Bachelor of Science in Biosystems Engineering
Year of study: 3rd Year; 1st Semester
Course Title: APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS
Course Code: FEB 331
LECTURE FIVE
NON-UNIFORM FLOW ANALYSIS
Critical Depth meters
Lecture Outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Learning Outcomes
5.3 Flow over short, smooth hump of height Dz
above channel bed
5.4 Critical Flow
5.5 Broad crested weir
5.6 Venturi Flume
5.7 Summary
5.8 Self-Assessment Questions /Activity
5.9 References and Further Reading
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5.1 Introduction
Welcome to Lecture Five in the continuing
discussion on Energy Considerations still within the
topic of Non-Uniform Flow Analysis. In the last
lecture we developed the specific energy diagram
and used it to class flow with depths higher than or
lower that critical depth and the condition for flow
depth changing from sub-critical to supercritical or
vice versa, in the same channel. In this lecture, we
are going to introduce, in a section within the
channel, facilities which produce critical flow
conditions and discuss the energy changes. Finally
we will discuss how these facilities are used to
measure flow in the channels.
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5.2 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
a) Develop the equation for determining flow
rate when broad-crested weir or a venturi
flume is installed in rectangular channel.
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5.3 Flow over short, smooth hump of height Dz
above channel bed
The effect of a local rise (hump) in the bed level
on the flow has been discussed (Example 1,
Lecture Four). It was shown that the depth
would fall as the flow went over the rise to
either Ysup- or Ysub-.
Figure 5.1
v12 v22
Applying Bernoulli: y1 + 2g
+ z1 = y2 + 2g
+ z2 or
E1 – E2 = z2 - z1 = Dz or E2 = E1 – Dz = E2 and can be read off from
the SE Diagram shown in Figure 5.2 below. 5
8
Specific Energy Diagram
6
Dz c
Dz.
depth, y, m
5
Y1 4
1
.
3
Y2(a) 2
.
2
yc
1
Y2(b)
0
E
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
E, m
Emin
E2 E1
Figure 5.2
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Procedure
1. At flow depth = y1 read off E1
2. Subtract Dz from E1 to get E2
3. E2 gives two depths: y2(a) which is ysub and y2(b) which
is ysup
By further studying the specific energy diagram in Fig. 5.2
above, the following observations are made:
a) If the rise (Dz) was increased to Dzc, the ramp size
corresponding to critical depth, yc for the particular
flow, the Specific energy, E2 would equal Emin
b) If the rise was increased further, the depth at the rise
would not decrease but would remain at critical
depth.
c) Also find out what happens to y1 for this scenario.
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5.4 Critical flow
The following conclusions can made regarding energy
changes at the critical flow condition section:
a) Critical depth can occur at the rise if its thickness
was made equal to Dzc
b) Critical depth can be calculated quite easily for1
a
q2 3
given discharge as shown previously: yc = g
.
c) The change in cross-sectional area can not only be
caused by increasing Dz but also by reducing the
channel width. Both have the effect of reducing depth
of flow y2 at that section. Another example is change
in channel slope from mild to steep.
c) The flow rate, Q, can quite easily be measured if the
critical depth is known or deliberately created as in
critical depth meters used as hydraulic structures to
measure flows in channels.
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Examples of critical depth flow meters used for
flow measurements include the following:
a) Broad crested weir (and other weirs)
b) Venturi Flume (also used as channel control
facility due to rapid change in cross-section)
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5.5 Broad crested weir
A broad-crested weir is an obstruction in an open
channel with sufficient height as to cause critical
conditions when flow occurs over it as shown in Fig. 5.3
When placed intentionally in an open channel it can be
used to measure the flow rate.
Figure 5.3
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Derivation of the general equation
Apply Bernoulli at points 1 and 2
v12 v22
y1 + + z1 = y2 + + z2 + HL
2g 2g
Assumptions:
h h
HL = 0 as long as 0.08 ≤ L ≤ 0.5; if L is < 0.08 the HL is considerable
w w
At critical conditions:
y2 = yc ; v2 = vc
Also y1 = h + Dz where h is the upstream height of water surface above
the weir crest
v12 vc2
h + Dz + 2g = yc + 2g + z2 - z1
v12 vc2
h + Dz + 2g = yc + 2g + Dz
vc2 v12
or h – yc = 2g - 2g
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v12 is the velocity of approach, usually small and that
v1
is even smaller and can be neglected.
2g
vc2
Therefore h – yc = ……………………. (i)
2g
vc
Also the Froude number, Fr = = 1 at critical flow
2 gyc
vc vc2 yc
conditions or vc2 = gyc or = yc or =
g 2g 2
Substitute in (i):
yc
h – yc = ,
2
3 2
or h = yc , or yc = h
2 3
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By continuity
Q = A * v = yc*b * vc=
= byc*(gyc)1/2
= b *(g)1/2 *(yc)3/2
Substitute for yc
1/2 2 3/2
Q = b *(g) *( ) *(h)3/2
3
This is the theoretical Q
Actual Q = 1.705 Cd *b *(h)3/2 and only h, the
flow depth upstream of the weir, is required to
be measured to determine Q.
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5.6 Venturi Flume
The other method of measuring flow by causing
critical depth is the Venturi flume.
a) The critical depth is caused by contracting
the flow
b) Similar specific energy arguments are made
as in broad crested weir or raised bed: depth
will fall and not fall below critical depth
c) It is also possible to combine the two by
putting a raised section within the narrowed
section
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components of Venturi flume
Section A-A
A A
Figure 5.4
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Derivation of the general equation
The general equation for Q through a flume can be
obtained from the:
a) Energy and
b) Continuity equations
Case 1: without hump
Energy equation at entry and throat
v12 v22
y1 + + z1 = y2 + + z2 + HL
2g 2g
Assumptions:
z1 = z2; channel bed horizontal
HL = 0
v12 v22
y1 + = y2 + …………………………(i)
2g 2g
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v12
Neglecting upstream velocity, V1, and hence we get:
2g
2
v2
y1 = y2 +
2g
And V2 = 2g(y1 − y2)
By continuity equation
A2 V2 = Q and A2 = b2y2 where b2 is the width of channel at
section 2
Q
Then V2 =
b2y2
And Q = b2y2 2g(y1 − y2)
Letting b2 2g = constant, K
Q = K y2 (y1 − y2)1/2 = K y22 (y1 − y2) 1/2
= K (y1y22 − y23 ) 1/2
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For critical conditions at the throat, point 2, Q is a maximum:
dQ
or =0
dy2
2y1y2− 3y22 = 0
2
or 2y1−3y2= 0 or y2= 3 y1
V2
And Q = b2y2V2 and putting (gy )1/2 = 1 at critical conditions
2
Q = b2y2(gy2)1/2 = b2(g)1/2 (y
2 )3/2
2
and y2= 3 y1
2 3/2
Therefore Q = b2(g) (3) (y1)3/2
1/2
Q = 1.705 bt (y1)3/2 where bt is the throat width.
Again only y1 need to be measured
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Case 2: Throat having a hump on the bed
The energy equation
v12 v 22
y1 + = y2 + + Δz (Note that point 2 is on crest of the hump)
2g 2g
or E1 = E2 + Δz or E2 = E1 - Δz where Δz is crest height from channel bed.
Since the flume is rectangular, then at critical depth,
E2 = Emin and y2 = yc; also E2 = Emin and
3 2
Emin = yc or yc = Emin (see earlier proof)
2 3
2
= 3 (E1 – Δz)
Continuity at the throat:
Q = Ac Vc = bt yc * Vc …………………………(ii)
vc2
Emin = yc + 2g or Vc = 2g(Emin −yc) 1/2
Substituting in (ii) we have,
Q = bt yc 2g(Emin −yc) 1/2
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2
Substituting for yc = (E1 – Δz)
3
1/2
2 1/2 2
Q = bt ∗ 3 (E1 – Δz) 2g E1 – Δz − 3 (E1 – Δz)
1/2
2 1
Q = bt ∗ 3 (E1 – Δz) 2g 1/2 3 (E1 – Δz)
1/2
2 1/2 1 3/2
Q = bt ∗ 2g (E1 – Δz)
3 3
3/2
Q = 1.705 bt (E1 – Δz)
3/2
and actual Q = 1.705 Cd bt (E1 – Δz)
v 12
E1 = y1 + 2g and if the velocity of approach is neglected as a
first approximation, E1 = y1 and
3/2
Q = 1.705 Cd bt (y1 – Δz)
Again only y1 need to be measured.
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5.7 Summary
We have come to the end of Lecture Five. This
lecture started with a recap on the specific energy
in a rectangular channel with a hump on the bed.
The effect of the hump is to reduce cross-sectional
area of flow and consequently the flow depth
where it is installed. We said that increasing the
thickness of the hump will at one point cause
critical flow condition at that section. This fact can
deliberately be used to measure flow rate in open
channels. Finally, we considered two critical-depth
meters and developed the necessary equations for
measuring flow in rectangular channels.
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5.8 Self - Assessment
What happens to the upstream depth, y1 if the hump
height, Dz, was more than Dzc?
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Specific Energy Diagram
Dz c
6
depth, y, m
5
Dz
4
3
2
.
2
0
E
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
E, m
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5.9 References and further reading
References for further reading were listed in
Lecture one. You are free to look at any of them.
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