Chapter One: Introduction: 1.1 Definition and Scopes of Irrigation Engineering

Irrigation Engineering Lecture Notes (WREE4101)
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1 Introduction
1.1 Definition and Scopes of Irrigation Engineering
The soil moisture available in the soil, either from rain or from underground waters,
may not be sufficient for the requirements of the plant life. For optimum plant growth,
therefore, it becomes necessary to make up the deficiency by adding water to the
root-zone soil. The artificial application of water to the land for supplementing the
naturally available moisture in the root zone soil to meet the crop water demand at
the proper time in the proper way is termed irrigation.
Irrigation is defined as the process of artificial supply of water to soil for raising crops.
It is a science of planning and designing an efficient, low-cost, economic irrigation
system tailored to fit natural conditions. It is the engineering of controlling and
harnessing the various natural sources of water, by constructing dams and reservoirs,
canals and headworks, and finally distributing the water to the agricultural fields. Thus,
Irrigation engineering deals the study and design of works in connection with river
control, drainage of waterlogged areas and generation of hydroelectric power.
The scope of irrigation is not limited to the application of water to the soil. It deals
with all aspects and problems extending from watershed management to the agricultural
field. It deals with the design and construction of all works, such as dams, weirs,
head regulators, etc., in connection with the storage and diversion of water as well as
the problems of subsoil drainage, soil reclamation and soil-water–crop relationship.
Irrigation engineers plan, design, and maintain irrigation systems for the transport and
distribution of water to residential and agricultural sites. They may oversee the
installation of pipelines and sprinklers, or be involved in directing water from dams,
canals, and rivers. Irrigation engineers work in the field to evaluate terrain, soil, and
climactic characteristics to optimize the use of water for lawns and agricultural crops.
They often employ computer modeling techniques to plan blueprints of irrigation
systems, and present these to subcontractors or installation technicians.
JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

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The irrigation engineer addresses ongoing issues of drought and national water
shortages, and focus on developing irrigation systems that prioritize water sustainability.
They may be involved in researching water recycling methods and developing new
ways of minimizing water seepage and evaporation loss.
Common work activities of irrigation engineer may include:

 Understanding, designing and developing the most effective irrigation system for the
area to be irrigated.
 Enhancing current topographical features to improve both soil and water
conservation in the area to be irrigated. This is often done by reading maps and
studying aerial photographs, especially for agricultural irrigation systems.
 Educating consumers about the various types of irrigation systems including
sprinklers and drip systems and how they will impact water and soil conservation.
1.2 Necessity of Irrigation

Factors necessitating irrigations:
 Insufficient rainfall: Irrigation is needed when the seasonal rainfall is less than
the minimum required for satisfactory crop growth.
 Non-uniform distribution of rainfall: every crop requires certain quantity of water
after fixed intervals of time until the crop matures. It is well known that rainfall
cannot supply water at fixed intervals of time in measured quantities. Therefore,
irrigation is required when rainfall is unevenly distributed according to the crop
requirements.
 Growing of cash crops: some crops (e.g. sugarcane) require regular supply for
long time, which natural rainfall cannot provide. Thus, irrigation is needed to give
regular supply for long duration.
 Controlled water supply: areas with normal rainfall are always exposed to
drought condition; Irrigation makes it possible to cultivate lands.
1.3 Purposes of Irrigation

 Providing insurance against short duration droughts
 Reducing the hazard of frost (increase the temperature of the plant)
 Reducing the temperature during hot spells

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 Washing or diluting salts in the soil Softening tillage pans and clods
 Promoting the function of some micro organisms
1.4 Objectives of irrigation

 To supply water partially or totally for crop need
 To Cool both the soil and the plant
 To leach excess salts
 To improve groundwater storage
 To facilitate continuous cropping
 To enhance fertilizer application- Fertigation
1.5 Benefits of Irrigation

 Increase in Crop Yield
 Protection from famine
 Cultivation of superior crops
 Elimination of mixed cropping:
 Economic development
 Hydropower generation
 Domestic and industrial water supply:
1.6 Impacts of Irrigation on Environment

The main impact of irrigation is in terms of the increased agricultural yield, which in
turns affect social, cultural, economic, and other aspects of human environment.
1.6.1 Positive Impact

Health aspect: Irrigation water use affect health by bringing water into close contact
with people. This proximity can have positive health benefits by:
 Ensuring household food security and improving nutrition of population

 Providing with a reliable source of water for drinking and hygiene
Socio-economic aspect: irrigation is generally considered as an effective way of

increasing agricultural production. As production increases, per capita income increases.
Thus, the socio-economic condition and livelihood improves. The access to irrigation
facility, therefore, has a positive impact and profound role to play on poverty reduction.

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1.6.2 Negative Impact

Water maintains a host of natural ecosystems. Withdrawal of water from upstream can
reduce the flow at downstream needed to sustain natural ecosystem. The off-take and
diversion structures often deprive downstream users of their water. Negative impacts of
irrigation may be through the following:
 Water quality degradation: a poor management of irrigation and drainage

techniques, coupled with an inappropriate use of input (e.g. fertilizer, pesticides,
herbicides, etc.) is one of the major causes of surface and groundwater pollution
within and around the irrigation schemes.
 Waterlogging and salinity: where shallow saline groundwater exists, irrigation
may results in rise of shallow water table and thus salinity problem. In addition,
seepage from irrigation canal may results in local waterlogging problems.
 Health risks: Irrigation water can increase certain health risks by: (1) Providing
a breeding ground for mosquitoes that carry malaria, (2) Bring people into
contact with water borne diseases, and (3) danger of water resource pollution by
return runoff from irrigation
1.7 Water Resources and Irrigation Development in Ethiopia
1.7.1 Water Resources of Ethiopia

A River basin is the portion of land drained by a river and its tributaries. It
encompasses all area of the land surface dissected and drained by many streams and
creeks that flow downhill into one another, and eventually into one river. The final
destination is an estuary, a sea or an ocean. There are basins which are closed and
loss the totality of their water resources through evaporation and seepage.
The overall land mass of Ethiopia is hydrologically divided into 12 Basins. Eight of
these are River Basins, one Lake Basin and three Dry Basins. Four of the River
Basins: Abbay, Baro-Akobo, Mereb and Tekeze are part of Nile River System, flowing
generally in the Western direction toward Sudan eventually terminating in the
Mediterranean Sea. Five Basins namely, the Omo-Ghibe, Awash, Rift-valley Lakes,
Denakil and Aysha can be categorized as the Rift-valley system as all of them drain
their water in the Great East African Rift-valley. The remaining three: Genale-Dawa,

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Wabishebelle and Ogaden are part of the Eastern Ethiopian Basin that generally flows
in the South-eastern direction toward the Somali - Republic and then to the Indian
Ocean.
Figure 1.1. Twelve Ethiopian River Basins
The complex interaction between the climate, biophysical and socio-economic

characteristics of Ethiopia resulted in important features of the basins such as high
level of spatial and temporal variability of flow, enormous turbidity, and tremendous
potential for hydropower in the highlands and irrigation in the lowlands and sceneries
along the major gorges.
Generally a river basin within the country is a hydro-geographical boundary of an area

of land that feeds the water it receives to a common river or lake or swamp before it
crosses the international boundary or terminates in sea or ocean. It is a natural
boundary that is permanent as opposed to Political or Administrative Boundary that is
liable to change with change in governance.
There is very big variation in the size of the Basins. The Wabishebelle Basin is the
largest basin in Ethiopian with an area of 202, 220 km2 followed by the Abbay Basin
covering an area of 199,812km2. The smallest basin is the Aysha Basin with an area
of 2223 km2 followed by the Mereb that has an area within Ethiopia of 5900km2.

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The most populous basin in Ethiopia is the Abbay Basin. The Abbay Basin is the
most important Basin in Ethiopia by most criteria as it contributes about 45% of the
countries surface water resources, 25% of the population, 20% of the landmass, 40 %
of the nation’s agricultural product and most of the hydropower and irrigation potential
of the country. Population density is highest in Rift Valley Lakes Basin indicating the
immense pressure on the resource base. The basin with the lowest population size
and density is the Aysha Dry Basin mainly due to its remoteness, inaccessibility, harsh
environmental condition and low resource potential and shortage of socio-economic
infrastructures and services. Despite the huge productive force in the basins (Age group
15-64), the high rate of illiteracy could be an obstacle to their development.
Administratively, most basins drain more than one Regional States. Awash Basin drains
seven Regional States and / or City Councils whereas the Oromia Regional State is
drained by seven different basins. Three of the basins; Ogaden, Aysha and Mereb fall
within one Regional State, Somali and Tigray respectively and the Gambella Regional
State falls within one basin ie the Baro-Akobo Basin. The discrepancy between the
basin boundary which is considered as an appropriate unit for planning and
management of water resources and the administrative boundary, within which most
decisions of development are made, will be one of the challenges forthcoming with the
progress of basin based water resources management approach under implementation.
Table 1-1. Water Resources Potential of Ethiopia

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1.7.2 Irrigation Potential

Ethiopia comprises 112 million hectares (Mha) of land. Cultivated land area estimates
vary between 30 to 70 Mha. Currently, high estimates show that only 15 Mha of land
is under cultivation. For the existing cultivated area, our estimate is that only about 4
to 5 percent is irrigated, with existing equipped irrigation schemes covering about
640,000 hectares. This means that a significant portion of cultivated land in Ethiopia is
currently not irrigated.
Based upon the various river basin master plans and land and water resources
surveys, the aggregate irrigation potentials of Ethiopia have been estimated to be
2,523,000 hectares, net. The gross irrigation potential would be about 3.7 million
hectares.
The following criteria are used for classification of irrigation projects in Ethiopia:
 Small scale-irrigation (SSI): irrigation scheme, which are often community-based

and traditional methods, covering less than 200 ha. Examples of SSI include
house hold based rain water harvesting (RWH), hand-dug wells, shallow wells,
individual household based diversion.
 Medium-scale irrigation (MSI): which is a community based or publicly
sponsored, covering 200 to 3,000 ha. Examples of MSI include the Sille, Hare,
and Ziway irrigation schemes
 Large scale Irrigation (LSI): which is typically commercially or publicly sponsored
covering more than 3,000 ha. Examples of LSI include the Wonji-shoa,
Metahara, and Fincha irrigation schemes.
 SSI schemes are the responsibility of the MoARD and regions, while MSI and
LSI are the responsibility of the MoWE.
Private sector who operated farms for growing commercial crops such as cotton,
sugarcane and horticultural crops started the first formal large scale irrigation schemes
in the 1950s in the upper and lower Awash Valley. In the '1960s irrigated agriculture

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was expanded in all parts of the Awash Valley and in the Lower Rift Valley. The
Awash valley saw the biggest expansion in view of the water regulation afforded by
the construction of the Koka dam and reservoir that regulated flows with benefits of
flood control, Hydropower and assured irrigation water supply.
During the Derge era, all private farms were nationalized, thereby ending the highly
motivated but embryonic private sector. The government pursued the development of
medium and large-scale irrigation schemes as State Farms, initiating a number of
schemes dispersed in many parts of the country that ranged from Amibara Irrigation
Project in the Middle Awash to Alwero Irrigation Project in Gambella and Gode-West
Irrigation near Gode town. Following the downfall of the Dergue, the current
government until recently withdrew from expanding State Farms and further construction
of medium and large-scale irrigation.
While the development of small-scale irrigation schemes has continued under Regional
Water, Mines and Energy Bureaus, the development of medium and large-scale
irrigation has virtually ceased since the mid-1990s until recently. This is due to the
withdrawal of the Federal Government from running state development enterprises such
as irrigated state farms, following the adoption of market based economic policy.
The private sector has also been reluctant to fill the gap created by this withdrawal.
Private consultancy firms and construction contractors, on the other hand, have quickly
emerged with the coming into force of a market based economic policy. Private
irrigation farmers have also commenced operation in the Awash, Meki-ziway, and Woito
valleys, albeit on a small and medium scale.

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Table 1-2. Irrigation Potential of Ethiopia
The Country has a total area of about 1.13 million km2, with estimated arable land
resources potential of 55 million hectares, or approximately 50% of its land mass
(UNDP-FAO, 1984). Despite the huge arable land resources potential, only 14% of the
country's total land mass is being utilized for crop cultivation.
The total area irrigated till 1991 was 176015 ha, this figure had increased to 197,250
ha in 1998. According to data recently compiled by MOWR 2004/5 from different
master plan studies and regions the area under irrigation in the country has increased
to about 250,613ha. This is due to rapid increment of the area under traditional
irrigation.
1.7.3 ON GOING IRRIGATION PROJECTS

 Kesem & Tendeho Irrigation Projects
The projects are found in the Awash Basin. A total of 90,000ha Irrigation area.
 Ethiopian Nile Irrigation & Drainage Projects These projects are found in the
Abbay & Tekeze Basins.

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 Arjo- Dedesa Irrigation Project. This project area is located in the Abbay Basin.
It has a total area of 14,300 ha.
 Humara Irrigation Project. This project area is located in the Tekeze Basin. It
has a total area of 43,000 ha.
 Gumara Irrigation Project. This project area is situated around Lake Tana in the
Nile Basin. It has a total area of 14,000 ha.
 Lake Tana sub basin irrigation project. The projection areas are located in
Abbay Basin. It includes North East Lake Tana, North West Lake Tana, South
West Lake Tana, Jemma, Megech, Rib and Gilgel Abbay Irrigation Project. They
constitutes a total area of 62,457 ha.
 Koga Irrigation Project. This project is located in Abbay Basin. It covers a total
area of 7,000ha.
 Lake Abbaya Sub-basin Irrigation Project. It includes Gelana, Gidabo and Billate
Irrigation Projects. They are located in the Rift Valley Lakes Basin. The Total
area of this project is 31,920 ha.
 Ziway Irrigation Project. The project area is located in the Rift Valley Lakes
Basin. The project area covers 15,500 ha.
 Wabi Shabele Basin Irrigation Project. This includes Gololcha, Errer, Iliyon and
Buldaho Irrigation Projects. They make up a total area of 52,920 ha.
 Raya Valley Pressurized Irrigation Project. Located in Danakil dry basin. Source
of water is ground water. Total area being studied is 18 000 ha
 Kobo-Girana Valley Pressurized Irrigation Project. Located in Danakil dry basin
and partly in Awash Basin. Source of water is ground water. Total area being
studied is 17,000 ha.
 Wolkyte Irrigation Project. Located in Tekeze Basin. Total area being studied is
about 40,000 ha.
1.8 Classification of Irrigation Schemes

 Based on sources of water, irrigation schemes can be broadly grouped into two
main categories: (1) surface water irrigation schemes, and (2) groundwater
irrigation schemes.

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Surface water irrigation schemes use diversion and storage methods and obtain
their supplies from rivers. Groundwater irrigation schemes use open and tube
wells to left water from water bearing strata below the earth’s surface. The
choice of an irrigation scheme depends on several factors: topography, rainfall
characteristics, type of source available, subsoil profile, etc. One should,
however, always plan to use surface and ground waters together to derive
maximum benefits. Such use is termed conjunctive use.
 Based on the way the water is applied to the agricultural land, irrigation scheme
is classified into two categories: (1) flow irrigation schemes, and (2) lift irrigation
schemes.
 Flow irrigation schemes: the irrigation scheme where the irrigation water is
conveyed by flowing to the irrigated land. This irrigation schemes further
divided into direct and storage irrigation. Direct irrigation is the lift irrigation
schemes where water is obtained directly from the river, without any
intermediate storage. Direct irrigation is possible by constructing diversion
structures, like weir and barrage. Reservoir/tank/storage irrigation is the
irrigation system where water is obtained from the river by constructing an
obstruction across the river, like dam.
 Lift irrigation schemes: The irrigation system where the irrigation water is
available at a level lower than that of the land to be irrigated and hence
the water is lifted up by pumps or by other mechanical devices for lifting
water and conveyed to the agricultural land.

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CHAPTER TWO: SOIL-WATER-PLANT RELATIONSHIPS
2 Soil-Water-Plant Relationships
2.1 Introduction
Water is applied to soil by an irrigation system, by a regulated water table, or by
precipitation. It is stored in the soil matrix and extracted by plant roots to meet the
evapotranspiration (ET) demand of the plants. This chapter on soil-plant-water
relationships treats the physical and chemical properties of soil and plants that affect
the movement, retention, and use of water that must be considered in designing and
operating systems for irrigation.
In planning and designing an irrigation system, the technician is concerned primarily

with the water-holding capacity of a soil, particularly in the root zone of the plant; the
water intake-rate of the soil; the root system of the crop to be grown; and the amount
of water that the crop uses. In addition, a working knowledge of all soil-plant-water
relations is necessary in order to plan and manage efficient irrigation for a particular
crop grown on a particular soil and in order to adjust the design to various conditions.
2.2 Soil
Soil function as: a storehouse for plant nutrient; as habitat for soil organisms and plant
roots; and as a reservoir for plant to meet their ET demands. The amount of water
that a soil can hold for plant use is determined by its physical and chemical
properties. The amount of water stored in the root zone determines the time of
irrigation, the frequency of irrigation, the amount to be applied, and the capacity of the
irrigation system needed for continuous optimum crop growth.
The soil can be regarded as a porous medium consisting of a solid, a liquid and/or a
gaseous phase. The solid phase comprises the mineral material, organic matter and
living organisms. The mineral material consists of small mineral particles of sand, silt,
and clay. Organic matter is made up of decaying plant and animal substances that
distributed in and around the mineral particles. The combination of mineral and organic
materials of the soil forms the soil matrix or the solids. The part of the soil not
occupied by the soil matrix is the pore spaces or voids. For most agricultural crops

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the ideal soil consists of approximately 50% solid material and 50% pores (and half of
which are filled with water).
2.2.1 Physical Properties of Soil

For optimum plant growth, it is essential that the soil provides a favorable physical
environment for root development that provides the plant’s needs for water, nutrients,
and anchorage. Other essential conditions include aeration, optimum soil temperature,
seed emergence, root penetration facility (low mechanical impedance), etc.
2.2.1.1 Qualitative Description of Soil Physical Properties

Soil has unique properties that define them. The physical properties of a soil are those
characteristics that can be seen with the eye or felt between the thumb and fingers.
The following physical properties can be found: color, texture, depth, slope, drainability,
water holding capacity bulk density, structure, and porosity.
Two important physical properties of soils are soil texture and structure. Soil texture
refers to the relative proportion of variously sized groups of mineral particles in a
specific soil. The variously sized groups of mineral particles in a soil are called soil
separates. These soil separates are sand, silt and clay. Generally the particles only
having the diameters smaller than 2mm are categorized as soil separates. The particles
larger than 2mm in size are categorized as gravels, stones, cobbles, or boulders. Soil
structure refers to the manner in which soil particles are arranged in groups or
aggregates. The soil structure influences the rate at which water and air enter and
move through the soil; it also affects root penetration and nutrient supply of soil.
Together, soil texture and structure help to determine the supply of water and air in a
soil.
2.2.1.2 Measurement Techniques of Important Soil Physical Properties

Soil as a material different from most other materials in nature because it is the three
phase material: between the soil particles in a soil mass, pore spaces can be found
and pores may contain water and/or air. Therefore, soil composed of:
 Solids or solid particles; the volume of solids is defined as and the mass of
solids is defined as ;

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 Water; the volume of water is defined as and the mass of water is defined
as ;
 Air; the volume of air is defined as and the mass of air is negligible;
 Pores; the volume of pores is defined as = .
Figure 2.1. Systematic representation of soil phase system
 Within a certain volume of soil, the total mass (Mt) can be defined as:
Where is the mass of the solid; is the mass of liquid; and is the mass of
gases (air). But the mass of gases is negligible when compared with the masses of
the solid and liquid phases, and thus ignoring ,

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 Similarly, within a certain volume of soil, the total volume ( ) can be defined
as:
Where is the volume of solids; is the volume of liquid; and is the volume of
gases.
Note. For fully saturated soil sample, and Likewise, for a

completely dry soil sample,
A). Density and Unit weight
In three phases (solid, liquid, and gaseous) soil system, the concept of average density
can be defined as follows: (1) density of the solids or particle density, (2) bulk or dry
density, and (3) total or wet density.
1. Particle density. Particle density represents the density of soil (i.e. mineral)
particles collectively. Real density or particle density or density of solids is the
mass of a given volume of solids only, which is given as:
Particle density would be equivalent to the average density of the soil minerals and
the organic matter. It varies between 2.6 and 2.7 Mg/m3. An average value of 2.65 is
generally used. The presence of iron oxides and other heavy minerals increases the
value of the soil particle density, and presence of solid organic materials in the soil
decreases the value.
2. Bulk or dry density. The soil bulk density or dry density is a measure of the
mass of the soil per unit volume (including pore space), usually given on an oven
dry (at 105oC for 24 hours) basis. It can be defined as the ratio of the mass of

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the solid phase of soil (i.e., dried soil) to its total volume (solid and pore volume
together), which is given as:
Where is bulk or dry density; is the total volume of soil sample; n is the
porosity; and e is the void ratio.
3. Total or wet density: It is defined as the ratio of the total mass divided by the
total volume, which is given as:
Where w is the soil water content on weight basis and can be defined later. Instead
of the above mentioned density terms ; also the unit weight terms
can be used; in those case the weight of the solids: and the
total weight of the soil mass: ; where is acceleration due to gravity.
1. Unit weight of solids
2. Dry unit weight
3. Wet unit weight
B). Properties Related to Water and Air Content
Other physical characteristic with respect to pores containing water and/or air are:
1. Porosity (n). Porosity refers to the portion of soil volume that is occupied by
the pore spaces or voids. It is normally expressed as the percentage of soil
volume:
Where is the porosity, is the volume of pores, and is the total soil volume.
The air and soil-water solution moves through these pores and also stored. Coarse

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textured soils have larger pores than fine textured soil but less pore spaces or
porosity.
Table 2-1. Typical values of porosity for different types of soil
Soil texture Porosity (%)
Sandy 30 - 40
Loam 40 - 45
Clay 45- 55
2. Soil water content. Soil water content can be expressed on weight basis and
volume basis. The gravimetric moisture content of a soil sample is water content
on weight basis and most easily determined in the laboratory after drying the
sample at 1050C for 24 hours. The moisture content by weight ( ) can be
expressed as follow:
Where, the mass of the water in the sample is the difference in

weight of the sample before and after drying. For water balance
computations it is more convenient to express the moisture content as a
fraction or percentage of the total of the soil, the volumetric moisture
content ( ), which is expressed as follow:
3. Degree of saturation ( ). It refers to the portion of pore spaces occupied by

water. It is defined as the volume of water divided by volume of voids, which
can be expressed as:
4. Void ratio (e). It refers to the volume of voids divided by volume of solids,
which can be expressed as:

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C). the relationships between different physical properties
 Let is the unit weight of water, is the dry specific gravity of soil, and
is the specific gravity of solids or the relative density of soil grains.
 Divide equation b by equation a

( ⁄ )
( ⁄ )
 Volume of solids ( ) = total volume – volume of voids
 Substituting equation c in equation 2.16
The relationship between volumetric water content ( ) and gravimetric water content
( ):
⁄
⁄
 The volume of water in a soil of root-zone depth (d) and surface area (A):
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ]

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This volume of water can also be expressed in terms of depth of water which would
be obtained when this volume of water is spread over the soil surface area (A): Depth
of water ( ),
[ ]
[ ]
D). Relation of Irrigation Scheduling and Drainage to Physical Properties of Soil
Irrigation scheduling is directly related to the physical properties of soil. A sandy soil
with a high infiltration rate can accept water rapidly; however, it will hold only a
relatively small amount prior to drainage. Clay texture soils are the opposite and only
allow water to enter them very slowly; however, they hold large amount of water.
Thus, the physical properties of a soil control both the rate at which water may be
applied and the total amount of water to be applied.
In connection to drainage, it is important to realize that large pores in the coarse

textured soil can conduct more water rapidly than fine pores. In addition, removing
water from large pores is easier and requires less energy than removing water from
smaller pores of fine textured soil.
2.2.2 Chemical properties of Soil

In addition to physical properties, soils have unique chemical properties as well. The
main chemical properties of soil are pH, Cation exchange capacity (CEC), salinity,
carbon to nitrogen ratio, etc. the chemical properties are discussed in details in the
course introduction to soil sciences.
2.3. Soil water in the root zone

How soil holds water. Soil holds water in two ways, as a thin firm on individual soil
particles and as water stored in the pores of the soil. Water stored as a thin firm on
individual soil particles is said to be adsorption. Adsorption involves complex chemical
and physical reactions. Water stored in the pores of the soil is said to be capillary
storage.
Crop growth (or yield) is directly affected by soil moisture content in root zone. Root
zone is defined as the volume of soil occupied or can be occupied by roots of plants
from which plants can extract water. Both excessive water (which results in water-

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logging) and deficient water in the root zone soil retard crop growth and reduce the
crop yield.
Soil water can be divided into three categories: (1) gravity (or gravitational or free)
water, (2) capillary water, and (3) hygroscopic water, as shown in figure 2.
1. Gravitational water is that water which drains away under the influence of gravity.
Soon after irrigation (or rain) this water remains in the soil and saturates the soil,
thus preventing circulation of air in void spaces.
2. Capillary water is that water which held within soil pores due to surface tension
forces (against gravity) which act at the liquid-vapor (or water-air) interface.
3. Hygroscopic water is that attached to soil particles through loose chemical bonds.
This water can be removed by heat only. As a result, the plant roots can use a
very small fraction of this moisture under drought conditions.
Figure 2.2. Different stages of soil moisture content in a soil
To study soil-water-plant relationships, it is convenient to subdivided soil water into

water available to the plant and water unavailable to the plant. After the soil has been
saturated with water, one can observe a vertical downward movement of water due to
gravity. Most gravitational water moves out of the root zone too rapidly to be used by

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plants. The remaining water is stored under tension in various size pores. The smaller
the pore the greater tension and the more energy required to move its water. There is
also some water which is very closely bound to soil particles. This water is called
hygroscopic water. It is also very difficult to remove, and is not available to the
plants.
The range of water available to plants is between field capacity (FC) and the
permanent wilting point (PWP). The soil is at field capacity when all the gravitational
water has been drained and a vertical movement of water due to gravity is negligible.
The permanent wilting point is defined as the point where there is no more water
available to the plant. The permanent wilting point depends on plant variety, but is
usually around 1500kPa (15bars). This means that in order for plants to remove water
from the soil, it must exert a tension of more than 1500kPa (15bars). This is a limit
for most plants and beyond this they experience permanent wilting.
The different in the soil moisture content of the soil between its field capacity and the
permanent wilting point within the root zone of the plants is termed available moisture.
It represents the maximum moisture which can be stored in the soil for plant use. It
should be noted that the soil moisture content near the wilting point is not easily
extractable by plants. Hence, the term readily available moisture is used to represent
that fraction of the available moisture which can be easily extracted by plants. Readily
available moisture is approximately 75 percent of the available moisture.
The total available moisture, TAM (in terms of depth) for a plant is given by:
( )
Where, TAM is the total available moisture, is the volumetric water content at field
capacity, is the volumetric water content at permanent wilting point, and is the
depth of root zone.
Soil moisture deficit. The water required to bring the soil moisture content of a given
soil to its field point. At a time when the soil moisture content is , the soil moisture
deficit ( ) (figure 2) is given as:
( )

21
2.4. Soil Water Constant or Soil Water Coefficient and Soil Water Potential
Soil water must be defined to indicate the amount of water stored in the soil at any
given time. The most commonly defined soil water contents are saturation, field
capacity, permanent wilting point, and oven dry.
Saturation Capacity. Saturation capacity is the moisture content of soil when all pores
are filled with water. At saturation, which usually occurs immediately after heavy rainfall
or irrigation, all pore spaces in the soil are filled with water. When the soil is at or
near saturation, some of the water is free to drain or percolate due to the force of
gravity. This excess water is referred to as gravitational water.
Field Capacity. It is defined as the amount of water remaining in the soil after
percolation has occurred. The field capacity is defined approximately as one-third
atmospheric tension.
Permanent Wilting Point. It is defined as the soil water content at which the potential
of the plant root to absorb water is balanced by the soil water potential. Crops will
die if soil water is allowed to reach the wilting point.
Oven Dried Soil. Soil that that has been over dried is used as a reference point for
determining soil water content. This is when all soil water has been removed from the
soil.
2.3 Soil Moisture Characteristic Curves

Moisture extraction curves, also called moisture characteristic curves, which are plots of
moisture content versus moisture tension, show the amount of moisture a given soil
holds at various tensions. Soil moisture tension depends on the texture, structure and
other characteristics of the soil. Acknowledge of the amount of water held by the soil
at various tensions is required, in order to understand that amount of water available
to plants.

22
Figure 2.3. Soil moisture characteristics curve
2.4 Soil Moisture Tension

In wet soil, as long as, there is a continuous column of water, it might be called
Hydrostatic potential, in the intermediate range, the term capillary potential is
appropriate. In the dry range, the term hygroscopic potential would be suitable.
However, the term soil moisture potential, soil moisture suction and soil moisture
tension are often used synonymously to cover entire range of moisture.
The effect of a force on soil water may conveniently be described by potential energy
of soil water in a particular force field. The forces governing soil-water flow can be
described by the energy concept. According to this principle, water moves from points
with higher energy status to points with lower energy status. The energy status of
water is simply called 'water potential'.
Water status in soils is characterized by both the amount of water present and its
energy state. Soil water is subjected to forces of variable origin and intensity. The two
primary forms of energy of interest here are kinetic and potential. Because of the
movement of water in the soil is slow, its kinetic energy is negligible. Therefore, the
potential energy, which is defined by the position of soil water within a soil body and
by internal conditions, is largely responsible for determining soil water status under
isothermal conditions.
Like all other matter, soil water tends to move from where the potential energy is
higher to where it is lower, in pursuit of equilibrium with its surrounding (Hillel, 1998).

23
The magnitude of the driving force behind such spontaneous motion is a difference in
potential energy across a distance between two points of interest. At a macroscopic
scale, we can define potential energy relative to a reference state. The standard state
for soil water is defined as pure and free water (no solutes and no external forces
other than gravity) at a reference pressure, temperature and elevation, and is arbitrary
given the value of zero (Bolt, 1979).
2.4.1 The total soil water potential and its components

Soil water is subjected to several forces fields, the combined effects of which result in
a derivation in potential energy relative to the reference state, called the total soil
water potential ( ). The total soil water potential is defined as: “the amount of work
that an infinitesimal unit quantity of water at equilibrium is capable of doing when it
moves (isothermally and reversibly) to a pool of water at similar standard (reference)
state, i.e., similar pressure, elevation, temperature and chemical composition”.
The primary forces acting on soil water held within a rigid soil matrix under isothermal
conditions can be conveniently grouped (Day et al., 1967) as:
1. Matric forces resulting from interactions of the solid phase with the liquid and
gaseous phases;
2. Osmotic forces owing to differences in chemical composition of soil solution;
and
3. Body forces induced by gravitational and other (e.g., centrifugal) inertial force
fields.
We can express the total potential as the algebraic sum of the component potentials
corresponding to the different fields acting on soil water as:
Where the component potential are discussed below:
 Matric potential ( ): is the potential resulting from the combined effects of

capillarity and adsorptive forces within the soil column. The primary mechanisms
for these effects includes:

24
 Capillarity caused by liquid-gas interfaces forming and interacting within

the irregular soil pore geometry;
 Adhesion of water molecules to solid surfaces;
The value of matric potential ranges from zero when the soil is saturated to
increasingly negative values as the soil becomes drier (note that is greater
than ). Applied theories for flow and transport in unsaturated porous
media, particularly at low water content, commonly lump capillary and adsorptive forces
without distinguishing individual contributions to the matric potential.
 The solute or osmotic potential ( ): the presence of solutes in soil water

lowers its potential energy and its vapor pressure. The effects of are
important when:
 There are appreciable amounts of solutes in the soil; and
 In the presence of a selectively permeable membrane or a diffusion
barrier which transmits water more than readily than salts. The effects of
solute potential are otherwise generally negligible when only liquid water
flow is considered and no diffusion barrier exists. The two most important
diffusion barriers in the soil are:
o Soil-plant root interfaces (cell membranes are selectively permeable
and;
o Air-water interfaces; thus when water evaporates salts are left
behind.
 The pressure potential ( ): it is defined as the hydrostatic pressure exerted by
unsupported water that saturates the soil and overlays a point of interest. Using
head as the unit of energy, pressure potential is the vertical distance from the
point of interest to the free water surface (unconfined water table elevation. The
convention used here is that is always positive below a water table, or zero
if the point of interest is at or above the water table. In this sense non-zero
magnitudes of and are mutually exclusive; either is positive and
is zero (saturated conditions), or is negative and is zero (unsaturated
conditions), or (at the free water table elevation.

25
 The gravitational potential ( : it is determined solely by the elevation of a

point relative to some arbitrary reference point, and is equal to the work needed
to raise a body against the earth’s gravitational pull from a reference level to
its present condition. When expressing energy per unit weight, the gravitational
potential is simply the vertical distance from a reference level to the point of
interest. The numerical value of gravitational potential is thus not important (it is
defined with respect to an arbitrary reference level). What is important is the
difference (gradient) in between any two points of interest. This value is
invariant of the reference level location.
Soil water is at equilibrium when the net forces on an infinitesimal body of water
equals zero everywhere, or when the total potential is constant in the system.
The difference in chemical and mechanical potentials between soil water and pure
water at the same temperature is known as the soil water potential ( ):
Note that the gravitation component ( ) is absent in this definition. Soil water potential
is thus the result of inherent properties of soil water itself, and of its physical and
chemical interactions with its surroundings, whereas total potential includes the effects
of gravity (external force).
The total soil water potential and its components may be expressed in several ways
depending on the definition of a unit quantity of water. Potential may be expressed as:
i. Energy per unit of mass;

ii. Energy per unit of volume; or
iii. Energy per unit of weight. A summary of the resulting dimensions, common
symbols, and units are presented in table 2-2.
Only has actual units of potential; has units of pressure, and of head of
water. The various expressions of soil water energy status are equivalent, with:
Where is density of water and g is gravitational acceleration.

26
Table 2-2. Units, Dimensions, and Common Symbols for Potential Energy of Soil Water
2.5 Water Movement in the soil

External Forces, which act on water in the subsurface including gravity, pressure from
the atmosphere and overlying water, and molecular attraction between solids and water.
In the subsurface, water can occur in the following:
 As water vapor which moves from regions of higher pressure to lower pressure;
 As condensed water which is absorbed by dry soil particles;
 As water which is retained on particles under the molecular forces of adhesion;
 As water which is not subject to attractive forces towards the surface of solid
particles and is under the influence of gravitational forces.
In the saturated zone, groundwater flows through interconnected voids in response to
the difference in fluid pressure and elevation. The driving force is measured in terms
of hydraulic head. Hydraulic head (or potentiometric head) is defined by Bernoulli’s
equation as follow:
Where = hydraulic head, = elevation above datum, = fluid pressure with

constant density , = acceleration due to gravity, = fluid velocity. Pressure head
(or fluid pressure) is defined as:
By convention, pressure head is expressed in units above atmospheric pressure. In the

unsaturated zone, water is held in tension and pressure head is less than atmospheric
pressure ( ). Below the water table, in the saturated zone, pressure head is
greater than atmospheric pressure ( ). Because groundwater velocities are usually
very low, the velocity component of hydraulic head can be neglected. Thus hydraulic
head can usually be expressed as:

27
Figure 2.4. Relationship between hydraulic head, pressure head, and elevation head within a well
Groundwater moves through the sub-surface from areas of greater hydraulic head to
areas of lower hydraulic head (equation 2.28). The rate of groundwater movement
depends upon the slope of the hydraulic head (hydraulic gradient), and aquifer and
fluid properties.
2.5.1 Darcy’s Law

Henry Darcy, a French Hydraulic Engineer, observed that the rate of laminar flow of a
fluid (of constant density and temperature) between two points in a porous medium is
proportional to the hydraulic gradient between the points. The equation describing the
rate of flow through a porous medium is known as Darcy’s Law and is given as:
Where = Volumetric flow rate [L3T-1], = Hydraulic conductivity [LT-1], = Cross

sectional area of flow [L2], = hydraulic head [L], = distance between two points
[L]. The negative sign on the right-hand side of Equation 2.29 (Darcy’s Law) is used
by convention to indicate a downward trending flow gradient.

28
Figure 2.5. Pressure Distribution and Head Loss in Flow through a Sand Column
2.5.2 Hydraulic Conductivity (K)

The hydraulic conductivity of a given medium is a function of the properties of medium
and properties of fluid. Using empirically derived proportionality relationships and
dimensional analysis, the hydraulic conductivity of a given medium transmitting a given
fluid is given as:
Where is the hydraulic conductivity, = permeability

of porous medium [L2], = Fluid density [ML-3], = dynamic viscosity [ML-1T-1], =
acceleration of gravity [LT-2], is the kinematic viscosity [L2/T]. The values of the
density and kinematic and dynamic viscosity of water versus temperature are given in
Table 2-3.

29
Table 2-3. Properties of water as a function of the temperature at normal atmospheric pressure
The permeability of a medium is depends upon the size of the pores, and one would
be tempted to relate this to the size of the particles. Unfortunately, the exact
relationship is complicated by the particles size distribution, the packing of the particles,
and the shape of the particles. Therefore, only crude estimations are possible. The first
one is the Kozeny-Carman equation, which is valid for a porous material of equal
sized spherical grains, expressed as:
Where is the porosity [L3/L3], which represents in this equation the effect of the
packing of grains (dense packing means low porosity and loose packing means high
porosity), and is the diameter of the grains [L].
Another empirical relation is created by Hazen and is applicable to sandy soils. Hazen
showed by means of experiments that the 10% smallest grains determine the
permeability and expressed as:

30
Where is the diameter [L] that can be determined by particle size analyses of the
sand such that 10% by weight of the grains are smaller in size. Equation 2.32 is only
valid if 0.1 mm < < 3 mm.
2.5.2.1 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity in the Laboratory

A permeameter is a laboratory set-up to measure the hydraulic conductivity on
undisturbed soil samples. There are two types of permeameter set-ups:
A. Constant Head Permeameter

The potential difference (head) and flow through the samples are constant in time.
Hence, the name called constant head permeameter, as shown in figure 2-7. The flow
is usually from the bottom to the top of the sample in order for air to escape. It is
sufficient to measure the dimensions of the sample, the potential difference, and the
flow rate. Using Darcy’s law the hydraulic conductivity can be calculated as:
Where is the flow rate [L3/T], is the length of the sample [L]. is the cross
sectional area of the sample [L2], and is the constant potential or head difference
[L].
Figure 2.6. Constant Head Permeameter

31
B. Falling Head Permeameter

A problem with the constant head permeameter set-up is that it becomes very difficult
to use when the hydraulic conductivity is very small, because the flow rate cannot
be measured accurately. In that case it is more convenient to use a falling head
permeameter, as shown in figure 2-8, for which the flow rate needs not to be
measured. There is no inlet reservoir and when the water passes through the sample
the potential difference drops gradually in time. Hence the name is called falling
head permeameter.
The hydraulic conductivity can be calculated as:
Where is the cross-sectional area of the inlet tube [L2], is the time [T], and
is the potential difference [L] measured at a certain time since the start of the
experiment. Rearranging and integrating the above equation:
Figure 2.7. Falling Head Permeameter
∫ ∫
The equation can be solved to obtain the conductivity as:

32
( )
Where is the initial potential difference [L] at the start of the experiment.
C. Problem Associated with Permeameter

There are three problems associated with such type of measurements:
 Samples need to be taken and installed in the permeameter in undisturbed state.

This is not so easy to do. Undisturbed sampling in the fields requires specialized
equipment and experimental skill.
 Soil samples are usually in order of magnitude of 1 dm3 in size and do not
necessarily represent the nature of the soil material in the field from which these
were taken. Hence, more samples are needed to improve the accuracy.
 Experiments show that hydraulic conductivity measurements are not normally
distributed. This is due to the skewness of possible K-values, because negative
values are impossible, but extreme large values are possible although not very
likely, as for instance worm holes, cracks, etc.
2.5.3 Groundwater Velocity

The rate of movement of groundwater is important in many problems, particularly those
related to pollution. For Example, if a harmful substance is introduced into an aquifer
up gradient from a supply well, it becomes a matter of great urgency to estimate
when the substance will reach the well.
A. Darcy’s Flux/ Specific Discharge/ Darcy’s Velocity

The groundwater velocity equation can be derived from a combination of Darcy’s law
and the velocity equation of hydraulics.
 From Darcy’s Law:
 From Velocity Equation:
Where is the rate of flow or volume per unit of time, is the hydraulic
conductivity, is the cross sectional area, at a right angle to the flow direction,

33
through which the flow occurs, is the hydraulic gradient, and is the Darcian
velocity, which is the average velocity of the entire cross sectional area. Combining
equations (3.10a) and (3.10b), we obtain
( )
Canceling the area terms, we find that
( )
Equation 2.40 is called Darcy’s Flux (Specific discharge). The specific discharge is
actually an apparent velocity, representing the velocity at which water would move
through an aquifer if the aquifer were an open conduit. However, the cross-sectional
area is not entirely available for flow due to the presence of the porous matrix.
B. Pore Water Velocity

The average linear velocity of water in a porous medium is derived by dividing specific
discharge by porosity to account for the actual open space available for flow. The
resulting velocity is known as the pore water velocity or the seepage velocity.
Because Darcy’s flux (equation 2.40) contains terms for hydraulic conductivity and
gradient only, it is not yet a complete expression of groundwater velocity. The missing
term is porosity, because, as we know, water moves only through the openings in a
rock/soil. Adding the porosity term, we obtain
In order to demonstrate the relative slow rate of groundwater movement, equation 3.11
is used to determine the rate of movement through an aquifer and confining bed.
2.5.4 Homogeneity and Isotropy of Aquifer Formations

If the Hydraulic conductivity is consistent throughout a formation, regardless of position,
the formation is homogeneous. If hydraulic conductivity within a formation is dependent
on location, the formation is heterogeneous. When hydraulic conductivity is independent
of the direction of measurement at a point within a formation, the formation is
isotropic at that point. If the hydraulic conductivity varies with the direction of

34
measurement at a point within a formation, the formation is anisotropic at that point.

Figure 2.9 is a graphical representation of homogeneity and isotropy.
Figure 2.8. Homogeneity and Isotropy
2.5.4.1 Flow through Stratified Soil / Flow through Anisotropic Soil

The discussion of hydraulic conductivity up to this point assumed that the geologic
material was homogeneous and isotropic, implying that the value of was the same
in all directions. However, this is rarely the case, particularly for undisturbed
unconsolidated alluvial materials. Instead, anisotropy is the rule where directional
properties of hydraulic conductivity exist. Hence flow through anisotropy can be
described through the definition of equivalent (effective) hydraulic conductivity.

35
i. Horizontal Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity

Figure 2.10 shows layers of soil with flow in the horizontal direction. Let us
consider a cross section of unit (1) length passing through the layer and
perpendicular to the direction of flow.
Figure 2.9. Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity Determination for Horizontal Flow through Stratified Soil
The total flow through the cross section in unit time can be written as:
If are the hydraulic conductivities of the individual layers in the

horizontal direction and is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal
direction, then from Darcy’s Law:
Substituting equation (2.42b) for velocities in equation (2.42a) and noting that hydraulic
gradient is the same in all layers, i.e., results in:

36
ii. Vertical Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity

Figure 2-11 shows layers of soil with flow in the vertical direction. In this case, the
velocity of flow through all layers is the same. However, the total head loss, , is
equal to the sum of the head losses in all layers. Thus,
Using Darcy’s law, velocity of flow equation (2.43a) can rewrite as the product of
vertical Hydraulic conductivity and hydraulic gradient:
( )
Where is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the vertical direction, and

are the hydraulic conductivities of the individual layers in the vertical
direction. Again from equation (3.13b) can be rewritten as:
Combining equation (2.43c) and (2.43d) gives:
( ) ( ) ( )
Figure 2.10. Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity Determination for Vertical Flow through Stratified Soil

37
2.6 Rooting Characteristics and Moisture Extraction Pattern

A plant’s root depth determines the depth to which soil water can be extracted. A
young plant has only shallow roots and soil water deeper than rooting depth is of no
use to the plant. Plants typically extract about 40 percent of their water needs from
the top quarter of their root zone, then 30 percent from the next quarter, 20 percent
from the third quarter, taking only 10 percent from the deepest quarter. Therefore,
plants will extract about 70 percent of their water from the top half of their total root
penetration, as shown in figure 2.12.
Figure 2.11. Average water extraction patterns of plants in a soil
The design water extraction depth is the soil depth used to determine irrigation water
requirements for system design purposes. It is the depth to which reasonably high
moisture content should be maintained for optimum production of agricultural crops. It
should not be the maximum depth of rooting, especially for long taproots systems, but
it is important that it corresponds to the depth at which most of the active plant roots
are able to meet transpiration demand. The design depth should be based on local
water extraction data for adopted crops. If two or more plant species with different
rooting characteristics are to be grown together, the design depth should be that of
the plant having shallower root system.

38

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Irrigation Engineering Lecture Notes (WREE4101)

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Common work activities of irrigation engineer may include:

1.2 Necessity of Irrigation

1.3 Purposes of Irrigation

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

1.4 Objectives of irrigation

1.5 Benefits of Irrigation

1.6 Impacts of Irrigation on Environment

1.6.1 Positive Impact

 Ensuring household food security and improving nutrition of population

Socio-economic aspect: irrigation is generally considered as an effective way of

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

1.6.2 Negative Impact

 Water quality degradation: a poor management of irrigation and drainage

1.7 Water Resources and Irrigation Development in Ethiopia

1.7.1 Water Resources of Ethiopia

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Figure 1.1. Twelve Ethiopian River Basins

The complex interaction between the climate, biophysical and socio-economic

Generally a river basin within the country is a hydro-geographical boundary of an area

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 1-1. Water Resources Potential of Ethiopia

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

1.7.2 Irrigation Potential

 Small scale-irrigation (SSI): irrigation scheme, which are often community-based

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 1-2. Irrigation Potential of Ethiopia

1.7.3 ON GOING IRRIGATION PROJECTS

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

1.8 Classification of Irrigation Schemes

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

CHAPTER TWO: SOIL-WATER-PLANT RELATIONSHIPS

In planning and designing an irrigation system, the technician is concerned primarily

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

2.2.1 Physical Properties of Soil

2.2.1.1 Qualitative Description of Soil Physical Properties

2.2.1.2 Measurement Techniques of Important Soil Physical Properties

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Figure 2.1. Systematic representation of soil phase system

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Note. For fully saturated soil sample, and Likewise, for a

A). Density and Unit weight

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

1. Unit weight of solids

2. Dry unit weight

3. Wet unit weight

B). Properties Related to Water and Air Content

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Table 2-1. Typical values of porosity for different types of soil

Soil texture Porosity (%)

Where, the mass of the water in the sample is the difference in

3. Degree of saturation ( ). It refers to the portion of pore spaces occupied by

JIMMA UNIVERSITY, JIT, WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

C). the relationships between different physical properties