarly reading from the South African context that perpetuated imperialism and colonialism: Anglocentric -,
Afrikaner - and Anti-colonial modes of reading. Non-scholarly readings of Bible Study Groups, African mythology and artworks of Azaria Mbatha view the text as subject. Non-scholarly readings, from the margin of the South African context, informed by a holistic and interconnected cultural discourse, deconstruct essentialism and constructs responsible readings of the Bible. These readings deconstruct centralistic essentialist discourses and construct a liminal space for new creative and responsible readings of the Bible in the South African context that stimulates healing.
The Ubuntu reading of Genesis 11:1-9 by Desmond Tutu reflects this. His reading incorporates the African connected reading praxis of non-scholarly readings, from the margin of the 'South' African context, and makes use of scholarly discourse. Tutu's
mode of reading leans on Western humanism and ecclesiology that does not follow a critical-holistic cultural discourse. The African Independent Church developed as a reaction to Western ecclesial structures. In the African Independent Church the
concept, Moya or Spirit functions as a reading matrix that deconstructs the discriminatory and exclusive forces of essentialist disconnection. The study proposes
that a Moya reading is an open-critical and inclusive theological-ethical concept. The interpretative thrust is decolonial, deconstructing essentialism and creating a liminal space, for new responsible readings of Genesis 11:1-9. A Moya reading is holistic and connects people to the land, a perspective that is foreign to essentialist scholarly readings of Genesis 11:1-9. This study contributes to the hermeneutical debate in South Africa, Africa and the global context by emphasising the importance of a continued interaction between
scholarly and non-scholarly readings of the Bible from the margin.