Arba Minch University

Institute of Technology
Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering
Department
Dam Engineering Course

By: sisay simachew (Lecturer)

arba minch university
March, 2012
Dam Engineering
1. Elements of dam engineering
1.1 Introduction
Definition:- A dam may be defined as an obstruction or barrier built across a stream
or a river.
The lake of water which is formed upstream of the dam is called reservoir.

Reservoir
Downstream
Upstream

The stored water can be used for:

Recreation
Water Supply
Dam
Irrigation
Flood Control
Generation of electric power etc.

.. 2
 Dam structures and reservoirs
Depending upon the purpose served by a given reservoir, the reservoir may
be broadly classified

1. Storage or conservation reservoir:- are those reservoirs which retain excess

supplies during period of peak flow and can release them gradually during low
flows or when the need arises.

2. Flood control reservoirs:- store a portion of flood flows in such a way to minimize
the flood peaks at the area to be protected downstream.

3. Multipurpose reservoirs:-are those reservoirs which are planned and constructed

to serve not only one purpose but various purpose together.

Hydraulic structure I Compiled by Habtom M 3

 Storage Capacity of the dam

Storage capacity is the most important physical characteristics of the reservoir that
store water and stabilize the flow.

The capacity of reservoir on dam site, is determined from the contour maps of the area

After the topographical survey of the dam sites is carried out and contour map is
prepared, the area enclosed within each contour can be measured with a planimeter.

 The incremental storage volume S between two successive contour can

be found by

A1  A2
S  (h)
2
( Simple average method ) h

h
S  A1  4 A2  A3 
6 A2 A1
( Prismoidal method )

Hydraulic structure I Compiled by Habtom M 4

Storage Components
Spillway crest

Maximum pool level

Normal pool level

Outlet

Live storage

Minimum pool level

Dead storage
River bed

Spillway

5
 Classification of Dams
The classification of dam can be schematically descried as follows:

6
 Embankment Dam:
Are those dams constructed of naturally excavated materials placed without
addition of binding material other than those inherent in the natural material.
Embankment dams are also classified as usually
 Earth fill dam:- an embankment dam constructed primarily of compacted
earth in either homogeneous or zoned areas containing more than 50% of
earth.
 Rock fill dam:-embankment type of dam dependent for its stability primarily
on rock. As rock fill dams must contain an impervious zone, usually of
selected earth with filter zones comprising a substantial volume of the dam

 Hydraulic fill dam:-an embankment dam constructed of earth, sand, gravel or

rock generally from dredged material conveyed to the site of placement by
suspension in flowing water.

Concrete dam
Gravity dam: A type of dam constructed of mass concrete or stone masonry, or both, which relies on
its weight for stability.

7
Arch dam: a dam with upstream curvature which transmits the major portion of the
load or pressure to the abutments rather than to the bottom foundation.

Buttress dam: a dam consisting of a watertight upstream face supported at intervals

on the downstream side by a serious of intermittent supports termed buttress.

Factors governing the selection of a particular types of dam.

The various factors which must be consider thoroughly, before selecting a
particular type are:
 Geology:
i. Foundation requirement
ii. Topography

 Availability of Technical skills

 Cost effectiveness
 Availability of materials
 Hydrology

8
 Assignment One

Question1. Describe the governing factors that

uses for the selection of dam site.
(not more than three pages)

References;

1- P.Novak et al. (Hydraulic structures)

2- USBR 1987. (Design Of small Dam)

3-Jansen, R.B.(1988) Advanced Dam

Engineering for design and
construction

4-Garg. S.K 1996 Irrigation engineering

and Hydraulic structure

Submission date: Next class.

9
 Cont’d…
Question 2 :
Calculate the capacity of the reservoir b/n the
elevation 200 to 300m, using Trapezoidal
method.
Elevation(m) 200 220 240 260 280 300
Area (km2) 150 175 210 270 320 400

10
Cont’d…
Question 3
Calculate the capacity of the reservoir b/n
the elevation 250 to 350m, using Simpson
Rule with the equation of area of
reservoir.
A= (10h)2 - 1.15h.
When A is in Km2

11
12
2. Concrete Dams
The structural integrity of any dam must be maintained under different
loading circumstances.
The gravity dam is mainly subjected to the following main forces:

Wind load

Wave load

Water load

Silt load Self weight

Earth quake load

Uplift load

13
Concrete Dam continued

As per the degree of relative importance loads on the dam can be classified as ;

 Primary loads:- Major important loads irrespective of the dam type;

E.g. Self weight load, water load and seepage & uplift load

 Secondary loads:- Universally applicable loads , even though there magnitude

is less;
E.g. Silt load, hydrodynamic load or wave load, wind Load, ice
load, thermal & dam/foundation interaction effect

 Exceptional loads:- loads which has limited applicability;

E.g. Tectonic load

14
 Loads and their centeroidal location in gravity dams

Case 1: Non-over flow section

(i) Up stream vertical face

1
PH   w H 2
H
@ 3 from the base of the dam.
2
1
PH '   w H ' 2 @ H' from the base of the dam.
2 3
Ap b
H PH w Pv
H
H‟ Ap‟
3 PH ' Through the centroid of
 wH  wH '
Trapezoidal, with out
 wH  w  H  H ' drainage gallery)
U *B @
2
[ i.e. Z  5H  2 H ' ]
3( H  H ' )
U
W   c Ap@ Through the centroid of
1 x-sectional area Ap
B Pv   wb * H@
' b from the toe of the dam.
2
3
15
(ii) Up stream face inclined

Pv1 If the upstream face of the gravity dam is inclined

in addition to the previous loads ( loads in vertical
u/s face) , only vertical loads of water i.e. Pv will be
Pv2 added at its centroidal point from the toe of the dam.

where
Pv = Pv1+ Pv2

Conti…

16
Case 2: Over flow section
Va
Ha 
2g
T.E.L

H1  w H1  H a   H  H 2  
PH   1   H a  ( H 2  H1 ) * Yw @
 2  

 
H 2  H1 2H1  3H a  H 2 
_
H2 1
Z
3  H1  2 H a  H 2 
PH from the base of the dam

 w H 2  H a 

17
Uplift pressure with drainage gallery and tension cracks
To reduce the uplift pressure , drains are formed trough the body of the dam, this
make the intensity of the uplift pressure to be differ from the full concrete dam.

Drainage gallery
H '

H H

H‟ H‟
B B
H '
H '
H H
 1 
  H ' ( H  H ' )
 3 
B‟

B‟=location of tension crack from the heel of the dam

Zd = Z2+Kd(Z1-Z2) m

18
 Wave Pressure ( hydrodynamic wave load)

Waves are generated on the reservoir by the blowing winds.

Pwave
hw

hw  0.032 UF  0.763  0.2714 F if  F  32km

hw  0.032 UF if  F  32km
w/r
hw = height of the wave
U = wind velocity in km/hr Dam
F = fetch length

Reservoir surface area

Pwave 2 whw 2 @ 0.375hw above the stilled water level.

19
 Sediment load

N.B: it is usual practice to assume the value of hs equals

to the height of dead storage.

 s' hs 2 hs above the base of the

Psh  K a @
dam.
2 3
Psh
hs

The submerged unit weight  s ' and the active lateral pressure coefficient Ka
is given by
1  sin s
 s '  s  w K 
1  sin s
a

Where:
s is the angle of shear resistance
s is sediment saturated unit weight

20
 Earthquake force

Earthquake force may move in any direction, but for the sake of design purpose it
has to be resolved in to vertical and horizontal components.

The values of these horizontal (αh) and vertical (αv) accelerations are generally
expressed as percentage of the acceleration due to gravity i.e. 0.1g or 0.2g, etc.

Vertical acceleration(αv)
The contact b/n the foundation and the dam
will increase, hence the effective Weight
of the dam will also be increase
The contact b/n the foundation and
W the dam Will decrease, which is the
worst case!!

Dam foundation
Down ward vertical movement.
W
Effective weight of the dam W  * v
g
Upward vertical acceleration

21
 Reading assignment,
Horizontal acceleration(αh)
Hydro-dynamic pressure. Reference, P.Novak and S.K. Garg

Horizontal Inertia force.

Fe H
4H
3

4H
Fe  0.555 h w H 2 acts @ from the base of the dam.
3
Von – Karman formula

There is also a hydrodynamic formula developed by Zanger, but for average ordinary
purposes, the Von-Karman formula is sufficient.

22
Design and analysis of gravity dam
Gravity dam may fail in the following way
•By over turning rotation about the toe;
•By Crushing;
•By development of tension , causing ultimate failure by crushing;
•By shear failure called sliding

1- Over turning stability

To make the structure of the dam stable from rotational or overturning failure
the following governing criteria should be satisfied

F0 (factor of safety against over turning) should be greater than 1.5

Fo 
 M  ve
> 1.5……………(safe against overturning)
M  ve

23
2-Siding Stability (Fs)

Sliding Factor (FSS)

Shear friction Factor(FSF)
Limit equilibrium factor (FLE)

i) Sliding factor can be defined by

Fss 
H
, for horizontal plane
V
 H  tan 
V
Fss  , for foundations inclined at a small angle 
1     tan 
 H
 V 
 

In order to be the dam stable against sliding Fss should be less than or
equal to 0.75 but for ELC up to 0.9 is acceptable

24
 ii) Shear friction factor (FSF) is defined as

S
FSF 
H
Where
S – total resistance to shear and defined by

 CAb 
S  V tan(   ) kN / m
 cos  (1  tan  tan  ) 

Recommended shear friction factor (USBR 1987)

Location of sliding plane Normal Unusual Extreme

Dam Concrete base interface 3.0 2.0 > 1.0
Foundation rock 4.0 2.7 1.3

25
(ii) Limit Equilibrium Factor, FLE

f
FLE   = T he shear stressed generated under the applied load
 f = Available shear strength and expressed by Mohr coulomb
failure criteria

c   n tan   n = Streets acting normal to plain of sliding

FLE 


FLE = 2.0 for normal operation

FLE = 1.3 for seismic activity

26
 3- Stress analysis (compression or crushing)

If the compressive stress introduced in the dam is greater than its allowable
stress ,the dam may fail.


Normal pool level
V  6e 
Pmax  1
Resultant B  B 
Reservoir full H
force
condition V

Pmin 
V 1  6e 
B/2 B/2 B  B 

Where;
Pmin + compression Pmax e = Eccentricity of the resultant force
from the center of the base

+ compr. V  Total vertical force

Pmin -
B= Base width
Tension

27
 Because of the gravity dam materials can not sustain tensile stresses, it should be
designed for certain amount or no tension should develops anywhere in the body of
the dam.

The maximum permissible tensile stress for high concrete gravity dams, under worst
loadings, may be taken as 500 KN/m2 (5kg/cm2).

NB: A tension crack by itself does not fail the structure, but it leads to failure of the
structure by producing excessive compressive stresses.

Pmin 
V 1  6e   0
B  B 

In order to ensure that no tension is developed anywhere, the amount of Pmin

should at most equal to zero. B
e
6
The maximum value of eccentricity, that can be permitted on either side of the
center is equal to B/6 ------- “ the resultant must lie within the middle third”.
_
The resultant distance from the toe of the dam ( x ) is given by

x
M
V 28
Principal stress

P
P‟
B

Pvmin c A

Pvmax

 B   pv sec2   p' tan 2 


For  to be maximum, p‟ should be
zero.

c A

29
 Example 2.1

For the following situation calculate;

•The maximum vertical stresses at the toe and heel of the dam.
•The major principal stresses at the toe of the dam.
•The intensity of shear stresses at the toe of the dam.
6m
R.L.= 289
R.L.=285
•R.L.= 280

2
3
R.L.=211

R.L. =205
8m

56m

30
 Example 2.2

Given a particular gravity dam profile with the following data.

Height of the dam = 63m Free board = 3m

U/S slope 0.2H: 1V Height of U/S inclined face = 20m
Top width = 10m Total base width = 54m
D/S slope 0.8H: 1V Tail water depth = 10m
US seismic zone 2 Wind velocity = 80Km/hr
D/s vertical face = 10m

Expected depth of silt deposit = 10m

Fetch distance of reservoir from dam site = 40km
Location of uplift drainage from the heel of the dam = 9m

Required:
Draw the profile, show the direction and location of all forces
and quantify their magnitudes in diagram & tabular form.

31
 Base width design for gravity dam for reservoir full condition
I) In order to no tension to be develop in the body of the dam the following should be satisfied
H
B
Gc  C
H
II) In order the dam is to be safe from sliding the following should be satisfied B
0.75(Gc  C )

Why and how ?

H
P B/3 W

 wH

C w H

B/2 B/2

e
32
 Example 2.3

For the following section of gravity dam examine the stability for reservoir full condition.
Take the horizontal and vertical earth-quake force as 0.1 g and 0.05 g respectively. Find also the
Principal and shear stress at the toe.

 w  10kN / m3  c  24kN / m3 7m
4m
10 m

26 m

86 m

6m
63 m
69 m
8m
33
34
 3.1 Buttress Dam
Buttress dams are those dams which have sloping u/s face and transmit the water
load to a series of buttress at right angle to the axis of the dam.
Consists: 1. Sloping membrane 4. Lateral braces
2. Buttresses 5. Corbels
3. Footings 6. Cutoff

 The advantage of buttress dam is

manifested by reduction of uplift pressure
and by saving concrete.

35
Types of Buttress Dam
 Buttresses are mainly of seven types
1. Deck Slab type
2. Massive head type
3. Multiple-arch type
4. Columnar type
5. Truss type
6. Multiple dam type
7. Hybrid type

36
Forces acting on Buttresses dams
1. Weight of the dam
2. Uplift pressure
3. Water Pressure
4. Ice pressure
5. Other forces (silt, wind, wave pressure and earthquake forces)

37
N.B.!

 The loading and safety criteria for

buttress dams or buttresses, is the same as
that for gravity dam section, except that the
provided buttress thickness ‘t’.

 the Uplift pressure is considered to act only

under the buttress head,

38
 Example 2.3

The profile of the major monolith of a buttress dam is shown bellow. The stability of a
dam is to be reviewed against overturning (Fo >1.5) and against shear friction factor
(Fo >2.4).
Assume the following concrete x-ics and
2m 3m
analyze the statistic stability of buttress w.r.t
plan X-X.
 c  23kNm3
0.7
22 m c  500kNm2
c  350
20 m 1

X X
3m 16 m

10 m 3m

39
 Arch Dams

Arch dams are those dams which has a solid wall, curved in plan and standing across
the entire width of the river valley, in a single span.
Depending upon the shape consideration, simple arch dams can be divided as;

 Constant radius arch dams;

Constant angle arch dams; and

Sr  B
5
Cupola arch dams
H

Valley suited for arch dam

Those valleys with narrow gorges and top-width to dam height ratio less than 5 may
be feasible.
B

40
 Constant radius arch dams

Is the simplest geometry, u/s face of the dam is of constant radii with a uniform radial d/s slope. It is apparent
that central angle, 2θ, reaches a max. @ Crest level.

Vertical axis
The most economical angle for a constant arch dams is maintained when;

2  133o

r1

r2

r3

41
 Constant angle arch dams

Central angle of different arch have the same magnitude from top to bottom & uses up to 70% of concrete as
compared to constant radius arch dam. But it is more complex as demonstrated in the figure. It is best suited to
narrow & steep-sided V-shaped valleys.

42
 Copula arch dams
Has a particularly complex geometry & profile, with constantly varying horizontal & vertical radii to
either face.

Design of arch dams

Arch dams can be designed on the basis of any one of the following methods;

i. Thin cylinder theory;

ii. The thick cylinder theory; and

iii. The elastic theory

 Loads on arch dams are essentially the same as loads on gravity dams, and uplift forces
are less important, if no cracking occurs the uplift can be neglected.

 Internal stresses caused by temperature change, ice pressure, and yielding of abutment are
very important.

43
 Thin cylinder theory

Ri t
dh
Ru
 The theory assumes the arch to be
simply supported @ the abutments Rc
& that the stresses are approximately F
F
the same as in a thin cylinder of equal
outside radius.
B/2 B/2

 w hRc  hR
T  w i Where,
  0.5 w h    w h Ru (Outer radius)– Extrados.

Ri (internal radius)– Intrados.

Rc – Central radius.
How ????......
T– Arch thickness.

44
 The most economical angle of arch with minimum volume is 133o34‟.

V= A.R2θ = T*1*R2θ Vertical axis

 w hR  wh
T  KR ; K
 2
 B 
V  KR   K
2  2 
 sin  / 2  1 unit
 
dV T
0
d

45
 Thick cylinder theory

:- is improvement of thin cylinder theory

Ru
Ri

T
Ru
R

Ri
T

 Ru2  Ru2 Rd 2 / R 2  Pu
  p w  

pi

 Ru  Rd
2 2

 ring stress is max @ d / s face
T  Ru  Rd is uniform at any elevation .
Reading assignment
2 w Z 1 Ru
2

  h max  ( for R  Rd ) For design

Tr ( Ru  Rd ) On Elastic Arch theory
2 w Z 1 Ru Reference:- P.Novack
2

Tr  For analysis (fourth edition)

 ( Ru  Rd )

46
 Tekezea arch dam in Ethiopia

47
 Example 2.4

Draw the profile of arch dam using thin cylinder theory, assume the sustained angel
133034‟ Assume the maximum allowable stress as 5MN/m2 and 1.5m thickness at the
top. 140 m

45o

100 m

50 m

48
 Chapter- 4
4.1 Embankment Dams
Embankment dams are those dams which are built of naturally available materials.

Embankment Dam

Earth Dam Rockfill Dam Composite

Type

Accordint to design
According to method of
Constructuion

Homogenous Zoned Diaphriagm Rolled Hydraulic Semi Hydraulic

fill type fill type fill type

49
Homogeneous Earth Dams:- are constructed entirely or almost entirely of one type of earth
material (exclusive of slope protection).

Build up one type of material

Phreatic line or seepage line

Slope protection

Horizontal blanket

Zoned Earth Dam;- however, contains materials of different kinds in different parts of the
embankment. The most common type of an earth dam usually adopted is the zoned earth dam
as it leads to an economic & more stable design of the dam.
Impervious
zone
Transition filter

Vertical
u/s core d/s Eg.Clay + fine sand
shell shell

50
 Diaphragm Earthen Dams; this types of dam are the same as that of Zone dam but the
main difference is it has thins thickness of core.

Diaphragm
(core)

Rock Fill Dam

The designation „rock fill embankment‟ is appropriate where over 50% of the fill material
may be classified as rock pieces. It is an embankment which uses large size rock pieces
to provide stability and impervious membrane to provide water tightness.
Decked rock fill dams

51
 Causes of Failure of Earth Dams
The analysis of earth dam must ask a question:……

How does the earthen dams most probably expected to fail? And
what are the causes failures?

Generally, from the previous experiences, the failure of earth dam is grouped in to

Hydraulic failures
Seepage failure
Structural failure

52
Hydraulic Failures: Hydraulic failures include the following:

 Overtopping
 Erosion of U/S face
 Erosion of D/S face
 Erosion of D/S toe

Seepage failures: Seepage failures may be due to

 Piping through the body of the dam

 Piping through the foundation of the dam
 Conduit leakage
 Sloughing of downstream toe.

53
Structural Failures: Structural failures may be due to the following reasons:

 Upstream and Downstream slope failures due to pore pressures

 Upstream slope failure due to sudden draw down
 Down stream slope failure during full reservoir condition
 Foundation slide: Spontaneous liquefaction
 Failure by spreading
 Failure due to Earth quake
 Slope protection failures
 Failure due to damage caused by burrowing animals
 Damage caused by Water soluble materials

54
Criteria for Safe Design of Earth Dam
 Appropriate design flood
Free from Overtopping  Adequate spillway
 Phreatic (seepage)
 Sufficient outletline should
works
exit
 the dam body
Sufficient freesafely
boardwithout
sloughing downstream face.
Free from seepage failure  Seepage through the body of the
dam, foundation and abutments
 Safe U/S
should How
be & D/S
can slope
onebyduring
controlled adapting
construction
measures. satisfy these
Free from structural failure  Safedam
The U/S and
slope
design during sudden
foundation should
draw down condition.
be safecriteria????......
against piping failure.
 Safe D/S
There slope
should be during steady
no opportunity
There must be proper slope seepage condition
for free passage of water from
protection against wind & rain  Foundation shear stressthe
within
U/S to D/S both through dam
drop erosion. the foundation.
safe limits.
and
There must be proper drainage  Earth quake resistant dam

Economic section

55
 Seepage Analysis
Seepage analysis: is used

 To determine the quantity of water passing through the body of the dam and foundation.
 To obtain the distribution of pore water pressure.

Laplace equation for two dimensional flows

 In earth dams, the flow is essentially two dimensional;

 Consider an element of soil is size x, y and of unit thickness perpendicular to the plane of the
paper. Let Vx and Vy be the entry velocity components in x and y direction.

56
  v   v y 
vx y.1  v y x.1   vx  x x y.1   v y  x.1
 x   y 

v x v y This is the continuity equation.

 0
x y

According to Darcy‟s law

Where;
h
vx  K xix  K x *
x h = hydraulic head under which water flows.
h Kx and Ky are coefficient of permeability in
VY  kY IY  Ky x and y direction.
y

Then substitute to the previous formula;

 2 K x h   ( K y .h)
2

 0
x 2 y 2

For an isotropic soil, Ky = Kx = K

 2h  2h
  0
x 2 y 2

57
 Substituting velocity potential =  = K*h , we get
graphical method
 2  2 analytical methods
 0 solution
x 2 y 2 experimental methods

Computation of rate of seepage from flow net

Let: b and 1 be the width and length of the field.

h = head drop through the field.
q = discharge passing through the flow channel.
H = total head causing flow
= difference between upstream and downstream heads
h
Then, from Darcy‟s law of flow through soils: q  K . (bx1)
l

58
 h
h  Where, Nd = total number of potential drops in the complete flow net,
Nd
h b
 q  K  
Nd  l 

Hence the total discharge through the complete flow net is given by

h b Nf b
q  q  k.  .N f  kh . Where:
Nd l Nd l Nf = total number of flow channels in the net

Seepage discharge for anisotropic soils

q=√(kx*ky) Nf /Nd*H

Reference:

P.Novak et al. (Hydraulic structures)

Garg. S.K 1996 Irrigation engineering
and Hydraulic structure

59
 Phreatic Line in Earth Dam
Phreatic line / seepage line is the line at the upper surface of the seepage flow at which the
pressure is atmospheric.

Phreatic line for a homogeneous Earth dam with horizontal drainage blanket

 yo  b2  h 2  b

yo
q  k( )( y o  2 xy o )
2

y o  2 xy o
2

q  kyo

60
Graphical method
Steps:
 Starting point of base parabola is @ A AB = 0.3L
 F is the focal point
 Draw a curve passing through F center @ A
 Draw a vertical line EG which is tangent to the curve
 EG is the directrix of the base parabola
 Plot the various points P on the parabola in such a way that PF = PR

61
Analytical method
PF = PR
x 2  y 2  x  yo
From point A (known), x = b and y = h

 yo  b 2  h 2  b

x2  y 2  x  b2  h2  b Equation of parabola … (3.6)

Discharge through the body of Earth dam

v  k *i
q  v * A  k *i * A
dy
q  k y *1
dx

62
From parabola equation, y  2 xy o  y0
2

d ( y0  2 xy o )
2

qk ( yo  2 xy o )
2

dx

yo
q  k( )( yo  2 xy o )
2

yo  2 xy o …………. (3.7)
2

q  kyo

63
Phreatic line for a dam with no filter
General solution by Casagrande

The focus in this case will be the

Lowest point F of the d/s slope.

a
Table for the value of with slope angle  Locations of “K” according to Schaffernak
a  a
 a
and Van Iterson
a  a For b b2 h2
 <30 0 --------- a    2
300 0.36
cos  2
cos  sin 
600 0.32
900 0.26 q = k (a sin) (tan)
1200 0.18
1350 0.14 300< < 600___ a  b 2  h 2  b 2  h 2 cot 2 
1500 0.10
1800 0.0 q = k. (sin) (a sin )
64
 a. Analytical Solution of Schaffernak and Van Iterson for
< 300

For the vertical section JJ1

dy
qK y
dx
dy
but  i  tan 
dx
and y= JJ1= a sin 
Substituting in (i), we get

q = k (a sin) (tan)
65
 b. Analytical solution of Casagrande for 300< <600

dy
Thus q  kiA  k A (3.10)
ds
dy
At J, s= a and y = a sin  then,  sin 
ds
Where s = distance measured along the curve.
Substituting in (3.10), we get

q = k. (sin) (a sin ) = k(a sin )

2
66
Phreatic line for homogenous Earth dam with rock toe

Phreatic line for zoned Earth dam with central core

67
 Exercise 3.1

For the following cross sectional view of earthen dam draw the seepage line and
determine the amount of discharge that passes through the body of the dam;
Assume the coefficient of permeability (K) as 5 x 10-6 m/sec

4.5 m

2.5 m

19.5 m

58.5 m 25 m

44 m
73.5 m

68
 Stability Analysis of Earthen dams

Re sistingFor ce Re sisting Moment

Fs  =
ActuatingF orce Actuating Moment

Swedish Circle Method of Slope Stability

It is one of the most generally accepted methods of checking slope stability.

69
 M r cL  tan  N  Shear Strength available
Fs   =
Md T shear Strength required for Stability

70
Method of locating center of critical slip circle
Fs3
Fs 2
Fs1

rc

H V

H
4.5 H B

71
Stability of down stream slope during steady seepage

72
 Example 3.2

Check the stability of the d/s slope for the following earthen dam x-sections

a) When the seepage line (pheratic line) have no contact with the slip circle and;
b) When the soil of the slip circle get fully submerged .

 sub  1.2t / m3

2
H= 25 m 1

  25o

 sat d 2
.2t1.83
/m3 t / m3

Coordinate of Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4
end slice
Magnitude (m) 6 7.5 7.5 6.5
C=2.4 t/m3
5. SPILLWAY
 Spillways are provided for storage dams

 To release surplus or flood water,

 To by pass flows exceeding those which are turned into the diversion
system.

 The choice of design is a function of the

 Nature of the site

 Type of dam and the

 overall economics of the scheme.

 A spillway may be located either

 Within the body of the dam or

 At one end of the dam or

 Entirely away from the dam as an independent structure

 Essential Requirements Of a Spillway

The essential requirements of a spillway are:

 Must have sufficient capacity

 Must be hydraulically and structurally adequate

 Must be so located that it provides safe disposal of water

 The bounding surfaces of the spillway must be erosion resistant to withstand

the high scouring velocities created by the drop from the reservoir surface to
the tail water

 Energy dissipation to the d/s side of the spillway

 Spillway Capacity
The required capacity of a spillway, i.e. the maximum outflow rate
through the spillway, may be determined by flood routing and
requires the following data:
Inflow hydrograph
Reservoir capacity curve
Discharge curve
However, the required capacity of a spillway depends on the
following factors:
The inflow flood
The available storage capacity
The discharge capacity of other outlet works
Whether the spillway is gated or ungated
The possible damages if a spillway of adequate capacity is not provide
The following are the main components of a spillway:
Control Structure

Discharge channel (or waterway, or conveyance structure):

Terminal structure or energy dissipater

Entrance or approach channel and outlet channel

Types of Spillway

1. According to their function as:

 Service (or main) spillways

 Auxiliary Spillways

 Emergency spillways
2. According to Mode of Control as:
 Free (or uncontrolled) spillways

 Gated (or controlled) spillways

3. According to hydraulic criteria as:

 Straight drop spillway
 Overflow or ogee spillway
 Chute or open channel or Trough spillway
 Side channel spillway
 Siphon spillway
 Shaft or Morning Glory spillway
 Conduit or tunnel spillway
80
81
82
83
84
85
1. Free Over fall Or Straight Drop Spillway
 This is the simplest type of spillway

 Is constructed in the form of low height weir having d/s face either vertical
or nearly vertical

 Artificial protection must be provided on the d/s side of the over-fall

section

 This is because the falling jet usually causes the scouring of the stream
bed and will form a deep plunge pool.
2. Overflow (or Ogee) Spillways
 An overflow spillway is an improvement upon the free over fall
spillway
 Overflow spillways are by far the most widely adopted
 They are mainly used on masonry or concrete dams, and
 If used with earth fill and need a separate concrete structure
Design Of Crest Of Ogee Spillway
 The shape of the nappe shaped profile depends upon
 The head
 The inclination of the upstream face of the spillway and
 The height of the spillway above the streambed or the bed of the
entrance channel (which influences the velocity of approach to the
crest of the spillway)
 Several standard ogee shapes have been developed by U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers at their Waterways Experimental
Station (WES).
 Such shapes are known as 'WES' standard spillway shapes.
 The downstream profile can be represented by

X n KH nd1 y
 Where:
o (x, y) = Co-ordinates of the points on the crest profile with the origin at
the highest point of the crest called APEX.
o Hd = Design head excluding head due to velocity of approach
o K, n = Constants depending on the slope of the upstream face.
 The following table gives values of K, n and other constants and
crest equations.
a b R1 R2
U/s Face K n Hd Hd Hd Hd
slope
Crest Equation

Vertical 2.000 1.850 0.175 0.282 0.200 0.50 x 1.85 2H d0.85 y
1H: 3v 1.936 1.836 0.139 0.237 0.210 0.68 x 1.836 1.936H d0.836y

2H: 3v 1.936 1.810 0.115 0.214 0.220 0.48 x 1.810 1.939H d0.810y

 (Straight x1.776 1.873H d0.776y

3H: 3v 1.873 1.776 0.000 0.119 0.45
line)
HD
HD
 According to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the u/s curve of
the ogee spillway (u/s of origin, though in the form of
compound circular curve) having a vertical u/s face, should
have the following equation:
0.724x  0.27 H d 
1.85
y 0.126H d 0.4315H d0.375x  0.27 H d 
0.625

H d0.85

 Where the upstream profile extends up to x  0.27 H d

 The corresponding y value is equal to 0.126 Hd.
 The curved profile of the crest section is continued
tangentially along the straight sloping surface, which forms
the d/s face of the spillway. The slope of the straight portion
varies between 1V: 0.6H to 1V: 0.8H.
 At the end of the sloping surface a curved bucket is provided
to create a smooth transition of flow from the spillway to the
outlet channel or the river on the d/s side and prevent scoring.
 The approximate radius R of the bucket may be
obtained from (empirical)
( v6.4 H 4.88) /(3.6 H 19.52)
R 10
V= velocity of flow at to e of spillway [m/s]
H = head excluding head due to velocity of approach
(m)
Neglecting energy loss over the spillway, velocity of flow
v at the toe will be

V  2 g (Z  Ha  y )
Where Z = the fall, m
Ha = head due to velocity of approach, m
y = depth of flow at the toe, m
97
Discharge of Overflow Spillway
The discharge over an overflow spillway is given by

where Q = discharge, m3/s

Q CLe H 3/ 2
D

C = coefficient of discharge
Le = effective length of crest of spillway, m
HD = total head over the crest including that due to
velocity of approach.
HD = Hd + Ha
For high ogee spillway Ha is very small, and HD = Hd
A. Coefficient of discharge, C, of Overflow spillway
 An ogee spillway a relatively high value of the coefficient of discharge because of
its shape. The maximum value Cd is about 2.2 if no negative or suction pressure is
allowed to develop.
 However the values of Cd is not constant. It depends up on the shape and the
following factors:
Depth of approach, p
Ratio of actual total head to the design total head
Upstream face slope
Downstream apron interference and downstream submergence

1. Effect of Depth of Approach

 As P increases, the velocity approach decreases but Cd increases.
 Model tests have shown that the effect of approach velocity is negligible when the
height of the spillway above the streambed is equal to or greater than 1.33 Hd (P
>1.33 HD)
where HD is the design head excluding the head due to velocity of approach
 A plot of Cd versus P/HD is shown below
 It may be observed from this plot that there is a marked increase in the value
of C till the height of the spillway (P) becomes equal to twice the design
head HD.
 Finally it remains constant value of Cd = 2.2
2. Effect of heads differing from the design head:
 The plot of (C’d /Cd) versus (He/HD) for a spillway of height P > 1.33
Hd, where Cd is coefficient of discharge corresponding to the actual
head of flow He and C’d is the coefficient of discharge corresponding
to the design head HD.

 It may be observed from this plot that with increase in the value of
(He/HD) the value of (C’d /Cd) increases.

 However, the design head should not be less than about 80% of the
maximum head in order to avoid the possibility of cavitation.
 When the actual operating head is less than the design head, the
prevailing coefficient of discharge, C, tends to reduce, and is
given by 0.12
 H 
C  C  e 
 HD 
Where HD = design head including velocity head and C’ = 2.2
3. Effect of upstream face slope
 For small values of the ratio (P/HD) a spillway with sloping
upstream face has a higher coefficient of discharge than a spillway
with vertical upstream face.
4. Downstream apron interface and submergence effects

 The coefficient of discharge is decreases due to submergence.

 Where the hydraulic jump occurs, the coefficient of discharge

may decrease due to backpressure effect of the downstream
apron and is independent of the submergence effect.

 When the value of exceeds 1.7, the downstream apron is found

to have negligible effect on the coefficient of discharge.

 But there may be a decrease in Cd due to tail water submergence.

Effective Length Of Crest Of Overflow
Spillway: The effective length of an overflow
spillway is given by
Le = L - 2 (NKp + Ka) HD
Where Le = effective length of crest
L =net length of crest which is equal to
the sum of the clear spans of the gate bays
between piers
HD = total head on crest including velocity
head
N = number of Piers
KP = Pier contraction coefficient
Ka = abutment contraction coefficient
 The pier contraction coefficient, Kp depends on
i) Shape and location of pier nose
ii) Thickness of pier;
iii) Velocity of approach; and
iv) Ratio of actual head to design head.
 For flow at design head the average values of Kp may be assumed as
follows:
Pier coefficients, Kp:
 Square nosed piers with corners rounded on a radius equal to about 0.1
of pier thickness → Kp =0.02
 Round-nosed piers → Kp = 0.01
 Pointed nose piers → Kp = 0.00
The abutment contraction coefficient Ka depends on:
i) Shape of abutment;
ii) Angle between upstream approach wall and axis of flow
iii) Approach velocity; and
iv) Ratio of actual head to design head
Abutment coefficients, Ka:
 Square abutment with head wall at 900 to the direction of flow → Ka=
0.20
 Rounded abutment with head wall at 900 to the direction of flow,
when
0.5 Hd  r  0.15 Hd → Ka = 0.10
 Rounded abutments where r > 0.5 Hd and headwall is placed not
more than 450 to the direction of flow → Ka = 0.00
Where r = radius of abutment rounding
Hd = design head
7. ENERGY DISSIPATION
 The water flowing over the spillway acquires a lot of kinetic
energy
 If the velocity of the water is not reduced, large-scale scour can
take place on the downstream side near the toe of the dam and
away from it.
 For the dissipation of the excessive kinetic energy possessed by
the water the two common methods adopted are:
 By converting the supercritical flow into subcritical
flow by hydraulic jump.
 By using different types of buckets, i.e. by directing
the flow of water into air and then making it falls
away from the toe of the structure.
Jump Height and Tail water Rating Curves
 Hydraulic jump can form in a horizontal rectangular channel when the
following relation is satisfied between the pre-jump depth (y1) and
post – jump depth (y2).

y2   1  1  8Fr1 
y1  2

2  
Where y1 = pre-jump (initial) depth
y2 = post- jump (sequent) depth
Fr1 = Froude number of the incoming flow
For a given discharge intensity q over a spillway, y1, will be equal to
q/v1; and v1 (mean velocity of incoming flow) is determined by the
drop H1 , if head loss is neglected.

V 
1 2gH 1 
Hence, for a given discharge intensity and given height
of spillway, y1 is fixed and thus y2 is also fixed
The values of y2’ corresponding to different values of q may be
obtained by actual gauge discharge observations and plot of y2’
versus q prepared, known as Tail water Rating curve (T.W.R.C.).
 Plot of y2 versus q may be made which is known as jump height
curve (J.H.C.). If J.H.C. and T.W.R.C. are plotted on the same
graph, five possibilities exist regarding the relative positions of
these curves
I. T.W.R.C. (y2’) coinciding with y2 curve for all discharges
II. T.W.R.C. (y2’) lying above the y2 curve for all discharges
III. T.W.R.C. (y2’) lying below the y2 curve for all discharges
IV. T.W.R.C (y2’) lying below the y2 curve for smaller discharges and
lying above y2 curve for larger discharges
V. T.W.R.C. (y2’) lying above the y2 curve for smaller discharges
and lying below the y2 curve for larger discharges
 The energy dissipation arrangement that can be provided is
dependent upon the relative positions of T.W.R.C. and y2 curve.
Condition 1(T.W.R.C. (y2’) coinciding with y2 curve for all discharges)
 Simple horizontal concrete apron may be provided
 Length is equal to the length of the jump corresponding to the maximum
discharge over the spillway

Condition 2: (T.W.R.C. (y2’) lying above the y2 curve for all

discharges)
 The jump forming at toe will be drowned out by tail water, and little
energy will be dissipated
Condition 3:
 In this case the jump will develop at a certain section far downstream of the
toe of the spillway. This is the most frequent one, and shows that a stilling
basin (with a depressed horizontal apron) is required for all discharges in
order to produce a jump close to the toe of the spillway.
Condition 4: In this case the following measures may be taken to
develop jump close to the spillway.
 Provide a stilling basin with an end sill for developing a jump at low
discharges and combine the basin with a sloping apron for
developing a jump at high discharges.
 Provide a sloping apron which lies partly above and partly below
the riverbed so that jump will develop at lower portion of the apron
at low discharges and at higher portion of the apron at high
discharges.
Stilling Basin
 A stilling basin consists of a short, level apron at the foot of
the spillway
 The function of the basin is to decelerate the flow sufficiently
to ensure the formation of a hydraulic jump within the basin.
Hydraulic Jump Stilling Basin
 The energy dissipation process in the following stages, all of
which may be combined.
 On the spillway surface
 In the stilling basin
 At the outflow into the river
Energy Dissipation On Spillway Surface
The energy loss on the spillway surface may be expressed as
V '2
e  
2g

Where V’ = the (supercritical) velocity at the end of the spillway

α = Coriolis coefficient (energy coefficient)
 = head loss coefficient

The total energy, E, can be expressed as

V 2 V 2 actual velocity
E    
2g 2g theoretical velocity
1
 1 
 2
The ratio of the energy loss, e, to the total energy E (i.e. relative
energy loss) is
e V  2  V 2 V 2  
      1  2
E 2g  2g 2g  1  

For the ratio of the height P of the spillway crest above its ending
and the overflow head H, with P/H < 30, and smooth spillways
  1  0.0155 P H

Thus, for P/H = 5, φ = 0.92 and the relative head loss (e/E) is
15%, where as for P/H = 25, φ = 0.61 and relative head loss is
62 %.
The value of head loss coefficient (ζ) could be increased (and φ
decreased) by using a rough spillway or by placing baffles on
the spillway surface. However, unless aeration is provided at
these protrusions, the increased energy dissipation may be
achieved only by providing an opportunity for cavitation
damage.
Energy Dissipation in the Stilling Basin
q 2 y1   8q 2

1/ 2

E  y1  y 2   1  1  3  
2 g 2 y12 2
  g y1  

The stilling basin depth is then given by

y   y2  y'2
the length of the stilling basin is given by
L  ky 2  y1 
where σ´ and k are coefficients derived from laboratory and field
experiments.
According to Novak and Cabelka Coefficients σ´ and k can be
taken as 1.1<  '  1.25 and 4.5 < k < 5.5, where the lower
value of k applies for Fr1 > 10 and the higher for Fr1 ≤ 3.
 The stilling basin is the most common form of energy dissipater
 Convert the supercritical energy to subcritical form of energy at the
d/s river regime.
 It is principle of working is simple hydraulic jump
 Standard basins were developed with chute blocks, baffles, and
special end sills by USBR
U.S.B.R. Stilling Basins
1. stilling basins for Froude's number between 1.7 and 2.5.
 For this case only a horizontal apron needs to be provided.
 As the flow in this case does not have much turbulence usually no
accessories are required to be provided.
 However, the apron should be sufficiently long to contain the
entire jump over it.
 Length of apron = Length of jump = 5 Y2, and
 where Y2 is the sequent depth.
2. Stilling basins for Froudes number between 2.5 and 4.5
 For this range of Froude number Type IV stilling basin has been
found to be effective for dissipating the energy of flow.
 The basin is provided with chute blocks.
 The length L of the stilling basin may be obtained for different
values of F1 from the following table:

F1 2 3 4 5

L/Y2 4.3 5.3 5.8 6

3. Stilling basins for Froude number higher than 4.5
 For this case depending upon the velocity of incoming flow, two
types of stilling basin have been developed as indicated below.
 (a) When the velocity of incoming flow is less than 15m/s,)
Type III stilling basin have been adopted.
 This basin utilizes CHUTE BLOCKS, BAFFLE BLOCK and an
ENDSILL.
 By providing the baffle blocks the length of the stilling basin
is considerably reduced because the dissipation of energy is
accomplished by the hydraulic jump as well as by the
impinging action of the incoming flow against these blocks.
 However, the baffle blocks will be subjected to large impact
forces due to impingement of incoming flow.
 Moreover on the downstream face of the baffle blocks usually
suction or negative pressure will be developed which will
further increase the forces acting on these blocks.
 Hence, baffle blocks should be properly anchored at the base.
 Further the floor of the basin will also be subjected to
additional load due to the dynamic forces created against the
upstream face of the baffle blocks, which should be considered
in the design of the floor of the basin.
When the velocity of the incoming velocity exceeds 15 m/s,
 TYPE II STILLING BASIN may be adopted.
 In this basin only chute blocks are provided and instead of a
solid end sill a dentate sill is provide.
 In this basin baffle blocks are not provided because
◦ Due to high velocity of incoming flows these blocks will be
subjected to excessive large impact forces and
◦ There is a possibility of cavitation along the downstream
face of theses blocks and adjacent floor of the basin due to
large negative pressure developed in the region.
 Due to baffle blocks being eliminated in this case the
dissipation of the energy is primarily accomplished by
hydraulic jump ,
 Hence, the length of the basin will be greater than that
indicated for the TYPE III BASIN.
F1 5 6 8 10 12 14
L/Y2 3.85 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.3 4.3
Bucket type energy dissipaters
 Bucket type energy dissipaters consist of an upturned bucket
provided at the toe of the spillway.
 The bucket type energy dissipaters may be used only for
overflow type spillways.
 This type of energy dissipation becomes more economical
than the method of stilling basins when the Froude number F1
of the incoming flow exceeds 10,
 because in such cases the difference between initial and
sequent depths being large a long and stilling basin would be
required.
 Moreover the bucket type energy dissipaters may be used with
any tail water condition.
 However, this type of energy dissipater may be used only
when the river bed is composed of stiff rock.
 The bucket type energy dissipaters are of the following three
types:
a) Solid roller Bucket
b) Slotted roller Bucket
c) Ski jump ( or flip or trajectory bucket)
 The solid or slotted roller bucket may be used where the tail
water depths are too large as compared to the sequent depths
required for the formation of the hydraulic jump.
 Both these buckets remain submerged in tail water and hence
these are also termed as submerged bucket type energy
dissipaters
 A. Solid roller Bucket
 A solid roller bucket consists of a bucket like apron with a
concave circular profile of large radius and a deflector lip as
shown.
 When the water flows over the bucket the entire sheet of water
leaving the bucket is deflected upward by the bucket lip and
two elliptical rollers are developed as shown in the figure.
 One of the roller which moves in the counter clock wise
direction is developed on the surface of the bucket and is
contained within the region above the bucket.
 This is known as bucket roller ( or surface roller).
 The other roller moving in the clock wise direction is
developed on the ground surface immediately downstream of
the bucket, which is known as ground roller, the movement of
the rollers, along with the intermingling of the incoming flows
causes the dissipation of the energy.
 The upward deflection of water by the bucket lip creates a
high boil on the water surface and a violent ground roller.
 This ground roller continuously pulls the loose bed
material backwards and deposits the same against the lip
of the bucket.
 Some of the materials may move into the bucket, which
may get trapped there and damage the surface of the
bucket by abrasion.
 Moreover due to severe surface boil the turbulent flow
persists for a considerable distance on downstream side
thus resulting in the erosion of the river banks.
 These drawbacks of the solid roller bucket are removed in
slotted roller bucket.
 Radius of the Bucket: R= 0.6 H’ *Hd
◦ Where H’ = fall from crest of spillway to bucket
invert in meter.
◦ And Hd =Head over crest in meters
 Vente Chow’s Formula R = 0.306 *10k
◦ Where k = (v1+6.4 Hd +4.88)/(3.6 Hd + 19.5)
◦ V1 = velocity of flow at the toe of spillway in m/s
 b) Slotted Roller Bucket
 A slotted roller bucket also consists of a bucket like apron with
a concave circular profile of large radius but it has a slotted (or
dentated) deflector lip.
 In general the hydraulic action of the slotted bucket has the
same characteristics as that of a solid bucket.
 Thus in the case of the slotted bucket also the same two rollers
are developed.
 However in this case the water leaves the lip of the bucket at a
flatter angle and only a part of it is deflected upwards.
 Thus surface boil is considerably reduced, and less violent
ground rollers occurs which results in a smoother flow on the
downstream side.
 Moreover in this case the bed material is neither deposited nor
carried away from the bucket lip, also any debris which might
get into the bucket is immediately washed out through the
slots.
Energy Dissipation as Roller
 c) SKI JUMP BUCKET
 A ski jump bucket may be used where the tail water depth, is less
than sequent depth required for the formation of hydraulic jump and
the river bed is composed of stiff rock.
 The lip of the bucket is so shaped that the entire sheet of the water
flowing over the bucket is deflected as a free jet which falls back
into the river channel at a safe distance away from the spillway.
 Thus in this case energy is dissipated by air resistance, breaking of
the jet into bubbles and the impact of the falling jet against the river
bed and tail water.
 BUCKET INVERT level is decided mainly from the structural
point of view.
 If the power house is situated below the ski jump bucket, then the
invert should be fixed higher than the roof top of power house.
 In some cases bucket is lower than the tail water
 the bucket invert then is so decided so as to provide a concrete cover
of 1.5m to 3.0m over the bed of rock.
 The pure ski jump or flip as it is often called is provided such that
bucket lip is always higher than the maximum tail water depth.
 Bucket Radius has the same formula as the solid roller bucket.

Entrance and exit slope:

 For the entrance slope, the steepest spillway slope that should
be used is 4V:1 H.
 The exit angle  is an important factor in determining the
length of the trajectory.
 Theoretically if friction, air retardation etc., are neglected, the
formula to be used to evaluate the horizontal component of the
jet trajectory is
 X= (Vo2/g) sin 2
 Jet trajectory height is given by Y = h sin2 = (Vo2/2g) sin2
 A judicious selection of exit angle is necessary; an exit angle
of 30o to 35o is a good choice.
 When the maximum tail water is lower than the bucket lip,
shape of the lip is kept flatter for ease of construction.
 High sub atmospheric pressure at down stream lip has to be
avoided by aeration or provide a curved or sloping lip.
7. Intake Structures
 Most of the water which is stored in a reservoir for irrigation
water supply or power penetration purposes, is stored below the
spillway crest level.
 The spillway is provided at normal pool level, such that the floods
are discharged safely above the spillway
 But, in order to draw water from the reservoir as and when
needed, for irrigation, water supply, power generation etc it is
absolutely necessary that outlet works are provided:
 Either through the body of the dam or
 Adjacent to it through some hillside at one end of the dam
 This water may be discharged to the down stream channel below the dam or
may be transported at distances where required (to some power house, etc)
through pipes or canals.
 The opening a pipe or tunnel provided for this withdrawal of water is known
as a dam out let (Intake structure).
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 In certain instances the out let works of a dam maybe used
as a service spillway in conjunction with an auxiliary or
secondary spillway.
 In this event the usual outlet works installation might be
modified to include a by pass overflow, so that the
structure can serve both as an outlet work and spillway.

 Further, the outlets may serve to empty the reservoir to

permit inspection, to make needed repairs, or to maintain
the upstream face of the dam or other structures normally
inundated.

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