CHAPTER TWO
ENERGY PRINCIPLES IN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
The energy equation and the momentum equation are used
in addition to the continuity equation in analyzing fluid-
flow situations.
They are both derived from Newton’s second law of
motion.
Consider a particular open channel flow shown in figure
2.1
1
2
From figure 2.1 above free liquid surface, i.e. open
channel flows the total energy can be given as
follows:-
Velocity
Total head Elevation head
head
Pressure
head
3
Cont,,d
In general, every streamline passing through a
channel section will have a different velocity
head.
4
Only in an ideal parallel flow of uniform velocity
distribution can the velocity head be truly identical
for all points on the cross-section.
In the case of gradually varied flow, however, it may
be assumed, for practical purposes, that the velocity
heads for all points on the channel section are equal,
and energy coefficient (Coriolis Coefficient ) may be
used to correct for the overall effect of the non-
uniform velocity distribution. 5
Thus, the total energy, equation at a channel section
takes the form
According to principle of conservation of energy, the
total energy head at upstream section 1 should be
equal to the total energy head at downstream section
2 plus the loss of energy hf between the two section
; or
6
Specific Energy and Critical Depth
The “Specific energy” is the average energy per unit
weight of water with respect to the channel bottom.
The piezometric head related to the bottom is
(with Z = 0) which is the water depth.
Therefore, the specific energy is the sum of the water-
depth (y) and the velocity head, if the streamlines are
straight and parallel.
7
For a given section and constant discharge (Q), the
specific energy is a function of water-depth only,
since
When the depth of flow is plotted against the
specific energy for a given channel section and
discharge, a specific-energy curve is obtained
(figure 2-2). 8
Cont..
9
The curve shows that for a certain discharge Q two flow
regimes are possible,
slow and deep flow or
fast and shallow flow, i.e. for a given specific energy,
there are two possible depths, for instance,
the low stage y and the high stage Y2 . The low stage is
called the alternate depth of the high stage, and vice versa.
At point C, the specific energy is minimum. It can be
proved that this condition of minimum specific energy
corresponds to the critical state of flow.
10
Thus, at the critical state the two alternate depths
apparently become one, which is known as the critical
depth (Yc ).
When the depth of flow is greater than the critical depth,
the velocity of flow is less than the critical velocity for
the given discharge, and, hence, the flow is sub critical.
When the depth of flow is less than critical depth the
flow is supercritical. Hence, Y1 , is the depth of a
supercritical flow, and Y2 is the depth of a sub critical
flow
11
Critical state of Flow
defined as the state of flow at which the specific energy is a
minimum for a given discharge or it is the condition for
which the Froude number (Fr 2 ) is equal to unity.
12
Cont…
13
Calculation of Critical depth
1. Rectangular channel
From critical flow condition
14
15
Cont…
16
Section factor, Z
17
18
19
20
Channel Transitions
A channel transition is a change in the channel
cross-section (width, bottom slope etc.).
Such changes in channel geometry may be brought
at long distance or may be sudden.
It was usually carefully designed so that the energy
losses at the transition are small,
Thus energy losses in the transition may be
neglected. 21
Channel Transition with Hump
Sub-critical flow
Consider a transition in which the bottom of the channel is raised
by some depth ∆Z- hump and frictionless rectangular channel
with base B carrying a discharge Q at depth “y”.
22
23
Since there is no energy loss between section 1 and 2, the
hump height ∆Z causes the specific energy at a section 2
decrease s by ∆Z.
Specific energy at section 1 and 2.
24
25
26
Super-Critical Flow
If the flow at upstream section is in a super critical regimes
the depth of flow increases due to reduction of specific
energy at downstream. In above figure (specific energy
diagram) point p’ corresponds to y’1 will decrease to have
higher specific energy.
27
Channel Transition with Change in Width
Sub-Critical flow in a Width Constriction
Consider a frictionless horizontal channel of width
B1 carrying a discharge Q at a depth y1 (at section 1)
At section 2 the channel width has been constricted
to B2 by a smooth transition. Since there are no
losses involved and the bed elevations at section 1
and 2 are the same E1=E2
28
29
Momentum principles equation
Developed from Newton's second low
According to Newton's second law of motion the change of
momentum (dmv) per unit time, is equal to the resultant of
all external forces acting on a body (body of water flow in a
channel in our case).
30
Cont..
The application of Newton's second law, in a one
dimensional flow to the control volume, i.e. equating
the sum of all external forces (F) to the rate of
change of momentum (ρ Q V) for any two cross-
sections 1 and 2 gives 31
2.3 Momentum principles equation
32
F1 and F2 are the resultant pressure forces
w is the weight of the water.
Ff is the total friction force acting along the surface
of the body.
The slope is mild assume sin θ ≈ so = 0
W sin θ = 0
and for a flow with parallel flow lines the pressure is
assumed to be hydrostatic.
33
The force F1 is ρgAy+, where A is the cross-
sectional area and of y+ the depth of the center of
gravity of the area A (the depth of centroid of the
cross sectional area measured below the surface of
flow) . For rectangular section of small slope
F = ρg by (½y) (y+ = ½ y)
(Remark for canals with large slope F = ρg bdcos θ
½ dcos θ = ½ ρg bd 2 cos2θ)
34
2.3 Momentum principles equation
35
In applying the momentum principle to a short
horizontal reach of a prismatic canal, the external
forces of friction and the weight effect of water can
be ignored. Thus, with θ = 0 and Ff = 0 the equation
becomes:
36
2.3 Momentum principles equation
37
2.3 Momentum principles equation
38
The minimum value of the specific momentum function can
be found under the assumptions of parallel flow and uniform
velocity distribution by taking the first derivative of M with
respect to y and setting the resulting expression equal to zero
or
39
2.3 Momentum principles equation
40
