Chapter 3.

Non-Uniform Flow in Open Channel

Learning Outcomes:
1. Understand the concepts of specific energy, sequent
depths and alternate depths (or conjugate depths),
2. Determine the critical depth or critical bottom slope for a
flow through a rectangular channel,
3. Analyse flow conditions upstream and downstream of
control section, and
4. Analyse energy loss and characteristics of a hydraulic
jump.

Non-Uniform Flow

RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF

Hydraulic Flow over

jump weir
Sluice

Hydraulic
drop
Contraction
below the sluice

1
 Non-Uniform Flow

RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF

Supercritical
flow Hydraulic Subcritical
jump flow

Three basic governing equations in fluid flow analyses are:

1. Continuity equation, Q = AV

V2
2. Energy equation, H = z + y cos θ +
2g

 Q2   Q2  F
3. Momentum equation  + y1A1  −  + y 2 A2  =
 gA1   gA2  ρg

This course only deals with governing equations involving

steady flow.

2
 2. Energy equation
V2
Bernoulli's energy equation: Total energy H = z + y cosθ +
2g

For channel with small slope θ ≈ 0, cos θ ≈ 1, y cosθ = y

1 2

Energy lin hL
e S
V2 f

2g

θ Sw

ycosθ y
Channel bottom
So
θ
z
Datum
Considering section 1 and section 2, V12 V22
z1 + y1 + = z2 + y 2 + + hL
2g 2g

Example 3.1
The width of a horizontal rectangular channel is reduced from 3.5 m to 2.5 m and
the floor is raised by 0.25 m in elevation at a given section. At the upstream
section, the depth of flow is 2.0 m. If the drop in the water surface elevation at the
contraction is 0.20 m, calculate the discharge if:
(a) the energy loss is neglected, and
(b) the energy loss is one-tenth of the upstream velocity head.

B1 = 3.5 m B2 = 2.5 m

2
1
Energy line

0.2 m
y1 = 2.0 m y2
0.25 m

3
 y1 = 2 m B1 = 3.5 m B2 = 2.5 m

y 2 = 2 − 0.25 − 0.2 = 1.55 m

2
1
Energy line
According to continuity equation,
B1y1V1 = B2 y 2V2 0.2 m
y1 = 2.0 m y2
3.5 × 2 × V1 = 2.5 × 1.55 × V2 0.25 m

V1 = 0.5536V2 Datum

(a) When no energy is lost,

V12 V2
Energy equation is z1 + y1 + = (z1 + ∆z ) + y 2 + 2 since z2 = z1 + ∆z
2g 2g

2+
(0.5536V2 )2 = 0.25 + 1.55 +
V22
2g 2g
0.03535V22 = 0.2
V2 = 2.379 m/s

Therefore, discharge Q = A2V2 = 2.5 × 1.55 × 2.379 = 9.22 m3 /s

y1 = 2 m
B1 = 3.5 m B2 = 2.5 m
y 2 = 2 − 0.25 − 0.2 = 1.55 m
2
V1 = 0.5536V2 1
Energy line

0.2 m
y1 = 2.0 m y2

V2 0.25 m
(b) When energy loss hL = 0.1 1 Datum
2g

V12 V2
Energy equation is z1 + y1 + = (z1 + ∆z ) + y 2 + 2 + hL
2g 2g

2+
(0.5536V2 )2 = 0.25 + 1.55 +
V22
+ 0 .1
(0.5536V2 )
2

2g 2g 2g

0.03691V22 = 0.2

V2 = 2.328 m/s

Discharge Q = A2V2 = 2.5 × 1.55 × 2.328 = 9.02 m3 /s

4
 Specific Energy
Specific energy E in a channel section is defined as the energy of water per unit
weight of water at any section of a channel measured with respect to the channel
bottom.
V2 Q2
E=y+ or E=y+
2g 2gA 2

For a constant Q, the relation between E and y can be represented by a cubic

parabola.

y For a constant Q, there can exist

two depths y which can have the
same specific energy E.

Two depths having the same

y2 specific energy are known as
alternate depths.

E
= y1
y

For a constant Q, the relation between E and y can be represented by a cubic

parabola.

y E minimum is given as

dE Q 2 dA
= 1− 3 =0
dy gA dy
dA
Also = T = top width
dy
y2
V22 V12 Q 2Tc
Thus =1
2g 2g gAc3
E
y= y1 Q 2 Ac3
or =
g Tc
E

As the specific energy increases, the difference between the alternate depths
increases. Else, if E is decreased, the difference between the two alternate depths
decreases until the two depths merge together when E = Ec. Flow below this
specific energy is not possible.
The condition of minimum specific energy is known as the critical-flow condition
and the corresponding depth yc is known as critical depth.

5
 Q 2Tc
Critical-flow condition is =1
gAc3
Froude number is defined as
V
Fr =
gD
y
V2
Fr 2 =
A
g
T
V 2T
Fr 2 = subcritical
gA y2 flow region

Q 2T
Fr 2 = y = yc
gA3 E
y= Emin y1
supercritical
Therefore, it is shown that at
flow region
critical flow, Fr = 1
E
E-y curve

Example 3.2
A rectangular channel 2.5 m wide has a specific energy of 1.50 m when carrying a discharge
of 6.48 m3/s. Calculate the alternate depths and the corresponding Froude numbers.

V2
E=y+
2g
Q2 Q
E=y+ since V =
2gA2 A
6.48 2
1 .5 = y +
2 × 9.81× (2.5 × y )
2

0.3424
y+ = 1. 5
y2

From trial-and-error, y 1 = 0.625 m and y 2 = 1.296 m

The corresponding Froude numbers For rectangular channel D = y

V Q 6.48
Fr1 = = = = 1.6749 → Supercritical flow
gy 1 A gy1 2.5 × 0.625 9.81× 0.625

V Q 6.48
Fr2 = = = = 0.5609 → Subcritical flow
gy 2 A gy 2 2.5 × 1.296 9.81× 1.296

6
Example 3.3
A flow of 5.0 m3/s is passing at a depth of 1.5 m through a rectangular channel of width 2.5 m.
What is the specific energy of the flow? What is the value of the depth alternate to the existing
flow?
Q 5
V = = = 1.33 m/s
A 2 .5 × 1 .5

V2 1.33 2
Specific energy E = y + = 1. 5 + = 1.590 m
2g 2 × 9.81

For the alternate depth

V2 Q2
E=y+ =y+
2g 2gA2
52
1.59 = y +
2 × 9.81× (2.5 y )
2

y = 0.140 m

V2 Q2
Specific energy E in a channel section is E = y + or E = y +
2g 2gA 2

For a prismatic rectangular channel where q = Q/B, the specific energy equation
can be further simplified as q2
E=y+
2gy 2

Q 2Tc
Also for critical condition, =1
gAc3

V2
=1 where T = B for rectangular channel
gy c

V2 1
= yc
2g 2
q2 1
Therefore, E = y + Ec = y c + yc
2gy 2 2
3
V2 Emin = yc for rectangular channel
E=y+ 2
2g

7
 The specific energy equation relates E, y and Q in two manners:
i. relationship between E and y can be established for Q constant, and
ii. relationship between Q and y can be established for E constant.
q2
E=y+
2gy 2

q = 2gy 2 (E − y )

y
y1 and y2 are sequent depths

y2

Subcritical flow
ycritical

Supercritical flow

y1 qmaximum

q
q-y curve

q = 2gy 2 (E − y )

q 2 = 2gy 2 (E − y )

At critical condition,
2
qmax = 2gy c2 (Emin − y c )
2
qmax = 2gy c2 (1.5 y c − y c )
2
qmax = gy c3

qmax = gy c3
1
 q 2 3
y c =  max 
 g 

8
 Critical Flow as Control Section

yc yc

So < Sc So < Sc
S
o >
S
(a) Flow on mild slope c (b) Free fall e.g. waterfalls
changes on steep slope

yc

yc
Reservoir
So < Sc S
o >
Reservoir S
c

(c) Flow into reservoir (d) Flow out of reservoir

B2 < B1 and B2 < B3

yc
∆z Weir
1 2 3
(e) Flow over weir or hump (f) Flow due to change of channel width
Control section of various flow transitions

A control section is where a relationship can be established between water

depth and discharge. At control section, critical flow conditions occur and this
produces a relationship can be established between water depth and
discharge. Subcritical flows are controlled from downstream, e.g. reservoir
while supercritical flows have upstream control, e.g. spillway and weir.

Critical flow occurs when:

i. specific energy is minimum (E = Emin) for a constant discharge
ii. disharge is maximum (q = qmax) for a constant energy

Critical slope Sc is defined as the slope of channel bottom when the flow is
critical. Based on the normal slope So and critical slope Sc, channel bottom
can be classified as
So < Sc mild slope
So = Sc critical slope
So > Sc steep slope

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 Hydraulic jump in Hydraulics Laboratory

Hydraulic jump at the toe of the spillway of the Itaipu dam, Brazil

10
Hydraulic jump downstream of a sluice gate, Harran canal, Turkey

Waves crash onto the seawall at Depoe Bay, Oregon, United States

11
 Flood waves (surge waves), Tangjiashan, China
June 10, 2008

Hydraulic Jump and Its Use As Energy Dissipator

Practical applications of the hydraulic jump include:
1. to dissipate energy in water flowing over dams, weirs, and other hydraulic
structures, thus prevent scouring downstream from the structures,
2. to recover head or raise the water level on the downstream side of a
measuring flume and thus maintain high water level in the channel for
irrigation or other water-distribution purposes,
3. to increase weight on an apron and thus reduce uplift pressure under a
masonry structure by raising the water depth on the apron,

4. to increase the discharge of a sluice by holding back tailwater, since the

effective head will be reduced if the tailwater is allowed to drown the jump,
5. to indicate special flow conditions, such as the existence of supercritical
flow or the presence of a control section so that a gaging station may be
located,
6. to mix chemicals used for water purification, and so forth,

7. to aerate water for city water supplies; and

8. to remove air pockets from water-supply lines and thus prevent air locking.

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 Types of Jump
Fr = 1.6 Fr = 1.2
y1 y2

Energy dissipation
= 45% - 70%

Energy dissipation
= up to 85%

Hydraulic Jump in Horizontal Rectangular Channels

For supercritical flow in a horizontal rectangular channel, the energy of flow is

dissipated through frictional resistance and eddies along the channel, resulting
in a decrease in velocity and increase in depth in the direction of flow.
Energy line
EL
Lj V22
Lrj
V12 2g
2g Roller

V2 y 2

V1 y1

1 Horizontal 2
A hydraulic jump will occur in the channel if the Froude number Fr1, the flow
depth y1 and the downstream depth y2 satisfy the equation:
y2 1
(
= − 1 + 1 + 8Fr12
y1 2
)

13
 Momentum Flux and Flow Force

y
P1 F P2 +

1 2 y = depth of centroid

P = ρgy A = hydrostatic pressure force

F = flow resistance force

Momentum change, ρV2Q − ρV1Q = P1 − P2 − F

(ρQV1 + ρgy1A1 ) − (ρQV2 + ρgy 2 A2 ) = F
Q  Q2   Q2  F
Since V =  + y1A1  −  + y 2 A2  =
A  gA1   gA2  ρg

F Q2
M1 − M 2 = where M = + yA = momentum function
ρg gA (flow force)

Mmin and Critical Flow

y Q2
M= + yA
gA

yc critical flow
Fr = 1

M
Mmin
2Q∂Q Q 2∂A
At Mmin, ∂M = − + ∂ (y A ) = 0
gA gA 2
Q 2B
Dividing by ∂y: Mmin = − +A=0
gA 2

Q 2B
Mmin: Fr = =1
gA3

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 Flow Force on Rectangular Section

Q2
M= + yA
gA 1
y= y
y 2
q2 1 2 +
M= + y Assuming 1 m width,
gy 2
A = y ×1
Q = q ×1

Hydraulic jump on flat bed,

q2 1 2 q2 1 2 P1 P2
+ y1 = + y2
gy 1 2 gy 2 2 F≈0

1 2

Flow Force on Rectangular Section

If q = 25 ft2/s q2 1 2
M= + y
gy 2

momentum hydrostatic
flux pressure
force
y
6

Sub-critical flow Fr < 1

yc
2
Super-critical flow Fr < 1

Mmin
0 M
0 5 10 15 20

y1 and y2 are conjugated depths with the same M

15
 Hydraulic Jump in Horizontal Rectangular Channel

q2 1 2 q2 1 2
+ y1 = + y2
gy 1 2 gy 2 2

1 − 1  = (y 22 − y 12 )
q2  y  1
gy 1  y 2  2

q 2  y 2 − y1  1
  = (y 2 − y1 )(y 2 + y1 )
gy 1  y 2  2

q2 1 y2  y2 
3
= Fr12 =  + 1
gy 1 2 y1  y1 

y2 1
(
= − 1 + 1 + 8Fr12
y1 2
)
y1 1
(
= − 1 + 1 + 8Fr22
y2 2
)

Energy loss due to Hydraulic Jump

EL = E1 − E2
 q2   q2 
=  y1 +  −  y + 
2gy 12   2gy 22 
2

1 q 2  y 22 − y12 
= (y 1 − y 2 ) +  
2 g  y 12 y 22 

q2 1
q 2  y 2 − y1  1 Substituting = y1y 2 (y1 + y 2 )
  = (y 2 − y1 )(y 2 + y1 ) gy 1 2
gy 1  y 2  2
EL =
(y 2 − y1 )3
2
q 1
= y1y 2 (y1 + y 2 ) 4 y1y 2
gy 1 2

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 Length Hydraulic Jump

L j = 6.1y 2 for Fr1 > 5.0

L j = 6 .9 ( y 2 − y 1 ) for all Froude number

Example 3.6
A spillway discharges a flood flow at a rate of 7.75 m3/s per metre width. At the
downstream horizontal apron the depth of flow was found to be 0.5 m. What
tailwater depth is needed to form a hydraulic jump? If a jump is formed, find its (a)
type, (b) length, (c) head loss, and (d) energy loss as a percentage of the initial
energy.

q = 7.75 m3/s/m y 1 = 0 .5 m
q 7.75
V1 = = = 15.5 m/s
y 1 0. 5
V1 15.5
Fr1 = = = 7 .0
gy 1 9.81× 0.5

Sequent-depth
y2 1
(
= − 1 + 1 + 8Fr12
y1 2
)
1
(
= − 1 + 1 + 8 × 72
2
)
= 9.41
Required tailwater depth y 2 = 4.71 m

17
 (a) Type: Since Fr1 = 7.0, a 'steady' jump will be formed.

(b) Since Fr1 > 5.0, Lj = 6.1y2

Lj = length of the jump = 6.1× 4.71 = 28.7 m

(c) EL = head loss

EL =
(y 2 − y1 )3
4 y1y 2

=
(4.71 − 0.5 )3
4 × 0.5 × 4.71
= 7.92 m

(d) Energy loss as a percentage of the initial energy

V12
E1 = y1 +
2g
EL 7.92
15.5 2 = × 100% = 62.1%
= 0 .5 + E1 12.75
2 × 9.81
= 12.75 m

Example 3.7
A 25-m wide spillway has velocity of 30 m/s and flow depth of 1 m. Hydraulic jump
occurs immediately downstream. Find the height of the jump and power loss in
the jump.

V1 30
Fr1 = = = 9.578
gy1 9.81× 1

y2 1
=
y1 2
[( 1+ 8Fr )− 1]
1
2

y2 =
1
2
[( 1+ 8(9.578) )− 1]
2

y 2 = 13.055 m

Height of jump yj = y2 − y1
= 13.055 − 1
= 12.055 m

18
 ∆E = E1 − E2

∆E =
(y 2 − y1 )3 =
12.055 3
= 33.548 m
4 y1y 2 4 × 1× 13.055

Total power loss

P = γQ∆E = 9810 × 30 × 33.548 = 9.873 MW

Assignment No. 3 due October 26, 2011

1. A 10 m3/s of water flows in rectangular channel with 4 m width, n = 0.015 and So =
0.0075. If a weir is built in the channel with 0.92 m height, determine the height of
flow on that weir.
2. A rectangular channel with yo = 1.6 m, R = 0.77 m, So = 1/3000 and Manning n =
0.010.
i. What is the minimum height of weir for channel to control the flow.
ii. Calculate the depth of flow at upstream, downstream and on the weir at the
minimum height,
iii. Calculate depth of flow upstream, downstream and on the weir if height of weir is
(a) 0.4 m and (b) 0.6 m.
3. A rectangular channel with width 2.0 m is required to convey water at a rate of 3
m3/s. Normal depth is 0.8 m. The width of the channel is reduced downstream of the
channel.
i. Compute the maximum critical width at the constriction so that critical flow will
occur.
ii. Compute the depth upstream of the constriction if the constriction is 1.2 m width.

19
Assignment No. 3 due October 26, 2011
4. Water flows in a rectangular channel, 3.0 m wide at a velocity of 3.0 m/s and depth
3.0 m. The bottom of the channel is raised as high as 0.61 m. Compute the
enlargement that should be done to the width so that the upstream flow does not
change.
5. A rectangular channel 2.6 m width, Manning n = 0.015 and So = 0.0008 convey
water at 9.8 m3/s. If constriction is carried out with width 2.4 m, compute the water
depth upstream and downstream of the constriction. Sketch the flow profile.

20