OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS

CENG 3143
SCECT-AASTU
By Mesay Daniel (Ph.D.)
 Specific Energy and Critical Depth
• The total energy of water
in any streamline passing
through a channel section
may be expressed as the
sum of elevation above
datum, the pressure head,
and the velocity head.
• The total head 𝐻𝐴 , at a
point A on a streamline of
flow in a channel of large
slope may be written as:
2
𝑉𝐴
𝐻𝐴 = 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +
2𝑔

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 2

 Specific Energy and Critical Depth contd.
• In ideal parallel (uniform) flow and GVF the
velocity head can be equal for all points on
the cross-section.
• For channels of small slope, 𝜃 ≈ 0, y =
dcos𝜃 = 𝑑
𝛼𝑉 2
• Thus 𝐻 = 𝑍 + 𝑑 +
2𝑔

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 3

 Specific Energy and Critical Depth contd.
• According to the principle of conservation of
energy
𝛼1 𝑉12 𝛼2 𝑉22
𝑧1 + 𝑦1 + = 𝑧2 + 𝑦2 + + ℎ𝑓
2𝑔 2𝑔
For channels of small slope, 𝜃 ≈ 0, assuming 𝛼1 =
𝛼2 = 1, and ℎ𝑓 ≈ 0:
𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑧1 + 𝑦1 + = 𝑧2 + 𝑦2 + = constant
2𝑔 2𝑔
This is the well known Bernoulli equation.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 4

 Energy and Depth Relationship
• Specific Energy
– The concept was first introduced by Bakmeteff in
1912.
– It is defined as the energy per unit weight of water
measured with respect to the channel bottom as a
datum. (𝑧 = 0).
𝑽𝟐
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑬 = 𝒚 +
𝟐𝒈
(for small bottom slopes).

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 5

Energy and Depth Relationship contd.
𝑸𝟐
𝑬=𝒚 +
𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐
From the above eqn. it can be stated that for a
given channel section and discharge 𝑄, the
specific energy is a function of depth of flow
only.
When the depth of flow is plotted against the
specific energy for a given channel section and
discharge, a specific energy curve is obtained.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 6

 Specific Energy
𝑸𝟐
𝑬=𝒚 +
𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐
𝐷
𝑦𝑐
2

𝑦𝑐
𝐸𝑐

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 7

 Specific Energy contd.

• For a given specific energy, there are two possible depths ℎ1 and
ℎ2 these are called the alternate depths.
• Minimum specific energy corresponds to the critical state of flow.
• Thus, at the critical state the two alternate depths apparently
become one, which is known as critical depth.
• When the depth of flow is greater than the critical depth, the
velocity of flow is less than the critical velocity for the given
discharge and hence the flow is subcritical.
• When the depth of flow is less than the critical depth, the flow is
supercritical.
• For non prismatic channel, however, the channel section varies
along the length of the channel and hence, the specific energy
curve differs from section to section.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 8

 Conditions of Critical State of Flow
• For a given discharge condition the 𝑻 𝒅𝒚
minimum specific energy can be obtained
by differentiating the specific energy eqn.
with respect to 𝑦 and equating it to zero.
𝒅𝑨 𝒚
𝑸𝟐
𝑬=𝒚+
𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐
𝒅𝑬 𝒅 𝑸𝟐 𝒅𝑨 = 𝑻𝒅𝒚
= 𝒚+ =𝟎
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐
𝒅𝒚 𝒅 𝑸𝟐 𝒅𝑨
+ =𝟎 =𝑻
𝒅𝒚
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐
𝑸𝟐 𝒅 𝟏 𝒅𝑨 𝑨
𝟏+ =𝟎 =𝑫
𝟐𝒈 𝒅𝑨 𝑨𝟐 𝒅𝒚 𝑻
𝑸𝟐 𝟏 𝒅𝑨 𝑻 𝟏
𝟏− =𝟎 =
𝟑 𝑨 𝑫
𝒈 𝑨 𝒅𝒚

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 9

Conditions of Critical State of Flow contd.
𝑻
𝑸𝟐 𝑻 𝒅𝒚
𝟏− =𝟎
𝒈 𝑨𝟑
𝒅𝑨 𝒚
𝑸𝟐 𝟏
𝟏− =𝟎
𝒈 𝑫𝑨𝟐
𝑸𝟐 𝟏
𝟏=
𝒈 𝑫𝑨𝟐 𝒅𝑨 = 𝑻𝒅𝒚
𝑽𝟐 𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝟏
𝟏=
𝒈 𝑫 𝟏= = 𝑭𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝑨
=𝑻
𝒈 𝑫 𝒅𝒚
𝑫 𝑽𝟐
= 𝑨
𝟐 𝟐𝒈 =𝑫
𝑻
This is a criterion for critical flow, which states that
𝑻 𝟏
at critical state of flow , the velocity head is equal =
𝑨 𝑫
to half the hydraulic depth.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 10

Conditions of Critical State of Flow contd.
• For a given specific energy 𝐸 through a channel
section, the max. discharge will occur when:
𝑸𝟐
Substituting the value of 𝐸
𝑬=𝒚+ obtained in the discharge
𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐
𝑸𝟐 = 𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐 (𝑬 −
𝒚) equation
𝑸 = 𝟐𝒈 𝑨 (𝑬 − 𝒚) 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐 (𝑬 − 𝒚)
𝑨
𝒅𝑸 𝒅 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐 ( + 𝒚 − 𝒚)
= 𝟐𝒈 𝑨 𝑬−𝒚 =𝟎 𝟐𝑻
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝟐
𝑸 𝑫
𝒅𝑸 𝒅𝑨 𝑨 =
= 𝟐𝒈 𝑬−𝒚 − =𝟎 𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐 𝟐
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝟐 𝑬−𝒚 Which is the criterion for
𝑨 critical flow.
𝑬= +𝒚
𝟐𝑻
Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 11
Conditions of Critical State of Flow contd.
1 𝑣𝑐 2 𝐷
𝐸 =
3 2𝑔 2

𝑦𝑐
2
𝐸
3

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 12

Conditions of Critical State of Flow contd.
• At critical state of flow, velocity head is equal to
half hydraulic depth.
• A flow at or near the critical state is unstable.
– This is because a minor change in specific energy at
or close to critical state will cause a major change in
depth.
– As the curve is almost vertical near the critical depth,
a slight change in energy would change depth to a
much smaller or much greater alternate depth
corresponding to specific energy after the change.
Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 13
 Critical Depth Computation
• Rectangular Section
For a rectangular section, 𝐴 = 𝑏𝑦 and 𝑇 = 𝑏 which implies 𝐷 = 𝑦.
𝑽𝟐 𝑫 𝒚𝒄
Hence = =
𝟐𝒈 𝟐 𝟐
𝑦𝑐 3
Specific Energy at Critical Depth 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 + = 𝑦𝑐
2 2
Also, if 𝑞 = 𝑄/𝑏
𝑞2
= 𝒚𝒄 3
𝑔
𝒒𝟐 𝟏/𝟑
𝒚𝒄 = ( )
𝒈
The Froude No. for rectangular section
𝑽
𝑭𝒓 =
𝒈𝒚

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 14

 Critical Depth Computation contd.
2𝑚𝑦
• Triangular section
𝑚𝑦 2
𝐴= 𝑚𝑦 2 and 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑦 , 𝐷 = =
𝑦 2𝑚𝑦 𝑦
1 1
2
𝑚 𝑚
𝑽𝟐 𝑫 𝒚𝒄
Hence, at critical flow 𝟐𝒈
=
𝟐
=
𝟒
and 𝐸 = 1.25𝒚𝒄 𝑦
𝒚𝒄 𝑸𝟐 Since 𝐷 = the Froude No.
2
= of a triangular channel is
𝟒 𝟐𝒈(𝒎𝒚𝒄 𝟐 )𝟐
𝟏/𝟓 defined by
𝟐𝑸𝟐 𝟐𝑽
𝒚𝒄 = 𝑭𝒓 =
𝒈𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝒚

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 15

 The Section Factor for Critical Flow
• Section factor, 𝒁 = 𝑨 𝑫
𝑸𝟐 𝑫
𝟐
=
𝟐𝒈𝑨 𝟐
𝑸𝟐
= 𝑫𝑨𝟐
𝒈
𝑸
=𝑨 𝑫
𝒈
𝑸
𝒁=
𝒈
The above equation is a very useful tool for the computation and
analysis of critical flow.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 16

The Section Factor for Critical Flow contd.
• In order to simplify the computation of critical
flow , dimensionless curves showing the
relation between the depth and the section
factor 𝑍 have been prepared for rectangular,
trapezoidal, and circular channels.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 17

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 18
 Example 1
• A rectangular channel 2.5m wide has a
specific energy of 1.5m when carrying a
discharge of 6.48 m3/s.
• Calculate the alternate depths and the
corresponding Froude numbers.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 19

 Example 1 contd.

Soln.
For specific energy equation
𝑸𝟐
𝑬= 𝒚+
𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐
𝟔. 𝟒𝟖𝟐
𝟏. 𝟓 = 𝒚 +
𝟐 ∗ 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 ∗ 𝟐. 𝟓𝟐 𝒚𝟐

𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟐𝟒
𝟏. 𝟓 = 𝒚 +
𝒚𝟐
Trial and Error procedure can be applied starting from the
critical depth. 𝑦𝑐 = 0.881𝑚
The alternate depth are 𝑦1 = 1.296𝑚 and 𝑦2 = 0.625𝑚
Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 20
 Example 2
• Compute the critical depth in a trapezoidal
channel for a flow of 30m3/s. The channel
bottom width is 10m, side slopes are 2H:1V,
the bottom slope is negligible and 𝛼 = 1.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 21

 Example 2 contd.

Soln.
Using design curve
𝑸 𝟑𝟎
𝒁= = = 𝟗. 𝟓𝟖
𝒈 𝟗.𝟖𝟏
𝑍 9.58
= 2.5 = 0.03 on the abscissa and for 𝑚 = 2
𝑏 2.5 10
𝑦𝑐
We read the ordinate = 0.09
𝑏
Therefore,
𝑦𝑐 = 0.09 ∗ 10 = 0.9𝑚

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 22

 Example 2 contd.

Soln.
Using trial and error procedure
𝑸 𝟑𝟎
𝒁= = = 𝟗. 𝟓𝟖
𝒈 𝟗.𝟖𝟏

𝒁 = 𝑨 𝑫 = 𝟗. 𝟓𝟖
By substituting the specified values into the expressions for the
channel properties of a trapezoidal section, we obtain
10 + 2𝑦𝑐 𝑦𝑐
10 + 2𝑦𝑐 𝑦𝑐 = 9.58
10 + 4𝑦𝑐
You can start the trial and error procedure by applying 𝑦𝑐 for
rectangular channel.
Final result 𝑦𝑐 = 0.91m

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 23

 Example 3
• Calculate the bottom width of a channel
required to carry a discharge of 15m3/s as a
critical flow at a depth of 1.2m, if the channel
section is a) rectangular and b) trapezoidal
with m=1.5

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 24

 Example 3 contd.
• Soln.
a) Rectangular section
𝒒𝟐 𝟏/𝟑
𝒚𝒄 = ( )
𝒈

𝑞 = 𝑔𝒚𝒄 3 = 9.81 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟐3 = 4.117

𝑄 = 𝑏𝑞 ⟹ 𝒃 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟒𝟑𝒎

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 25

 Example 3 contd.
• Soln.
a) Trapezoidal section
The sol. in this case is by trial and error procedure
𝑸𝟐 𝑫
=
𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐 𝟐
𝑸 𝟐 𝑨𝟑
=
𝒈 𝑻
𝟏𝟓𝟐 (𝒃 + (𝟏. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟐))𝟑 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑
=
𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 (𝒃 + (𝟐 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟐))
By trial and error 𝒃 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟑𝟓𝒎

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 26

 Channel Transition
• A channel transition may be defined as a change
in the channel cross section, e. g., change in the
channel width and/or channel bottom slope.
• Such a geometrical change may be over a
distance or may be sudden.
• A channel transition is usually designed so that
the losses in the transition are small.
• The concept of specific energy and critical depth
are extremely useful in the analysis of problems.
Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 27
 Channel Transition contd.
2 1
Subcritical flow

𝐸2

𝐸1
𝑦1
𝑦𝑐 𝑦2

𝐸2 ∆𝑍
∆𝑍 𝐸1

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 28

 Channel Transition contd.
• The specific energy at section 1 and section 2 are given by
2
𝑉1
𝐸1 = 𝑦1 +
2𝑔
𝐸2 = 𝐸1 − ∆𝑍
2
𝑉2
𝐸2 = 𝑦2 +
2𝑔
From the figure as the value of ∆𝑍 increases the depth at
section 2, i.e 𝑦2 decreases.
The minimum depth is reached where 𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑐
At this point the hump height will be maximum, ∆𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 and
𝐸2 = 𝐸𝑐

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 29

 Channel Transition contd.
• The condition at ∆𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 is given by
2
𝑉2
𝐸2 = 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑦𝑐 +
2𝑔
• When the flow ∆𝑍 > ∆𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 , then the flow is
not possible with the given specific energy.
• In which case the upstream depth has to
increase to cause an increase in the specific
energy at section 1.
Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 30
 Channel Transition contd.
• When 0 < ∆𝑍 < ∆𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥
the upstream water lever
remains stationary at 𝑦1
while the depth of flow
decreases at downstream
until 𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑐 , at ∆𝑍 =
∆𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥
• With further increase in
∆𝑍, i.e. for ∆𝑍 > ∆𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 ,
𝑦1 will increase to 𝑦 ′ 1 , ∆𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∆𝑍
while 𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑐 remains
the same. Subcritical flow

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 31

 Channel Transition contd.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 32

 Channel Transition contd.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 33

 Channel Transition contd.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 34

 Channel Transition contd.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 35

 Channel Transition contd.
• When 0 < ∆𝑍 < ∆𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥
the upstream water lever
remains stationary at 𝑦1
while the depth of flow
increases at downstream
until 𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑐 , at ∆𝑍 =
∆𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥
• With further increase in
∆𝑍, i.e. for ∆𝑍 > ∆𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 ,
𝑦1 will decrease to 𝑦 ′ 1 , ∆𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∆𝑍
while 𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑐 remains
the same. Supercritical Flow

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 36

 Examples
• A rectangular channel section has a width of 2m and carries
a discharge of 4.8 m3/s with a depth of 1.6m. At a certain
section a small, smooth hump with a flat top and a height
of 10cm is proposed to be built. Calculate the likely change
in the water surface. Neglect the energy loss.
• In the previous example, if the height of the hump is 0.5,
estimate the water surface elevation on the hump and at
the section upstream of the hump.
• A rectangular channel 2.5m wide carries 6.0 m3/s of flow at
a depth of 0.5m. Calculate the height of a flat topped hump
required to be placed at a section to cause critical flow. The
energy loss due to the obstruction by the hump can be
taken as 0.1 times the upstream velocity head.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 37

 Uniform Flow
• In free-surface flow the component of the weight of water in the
downstream direction causes acceleration of flow whereas the
shear stress at the channel bottom and sides offers resistance to
flow.

𝑦 𝐴

𝑦 𝑃

𝑾
 θ

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 38

 Uniform Flow contd.

• Depending upon the relative magnitude of

these accelerating and decelerating forces, the
flow may accelerate or decelerate.
• For example, if the resistive force is more than
the component of the weight, then the flow
velocity decreases and to satisfy the continuity
equation the flow depth increases.
• The converse is true if the component of the
weight is more than the resistive force.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 39

 Uniform Flow contd.

• However, if the channel is long and prismatic

then the flow accelerates or decelerates for a
distance until the accelerating and resistive forces
are equal.
• From that point on, the flow velocity and flow
depth remain constant.
• Such a flow, in which the flow depth does not
change with distance, is called uniform flow and
the corresponding flow depth is called the
normal depth.
Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 40
 Uniform Flow contd.

• Qualifications of Uniform flow

– The depth and velocity at any section of the channel reach are
constant.
– The energy line, water surface and channel bottom are all
parallel; that is , their slopes are all equal, or 𝑆𝑓 = 𝑆𝑤 = 𝑆𝑜 = 𝑆
• Uniform flow is considered to be steady only, since
unsteady uniform flow is practically nonexistent.
• Uniform steady flow rarely occurs in natural streams.
• Therefore, the results obtained from this assumption are
understood to be approximate and general, but they offer
relatively simple and satisfactory solution to many practical
problems.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 41

 Uniform Flow contd.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 42

 Uniform Flow contd.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 43

 Expressing the Velocity of a Uniform
Flow
• Most Practical uniform flow formula can be
expressed in the following general form:
𝑉 = 𝐶𝑅 𝑥 𝑆 𝑦
• Where 𝑉 is the mean flow velocity , 𝑅 is the
hydraulic radius an, 𝑆 is the energy slope , 𝑥
and 𝑦 are exponents, and 𝐶 is a factor of flow
resistance, Varying with 𝑉, 𝑅, channel
roughness and other factors.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 44

 The Chezy Formula
• As early as 1769 the French engineer Antoine
Chezy developed the first uniform flow
formula, which is usually expressed as:
𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑆
• Where C= Chezy coefficient which is the
factor of flow resistance.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 45

 The Chezy Formula contd.

• The Chezy formula can be derived

mathematically using two assumptions:
– The force resisting the flow per unit area
of the steam wetted surface, 𝜏𝑜 is
proportional to the square of the
velocity
𝜏𝑜 ∝ 𝑉 2
𝜏𝑜 = 𝐾𝑉 2
where K is a constant of proportionality.

– The second assumption is that in

uniform flow , the effective component
of the gravity force causing the flow
must be equal to the total force of
resistance. By substitution
𝜏𝑜 𝑃𝐿 = 𝛾𝐴𝐿
K𝑉 2 𝑃𝐿 = 𝛾𝐴𝐿
Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 46
 The Chezy Formula contd.

• By substitution
K𝑉 2 𝑃𝐿 = 𝛾𝐴𝐿𝑆
• Rearranging
𝛾𝑅𝑆
𝑉=
𝐾
Grouping the constants
together 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 = 𝑆
𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑆

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 47

 Determination of Chezy Resistance
Factor
• Three important formulas for the
determination of Chezy C are:
Ganguillet and Kutter
Based on analysis of the behavior of rivers and open
channels which is stated in SI units is
Where 𝑆 is the bed
slope and 𝑛 is a
roughness coefficient

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 48

 Determination of Chezy Resistance
Factor contd.
• Three important formulas for the
determination of Chezy 𝐶 are:
The Basin formula ( published in 1897)
According to this formula Chez’es 𝐶 is considered as
function of 𝑅 not of 𝑆
86.9
𝐶= 𝑚
1+ 𝑅
In which 𝑚 is a coefficient dependent on the surface
roughness.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 49

 Determination of Chezy Resistance Factor
contd.

• Typical Values of 𝑚 in the Basin’s formula (SI

units)
𝑚

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 50

 Determination of Chezy Resistance
Factor contd.
• Three important formulas for the determination
of Chezy 𝐶 are:
The Manning formula
– The simples formula, and very widely used
– Published in 1890 by Robert Manning
– Obtained by putting Manning’s value of C in the Chezy
formula:
1
𝑅 6
𝐶=
𝑛
Where 𝑛 is called the manning’s roughness coefficient
and the same value as Kutters 𝑛

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 51

 The Manning formula
1
𝑅 6
𝐶=
𝑛
Substituting the value in the Chezy equation:
𝑅2/3 𝑆1/2
𝑉=
𝑛
Or in terms of discharge:
𝐴𝑅2/3 𝑆1/2
𝑄=
𝑛

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 52

 The Manning formula contd.
• In applying the Manning formula, the greatest difficulty
lies in the determination of the roughness coefficient
𝑛; for there is no exact method of selecting the value
of 𝑛.
• There are certain factors which affect Manning’s
roughness coefficient:
– Surface roughness
– Vegetation
– Channel irregularities
– Channel alignment
– Obstruction
– Stage and discharge

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 53

 The Manning formula contd.
• Few aids are available that help in selecting an
appropriate values of n for a given channel. They are:
• A comprehensive list of various types of channels and
their description with the range of values of 𝑛.
𝑑50 1/6
• Strickler formula: 𝑛 =
21.10
– where 𝑑50 is the particle size in which 50 percent of the
bed material is finer.
𝑑90 1/6
• Meyer’s formula: 𝑛 =
50
– where 𝑑90 is the particle size in which 90 percent of the
bed material is finer.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 54

 Computation of Uniform flow
• The conveyance of a channel section
𝐴𝑅2/3 𝑆1/2
𝑄= = 𝐾𝑆1/2
𝑛
𝐴𝑅 2/3 𝑄
• Where 𝐾 = = is known as the channel
𝑛 𝑆
conveyance
• When the Chezy formula is used: 𝐾 = 𝐶𝐴𝑅1/2
The conveyance of a channel section is a measure
of the carrying capacity of the channel section,
since it is directly proportional to 𝑄.
Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 55
 The section factor for Uniform Flow

• The expression 𝐴𝑅2/3 is called section factor,

𝑍𝑛 for uniform flow computation.
Section factor in terms of conveyance:
𝑍𝑛 = 𝐴𝑅2/3 = 𝑛𝐾
Section factor in terms of discharge, 𝑄:
2/3
𝑄
𝑍𝑛 = 𝐴𝑅 =𝑛
𝑆

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 56

 Computation of Uniform flow contd.
• Uniform flow computation problems can be
divided into following categories

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 57

 Computation of Uniform flow contd.
• In order to simplify the computation,
dimensionless curves showing the relation
between depth and section factor is prepared
for rectangular, trapezoidal , and circular
channel sections.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 58

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 59
 Flow in channel with equivalent
roughness
• In some channels different parts of the
channel perimeter may have different
roughness.
• Canals in which only the sides are lined,
laboratory flumes with glass side walls and
rough bed, natural rivers with sandy bed and
sides with vegetation are some typical
examples of such case.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 60

 Flow in channel with equivalent
roughness contd.
• For such channels it is necessary to determine
an equivalent roughness coefficient that can
be applied to the entire cross- sectional
perimeter for use in Manning formula.
• This equivalent roughness, also called
composite roughness, represents a weighted
average value for roughness coefficient.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 61

 Flow in channel with equivalent roughness
contd.

• For the determination of the equivalent

roughness, the water area is divided
imaginatively into 𝑁parts of which the wetted
perimeters 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , … , 𝑃𝑁 and the coefficient of
roughness 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , 𝑛3 , … , 𝑛𝑁 are known.
• Horton and Einstein assumed that each part of
the area has the same mean velocity, which at
the same time is equal to the mean velocity of
the whole section; that is
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = ⋯ = 𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 62

 Flow in channel with equivalent roughness contd.

• On the basis of the above assumption, the

equivalent coefficient of roughness may be
obtained by the following equation:
𝑃𝑅5/3
𝑛=
𝑃 (𝑅 ) 5/3
𝑁 𝑖 𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑛𝑖

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 63

 Channels of Compound section
• The cross section of a channel may be
composed of several distinct subsections with
each subsection different in roughness.
• For example, an alluvial channel subject to
seasonal floods generally consists of a main
channel and two side channels.
• Such type of a channel section is called
compound section

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 64

 Channels of Compound section contd.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 65

 Channels of Compound section contd.

• The total discharge is equal to the sum of

discharges in the sub sections.
• The mean velocity for the whole section is
equal to the total discharge divided by the
total water area.
• Owing to the differences among the velocities
of the subsections, the energy and the
momentum coefficients of the whole section
differs that of the subsections.

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 66

 Channels of Compound section contd.

• From continuity and conveyance equations:

Q=𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + ⋯ + 𝑄𝑁
1
𝑄 = 𝐾1 𝑆 1/2 + 𝐾2 𝑆 1/2 + ⋯ + 𝐾𝑁 𝑆 2

𝑄= 𝐾𝑁 𝑆 1/2

𝐾𝑁 𝑆 1/2
𝑉=
𝐴
𝐾1 𝑆 1/2 𝐾2 𝑆 1/2 𝐾𝑁 𝑆 1/2
𝑉1 = , 𝑉2 = ,…, 𝑉𝑁 =
∆𝐴1 ∆𝐴2 ∆𝐴𝑁

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 67

 Channels of Compound section contd.

[𝐾𝑁 ]𝑆 1/2
𝑉=
𝐴
𝐾1 𝑆 1/2 𝐾2 𝑆 1/2 𝐾𝑁 𝑆 1/2
𝑉1 = , 𝑉2 = ,…, 𝑉𝑁 =
∆𝐴1 ∆𝐴2 ∆𝐴𝑁
𝑣 3 𝑑𝐴
𝛼=
𝑉 3𝐴
The energy coefficient of the entire section:
3 2
𝑁 𝛼𝑁 𝐾 𝑁 𝑁 𝛽𝑁 𝐾𝑁
𝑖=1 ∆𝐴 2 𝑖=1 ∆𝐴 2
𝑁 𝑁
𝛼= [ 𝑁 3 and 𝛽 = [ 𝑁 2
𝑖=1 𝐾𝑁 ] 𝑖=1 𝐾𝑁 ]
𝐴2 𝐴

Dr. Mesay Daniel AASTU 68