Hydraulics

MOD002281 B02

Open Channel

Dr Maryam Imani
Associate Professor of Water Systems Engineering
(Civil Engineering)
 Why is it important?

A significant part of Civil Engineering is that

concerned with land drainage, much of which
involves flow in open channels.
Open Channels:
❑Natural (irregular shape): river, hillsides, tidal
estuaries etc.
❑Man-made (regular shape): drains, culverts,
sewer tunnels etc.
So it is important that a channel can be designed to carry a
particular discharge (man-made channel) or the discharge in
a channel can be calculated from measurements of the bed
slope (natural channel), the width and the depth of flow.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BH3BIHkekgE

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 What is open channel?

❑An open channel is a conduit through which liquid flows with a

free surface as a result of gravity.
❑The pressure at the surface of the liquid is constant at all points
along the length of the channel, and this pressure is usually
atmospheric.
❑A pipe which is partly full and which has a free surface, is an
open channel.

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Open Channel Cross Sections

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 Definitions: Wetted perimeter (P)

❑ Two variables that are used constantly in open channel

hydraulics are the wetted perimeter, P, and the hydraulic
radius, R.
❑ The wetted perimeter of a cross-section perpendicular to the
direction of flow is the length of contact between the liquid
and the sides and base of the channel.
❑ It is literally the length of the wetted perimeter, that is the
length of the perimeter in contact with the liquid.

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Definitions: Wetted perimeter (P)

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 Definitions: Hydraulic Radius (R)

𝐴
A 𝑅=
𝑃
P
A = cross sectional area of flow (m2)
P = wetted perimeter (m)

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Definitions: Hydraulic mean depth (DM)

Bs

𝐴
A 𝐷𝑀 =
𝐵𝑠

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 Flow Classification - Froude Number (F/Fr)

❑ DM is often used in connection with the Froude number, Fr.

❑ This is a dimensionless parameter that tells us something about the
type of flow in the channel.
mean
𝑉 velocity
V = Q/A 𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔𝐷𝑀

Fr < 1 subcritical flow (a relatively deep, slow flow)

Fr = 1 critical flow (often a transitional flow)

Fr > 1 supercritical flow (a relatively shallow, fast flow)

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Wetted Perimeter (P) & Hydraulic Radius (R) of a rectangular
and circular channel

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 Example 1
A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 5.0m and its sides slope at an angle
of 45°. If the depth of flow is 2.0m, calculate the area of flow A, the wetted
perimeter P, and the hydraulic radius R. If the discharge in the channel is
13.3m3/s, calculate the Froude number, Fr.

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 Energy in Open Channel Flow

Applying Bernoulli to open channels

𝟐
𝑽
𝑯= +𝒅+𝒁
𝟐𝒈

Kinetic energy
Pressure energy in Elevation energy, z
terms of depth, d

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 Discharge equations for uniform flow:
Manning Equation (most widely used)

Replace for C in the Chezy equation and you have the Manning Equation
1
𝑅 ൗ6
𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑆𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶 =
𝑛
Yields the Manning Equation
Where, n: Manning coefficient;
2ൗ 1ൗ2
𝑅 3 𝑆𝑜 V: mean velocity;
𝑉= R: hydraulic radius;
𝑛 A: cross sectional area of flow;
Q: discharge.
2ൗ 1ൗ2 Colebrook-White open channels
𝐴𝑅 3 𝑆𝑜
𝑄= 𝑘 1.255𝑣
𝑛 𝑉 = − 32𝑔𝑅𝑆𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑔 +
14.8𝑅 𝑅 32𝑔𝑅𝑆𝑜

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Typical values of Manning’s n for different types of surface

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Flow Transitions

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Flow Transitions

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 Water Profile
The water surface profile is a measure of how the flow depth changes
longitudinally.

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 Specific Energy
Specific energy in open channel
flow refers to the total energy per
unit weight of fluid flowing in the
channel.

𝑉2
𝐸=𝐷+
2𝑔
Specific energy is defined as the sum of the elevation
head (potential energy per unit weight of fluid), the
pressure head (pressure energy per unit weight of
fluid), and the velocity head (kinetic energy per unit
weight of fluid).
Specific energy is calculated relative to the channel
bed.

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 Energy Equations

Standard Specific Energy Equation

𝑉2
• 𝐸=𝐷 +
2𝑔

Apply continuity gives D

𝑄2
• 𝐸=𝐷 + B
2𝑔𝐴2

Substitute A for (rectangular) channel dimensions

𝑄2
• 𝐸=𝐷 +
2𝑔𝑏2 𝐷 2

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 Let’s watch !

• Critical Slope is one that sustains uniform, critical flow

(yn=yc).
• Critical Flow is unstable and a small fluctuation in energy
will shift the flow into supercritical or subcritical flow.

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 The concept of two alternate depths
of flow in a channel
𝑽 𝑽
𝑭𝒓 = 𝑭𝒓 =
𝒈𝑫𝑴 𝒈𝒚

Fr < 1 subcritical flow (a relatively deep, slow flow) – most common in nature
Fr = 1 critical flow (often a transitional flow)
Fr > 1 supercritical flow (a relatively shallow, fast flow) – less common

Both subcritical and supercritical flows may occur in the same channel at the
same discharge.
How is it possible? We will consider a hypothetical situation…
Assumption: Rectangular channel, 1.0 m wide, flow rate of 1 m3/s. Various
depth ranging from 5.0 m to about 0.1 m.
• By calculating the variation of the specific energy, E, and Fr.
• By drawing D against E.
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 Calculate the Specific Energy and the Froude Number
of a channel 1.0m in breadth with a flow rate of 1m3/s

Flow, Q = 1 m3/s
Channel Breadth, B = 1m

Area of Velocity Specific Froude

Depth, flow, A V = Q/A head, energy, E = number, F =
2 2 2 0.5
D (m) (m ) (m/s) V /2g (m) D + V /2g V/(gD)
5 5 0.200 0.002 5.002 0.029
4 4 0.250 0.003 4.003 0.040
3 3 0.333 0.006 3.006 0.061
2 2 0.500 0.013 2.013 0.113
1 1 1.000 0.051 1.051 0.319
0.9 0.9 1.111 0.063 0.963 0.374
0.8 0.8 1.250 0.080 0.880 0.446
0.7 0.7 1.429 0.104 0.804 0.545
0.6 0.6 1.667 0.142 0.742 0.687
0.5 0.5 2.000 0.204 0.704 0.903
0.4 0.4 2.500 0.319 0.719 1.262
0.3 0.3 3.333 0.566 0.866 1.943
0.2 0.2 5.000 1.274 1.474 3.570
0.1 0.1 10.000 5.097 5.197 10.096
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 Specific Energy and Depth
Depth vs Specific Energy
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Subcritical Flow
4
Depth (m)

1
Dc Critical Flow Supercritical Flow
0
0 Ec 1 2 3 4 5 6
Specific Energy E (m)
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 Specific Energy and Froude Number

Froude No. vs Specific Energy

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10
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Supercritical Flow
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Froude Number

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6
5
4
3
2
1 Critical Flow
Subcritical Flow
0
0 Ec 1 2 3 4 5 6
Specific Energy E (m)
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 Critical Flow Equations

𝑉
Froude number 𝐹𝑟 = at critical flow Fr = 1,
𝑔𝐷𝑚
𝑉𝑐
1= rearrange to 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑔𝐷𝑐
𝑔𝐷𝑐

For rectangular channels at critical depth A = BDC therefore

DC
B
𝐵𝐷𝐶 3 𝐵3 𝐷𝐶 3 𝑄 2 𝑄2
= = 𝐵2 𝐷𝐶 3 = 𝐷𝐶 3 =
𝐵 𝐵 𝑔 𝑔𝐵2

3 𝑄2 Minimum specific 3
Critical Depth 𝐷𝑐 = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑦𝑐
𝑔𝐵2 energy 2
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 Hints
❑ There are two possible depths of flow, one
smaller than the critical depth (supercritical) and
one larger than the critical depth (subcritical).
Alternate depths: D1 and D2 on the diagram.
❑ The minimum specific energy for a particular
discharge occurs at the critical depth, Dc.
❑ The critical depth condition represents the
minimum specific energy at which a particular
discharge can be maintained.
❑ The critical depth could be said to represent the
most efficient flow condition and to give the
maximum possible discharge for a given specific
energy.
❑ The depth-specific energy curve shows that:
▪ In subcritical flow a loss of energy results in
a decrease in the depth of flow
▪ In supercritical flow a loss of energy results
in an increase in the depth of flow.
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 Water Depths
The water surface profile is a measure of how the flow depth changes
longitudinally.

❑ actual depth (y or D or d)
❑ normal depth (yn or DN or dN)
❑ critical depth (yc or Dc or dC)

Normal depth (also known as uniform flow depth) refers to the depth of flow in a
channel under steady, uniform flow conditions (used in hydraulic design
calculations).
Actual depth refers to the depth of flow in the channel at any given moment, which
may vary due to changes in flow rate, channel geometry, or boundary conditions
(what we measure).
Critical depth is a specific depth of flow in an open channel at which the flow
regime transitions between subcritical and supercritical flow. It is the depth of flow
where energy is at a minimum for a particular discharge.
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 Constriction in an Open Channel

subcritical

supercritical

Longitudinal section showing the effect of width constriction caused by a narrow

bridge waterway opening on subcritical and supercritical flow.
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 Classification of Flow Condition

Variable Subcritical Critical Supercritical

Depth D D > Dc D = Dc D < Dc
Flow Area A A > Ac A = Ac A < Ac
Velocity V V < Vc V = Vc V > Vc
Froude No. Fr Fr < 1 Fr = 1 Fr > 1
Slope So So < Sc So = Sc So > Sc

Flow condition can be confirmed by testing any of the

variables against the against the critical value.

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 Flow Transitions
❑ Flow is generally subcritical.
❑ Can become supercritical briefly and then revert back to
subcritical.
❑ To design dam spillways, weirs and other hydraulic
structures these flow transitions need to be predicted.

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 Flow Transition:
from Subcritical to Supercritical

❑Velocity of flow has to increase.

❑Caused by increase in bed slope or reduction in area of flow.
❑Water surface will gradually decrease in elevation with respect to the
channel base.

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 Flow Transition:
from Supercritical to Subcritical

❑Down stream of a sluice gate.

❑Water flowing over a steep dam spillway into a stilling basin.
❑Cannot happen gradually.
❑Sudden increase in depth: hydraulic jump or standing wave.
❑Highly turbulent water.

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 Hydraulic Jump/standing wave
(rapidly varying flow)

A hydraulic jump occurs when a supercritical flow meets a subcritical flow. The
resulting flow transition is rapid and involves a large energy loss due to
turbulence.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UPQz2lwnk9k

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 Hydraulic Jump - Conjugate Depth

𝐷2 𝐷1
𝐷1 = 1 + 8𝐹22 − 1 or 𝐷2 = 1 + 8𝐹12 − 1
2 2
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 Energy Loss due to Turbulence

Energy Loss ΔE

(𝐷2 − 𝐷1 )3
∆𝐸 =
4𝐷1 𝐷2

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 Theoretical Length and Height of Jump

Relative height of jump

ℎ𝑗 1 + 8𝐹12 − 3
=
𝐸1 𝐹12 + 2

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 Example 2
Water on the horizontal apron of the 30.48 m wide spillway shown in Figure has a
depth of 0.183 m and a velocity of 5.48 m/s. Determine the depth, y2, after the jump,
the Froude numbers before and after the jump, Fr1 and Fr2, and the power dissipated,
Pd (energy per unit time), within the jump.

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 Example 3

Water flows down a steep concrete lined rectangular channel 5m

wide at a depth of 0.65m when the discharge is 19m3/s. At the
bottom of the slope the channel becomes horizontal, but is
otherwise unchanged.
Determine whether a hydraulic jump will form, the energy loss
and the approximate dimensions of the jump.

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Example 3

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Example 3

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 Hydraulics Jump

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CzvBAtR60sA&index=9&list=PLBIJkt6y8osbaq6OEqH5
2Plbw7Lq7ZjqU

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Thank You

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