Chapter-2
Energy–Depth Relationships
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SPECIFIC ENERGY
• The total energy of a channel flow referred to a datum is
given by the following equation:
• If the datum coincides with the channel bed at the section,
the resulting expression is know as specific energy and is
denoted by E. Thus:
• When cos θ = 1.0 and α = 1.0
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SPECIFIC ENERGY
• The concept of specific energy, introduced by Bakhmeteff, is very useful in
defining critical depth and in the analysis of flow problems.
• It may be noted that:
While the total energy in a real fluid flow always decreases in the downstream
direction.
The specific energy is constant for a uniform flow and can either decrease or
increase in a varied flow.
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CRITICAL DEPTH
Steady (Constant Discharge Situation)
1. For a channel of know geometry,
E f ( y, Q) keeping Q constant
the variation of E with y is
represented by a cubic parabola
Fig. 2.1.
2. There are two positive roots for
the equation of E indicating that
any particular discharge Q can be
passed in a given channel at two
depths and still maintain the same
specific energy E.
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CRITICAL DEPTH
Steady (Constant Discharge Situation)
1. In Fig. 2.1 the ordinate PP' represents
the condition for a specific energy of
E1. The depths of flow can be either
PR = y1 or PR' = y'1.
2. These two possible depths having the
same specific energy are know as
alternate depths.
3. In Fig. 2.1, a line (OS ) drawn such
that E = y (i.e. at 45º to the abscissa).
4. It may be noticed that the intercept
P'R' or P'R represents the velocity
head.
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CRITICAL DEPTH
Steady (Constant Discharge Situation)
1. Of the two alternate depths, one (PR 4. No value for y can be obtained when E1 < Ec,
= y1) is smaller and has a large denoting that the flow under the given
velocity head while the other (PR' = conditions is not possible in this region.
y'1) has a larger depth and
consequently a smaller velocity head.
2. For a given Q1 as the specific energy
is increased the difference between
the two alternate depths increases.
3. On the other hand, if E is decreased,
the difference (y'1 − y1) will decrease
and at a certain value E1 = Ec , the
two depths will merge with each
other (point C in Fig. 2.1).
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CRITICAL DEPTH
Steady (Constant Discharge Situation)
1. The condition of minimum specific energy is
known as the critical-flow condition and
the corresponding depth yc is known as the
critical depth.
4. Equation 2.4 is the basic equation governing the
2. At critical depth, the specific energy is
critical-flow conditions in a channel. It may be
minimum.
noted that the critical-flow condition is governed
3. Thus differentiating Eq. 2.2a with respect to
solely by the channel geometry and discharge.
y (keeping Q constant) and equating to zero:
5. Other channel properties such as the bed slope and
roughness do not influence the critical-flow
condition for any given Q.
6. If the Froude number of the flow is define as:
4. But dA/dy =T =top width, i.e. width of the
channel at the water surface.
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CRITICAL, SUPERCRITICAL, and SUBCRITICAL FLOW and DEPTHs
Steady (Constant Discharge Situation) Discharge as a Variable
1. If the Froude number of the flow is define as: In the above section the critical-flow condition was
derived by keeping the discharge constant. The
specific-energy diagram can be plotted as follow:
2. If Froude number is equal to one (F = 1) the flow
is called critical flow, and the depth of flow is
called critical depth. In this condition the flow has
it minimum specific energy.
3. If Froude number is greater than one (F > 1) the
flow is called supercritical flow, and the depth of
flow is called supercritical depth.
4. If Froude number is less than one (F < 1) the flow
is called subcritical flow, and the depth of flow is
called subcritical depth.
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Variable Discharges
Maximum Discharge
The condition for maximum discharge can be obtained by
differentiating Eq. 2.7 with respect to y and equating it to zero
while keeping E constant.
This is same as Eq. 2.4 and hence represents the critical-flow
conditions. Hence, the critical-flow condition also
corresponds to the condition for maximum discharge in a
channel for a fixed specific energy.
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CALCULATION OF THE CRITICAL DEPTH
Using Eq. 2.4, expressions for the critical depth in channels of various geometric shapes can be
obtained as follows:
1.
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CALCULATION OF THE CRITICAL DEPTH
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CALCULATION OF THE CRITICAL DEPTH
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TRANSITIONS Channel with a Hump (Change in Depth)
The concepts of specific energy and critical At Section 2 (Fig. 2.9), a smooth hump of height
depth are extremely useful in the analysis of ΔZ is built on the floor, since there are no energy
problems connected with transitions. losses between Sections 1 and 2, and
To illustrate the various aspects, a few simple construction of a hump causes the specific
transitions in rectangular channels are energy at Section 2 to decrease by Δ Z.
presented here. Thus the specific energies at Sections 1 and 2 are
The principles are nevertheless equally given as E1 and E2 as follow;
applicable to channels of any shape and other
types of transitions.
1. Channel with a Hump
(a) Subcritical Flow
• Consider a horizontal, frictionless rectangular
channel of width B carrying Q at a depth y1.
• Let the flow be subcritical.
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TRANSITIONS Channel with a Hump (Change in Depth)
• At Section 2 (Fig. 2.9), a smooth hump of height ΔZ is
built on the floor, since there are no energy losses
between Sections 1 and 2, and construction of a hump
causes the specific energy at Section 2 to decrease by Δ
Z.
• Thus the specific energies at Sections 1 and 2 are given
as E1 and E2 as follow;
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TRANSITIONS Channel with a Hump (Change in Depth)
• It is easy to see from Fig. 2.10 that as the value of Δ Z is
increased, the depth at Section 2, i.e. y2, will decrease.
• The minimum depth is reached when the point R At Section 2 the flow will continue at the minimum specific
coincides with C, the critical depth point. energy level, i.e., at the critical condition. At this condition, y2
• At this point the hump height will be maximum, say Δ yc and
Z m, y2 yc critical depth and E2 Ec.
• Then condition at ΔZm is given by the relation
• The question naturally arises as to what happens when
ΔZ > ΔZm From Fig. 2.10 it is seen that the flow is not
possible with the given conditions, viz. with the given
specific energy. The upstream depth has to increase to
cause an increase in the specific energy at Section 1. If
this modified depth is represented by y′1 , then
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TRANSITIONS Channel with a Hump (Change in Depth)
• Recollecting the various sequences, when 0 < Δ Z <
Δ Zm the upstream water level remains stationary at
y1 while the depth of flow at Section 2 decreases with
Δ Z reaching a minimum value of yc at Δ Z Δ Zm
(Fig. 2.11).
• With further increase in the value of Δ Z, i.e. for Δ Z
>Δ Zm y1 will change to y'1 while y2 will continue to
remain at yc. The variation of y1 and y2 with Δ Z in the
subcritical regime can be clearly noticed in Fig.
2.11.
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TRANSITIONS Channel with a Hump (Change in Depth)
Let Δ Zm be the height of the hump that would cause
critical flow to occur over the hump (i.e., at Section 2)
Consider a smooth, frictionless, streamlined hump of
without changing the upstream specific energy.
height Δ Z placed at a section in a rectangular
Any value of Δ Z > Δ Zm would cause critical flow
channel carrying subcritical flow.
over the hump but the up steam specific energy would
The relationship between the specific energies at a
change to a value greater than E1.
section upstream of the hump (E1) and at section on
Thus Δ Zm could also be called as the minimum height
the hump (E2) is given as
of a streamlined, frictionless hump that has to be
provided to cause critical flow over the hump.
An expression for the value of Δ Zm is obtained as
below:
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TRANSITIONS Channel with a Hump (Change in Depth)
Let hL= energy loss in the transition due to the hump. The
An expression for the value of ΔZm is obtained as
energy Eq. 2.34 will now be written as:
below:
Since at ΔZ = ΔZm, E2 = Ec = 3/2 yc in rectangular
channel and Eq. 2.11 would now read as:
Following the same procedure as in the frictionless case
and noting that E2 = Ec, Eq. 2.35 will be modified as;
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TRANSITIONS Channel with a Hump (Change in Depth)
(b) Supercritical Flow for a Channel with Hump
If y is
1 in the supercritical flow regime, Fig. 2.12
shows that the depth of flow increases due to the
reduction of specific energy.
In Fig. 2.10 point P' corresponds to y1 and point R'
to depth at the Section 2. Up to the critical depth,
y2 increases to reach yc at Δ Z=Δ Zm.
For Δ Z > ΔZm, the depth over the hump y2=yc will
remain constant and the upstream depth y1 will
decrease.
The variation of the depths y1 and y2 with Δ Z in the
supercritical flow is shown in Fig. 2.12.
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TRANSITION with a Change in Width
Consider a frictionless horizontal channel of
width B1 carrying a discharge Q at a depth y1 as
in Fig. 2.14.
At the Section 2 the channel width has been
constricted to B2 by a smooth transition.
Since there are no losses involved and since the
bed elevations at Sections 1 and 2 are same, the
specific energy at Section 1 is equal to the
specific energy at the Section 2.
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TRANSITION with a Change in Width
At this minimum width, y2 = critical depth at Section 2, ycm
It is convenient to analyze the flow in terms of the discharge and Fig. 2.15 Specific energy diagram for transition of Fig.
intensity q = Q/B. At Section 1, q1 = Q/B1 and at Section 2, 2.14
q2 = Q/ B2. Since B2 < B1, q2 > q1.
In the specific energy diagram (Fig. 2.15) drawn with the
discharge intensity as the third parameter, point P on the
curve q1 corresponds to depth y1 and specific energy E1.
Since at Section 2, E2 = E1 and q = q2 , the point P will move
vertically downward to point R on the curve q2 to reach the
depth y2. Thus, in subcritical flow the depth y2 < y1. If B2 is
made smaller, then q2 will increase and y2 will decrease. The
limit of the contracted width B2 = B2 m is obviously reached
when corresponding to E1, the discharge intensity q2 = qm,
i.e., the maximum discharge intensity for a given specific
energy (critical-flow condition) will prevail.
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TRANSITION with a Change in Width
with help of eq.2.11
If B2 < B2m, the discharge intensity q2 will be larger
than qm the maximum discharge intensity consistent
with E1.
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TRANSITION with a Change in Width
• Since B2 < B2m , yc2 will be larger than ycm. Further,
E'1 Ec2 1.5 yc2.
• Thus even though critical flow prevails for all B2 <
B2m, the depth at Section 2 is not constant as in the
hump case but increases as y'1 and hence E'1 rises.
• The variation of y1, y2 and E with B2 / B1 is shown
schematically in Fig. 2.16.
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TRANSITION with a Change in Width
• If the upstream depth y1 is in the supercritical flow
regime, a reduction of the flow width and hence an
increase in the discharge intensity causes a rise in
depth y2.
• In Fig. 2.15, point P' corresponds to y1 and point R'
to y2. As the width B2 is decreased, R' moves up till
it becomes critical at B2 B2m.
• Any further reduction in B2 causes the upstream
depth to decrease to y'1 so that E1 rises to E'1.
• At Section 2, critical depth y'c corresponding to the
new specific energy E'1 will prevail.
• The variation of y1, y2 and E with B2 / B1 in
supercritical flow regime is indicated in Fig. 2.17.
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TRANSITION with a Change in Width
• If the upstream depth y1 is in the supercritical flow
regime, a reduction of the flow width and hence an
increase in the discharge intensity causes a rise in
depth y2.
• In Fig. 2.15, point P' corresponds to y1 and point R'
to y2. As the width B2 is decreased, R' moves up till
it becomes critical at B2 B2m.
• Any further reduction in B2 causes the upstream
depth to decrease to y'1 so that E1 rises to E'1.
• At Section 2, critical depth y'c corresponding to the
new specific energy E'1 will prevail.
• The variation of y1, y2 and E with B2 / B1 in
supercritical flow regime is indicated in Fig. 2.17.
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TRANSITION with a Change in Width
Choking • This onset of critical condition at Section 2 is a
• In the case of channel with a hump, and also in the prerequisite to choking. Thus all cases with Δ Z Δ Zm or
case of a width constriction, it is observed that the B2 B2 m are known as choked conditions.
upstream water surface elevation is not affected by
the conditions at Section 2 till a critical stage is first
achieved.
• Thus in the case of a hump for all Δ Zm > Δ Z, the
upstream water depth is constant and for all Δ Z >Δ
Zm the upstream depth is different from y1.
• Similarly, in the case of the width constriction, for
B2 ≥ B2m, the upstream depth y1 is constant; while
for all B2 < B2m, the upstream depth undergoes a
change.
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General Transition
A transition in its general form may have a change of
channel shape, provision of a hump or a depression´ and
contraction or expansion of channel width, in any
combination.
In addition, there may be various degrees of loss of energy
at various components.
However, the basic dependence of the depths of flow on
the channel geometry and specific energy of flow will
remain the same.
Many complicated transition situations can be analyzed by
using the principles of specific energy and critical depth.
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