The Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology

Civil Engineering Department

Open Channels Hydraulics
BENG18-CE-1, BENG18-CE-2 FULL TIME STUDENTS
CEU 07315 Open Channel Hydraulics
TT3-1
Time: 13:25-15:20 THURSDAY

BENG18-CE –EVENING STUDENTS

CEU 07315 Open Channel Hydraulics
B11
Time: 14:30-17:10 TUESDAY

Dr Shija Kazumba - 0786331037

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ENERGY EQUATION FOR OPEN CHANNEL FLOW :
UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM FLOWS

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3
4
5
6
One

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8
2

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10
 Specific Energy in Open Channel Flow
The total energy of a flowing liquid per unit weight is given by:

V2
Total Energy Z  y 
2g

If the channel bed is taken as the datum, then the total energy per unit
weight will be: 2
V
Especificy 
2g
Specific energy (Es) of a flowing liquid in a channel is defined as
energy per unit weight of the liquid measured from the channel bed as
datum. It is a very useful concept in the study of open channel flow. 11
 2
V Ep = potential energy of flow = y
Es  y   E p  Ek
2g V 2
Ek = kinetic energy of flow =
2g
Q2
Es  y  Valid for any cross section
2 g A2

Specific Energy Curve:

It is defined as the
curve which shows the
variation of specific
energy (Es ) with depth
of flow y.

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 Specific Energy Curve (Rectangular channel)

Consider a rectangular channel in which a constant discharge

Q
q = discharge per unit width = = constant ( since Q and B are constants)
B
2
Q Q q q
V    Es y  E p Ek
A B y y 2g y 2

Ep

EK
EP Es

yc

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 Sub-critical, critical, and supercritical flow
The criterion used in this classification is what is known by Froude number, Fr, which
is the measure of the relative effects of inertia forces to gravity force:
2
V 2 Q T T
Fr  Fr  3
g Dh Ag
V = mean velocity of flow of water,
Dh = hydraulic depth of the channel
Area of Flow (Wetted Area) A
Dh  
Water Surface Top Width T T

Flow Fr
Sub-critical Fr < 1
Critical 1 = Fr
Supercritical Fr >1
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Referring to the energy curve, the following features can be observed:

1. The depth of flow at point C is referred to as critical depth, yc.

(It is defined as that depth of flow of liquid at which the specific energy is
minimum, Emin  yc The flow that corresponds to this point is called
critical flow (Fr = 1.0).
2. For values of Es greater than Emin , there are two corresponding depths.
One depth is greater than the critical depth and the other is smaller
' than
the critical depth, for example;
E s1  y1 and y1
These two depths for a given specific energy are called the alternate depths.
3. If the flow depth y  yc the flow is said to be sub-critical (Fr < 1.0).
In this case Es increases as y increases.

4. If the flow depth y  yc the flow is said to be super-critical (Fr > 1.0).

In this case Es decreases as y increases.

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16
 Critical depth, yc for rectangular channel
Critical depth, yc , is defined as that depth of flow of liquid at which the
specific energy is minimum, Emin,
The mathematical expression for critical depth is obtained by differentiating
energy equation with respect to y and equating the result to zero;
q2
Es y 
2g y2
dE d q2 q2  2
0  (y  2
) 1  ( 3 ) 0
dy dy 2g y 2g y
1
2 2
1
q
0  3
y 
q q 2
 3

3 yc  
gy g  g 
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 Critical velocity, Vc for rectangular channel
2
q
yc3  ,
g q
Vc 
Q Q q yc
V  
A B y y
2 2
V y Vc  g yc
OR y
3
c
c
 c

g
Vc
1 Fr
g yc
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 Minimum Specific Energy in terms of critical depth

q2
E min  yc 
2 g yc2 yc
2 E min  yc 
q 2
y 
3
c
g

3 yc 2 E min
E min  OR yc 
2 3

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 Critical depth, yc , for Non- Rectangular Channels
dEs d Q2 2 Q 2 dA
0  ( y )1 ( )0
dy dy 2g A 2 3
2 g A dy
Q2 dA
OR 1  ( )  0 (constant discharge is assumed)
g A3 dy
dA/dy = the rate of increase of area with respect to y = T (top width).
2 2 3
QT Q A
1 3
0   condition must be satisfied for the flow
at the critical depth.
gA g T
A Q2 2
Recalling that Dh    A Dh
T g V2 Dh
The equation may also be written in terms of velocity  
2g 2

The velocity head is equal to one-half the hydraulic depth for critical flow.20
 Q2 A
Es y 2
 Es  y  This equation represents
2g A 2T the critical state

1 A The general equation for the specific energy in

OR E c  yc  ( ) critical state applicable to channels of all shapes.
2 T
Rectangular section Trapezoidal section

3 yc ( 3B  5n yc ) yc
Ec  Ec 
2 2 ( B  2 n yc )

Circular Triangle section

5
Ec  yc
d d ( 2  sin 2 ) 4
Ec  ( 1  cos ) 
2 16 sin  21
 Constant Specific Energy
The specific energy was varied and the discharge was assumed to be
constant. Let us now consider the case in which the specific energy is
kept constant and the discharge Q is varied.
Q2
E s  y 2
 Q A 2 g ( Es  y )
2g A
Q2  A2 (2 g ) ( E s  y )  2 gA2 E s  2 gA2 y
dQ
The discharge will be maximum if 0
dy
dQ dA  dA 2 
Q  2 g E s (2 A )   2 g (2 y A  A )
dy dy  dy 
dA/dy = T  2 g Es ( 2 AT ) 2 g ( 2 yAT ) 2 gA 0 2
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4 E sT  4 yT  2 A  0
A
2T ( Es  y ) A  Es  y 
2T
Q2
but Es  y 
2 g A2
2 3
Q 2
A Q A
y y  
2g A 2
2T g T

Thus for a given specific energy, the discharge in a given channel is a

maximum when the flow is in the critical state. The depth corresponding
to the maximum discharge is the critical depth.

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 Transitions in Channel Beds
Consider an abrupt rise ∆z in the open-channel bed

Assume that upstream conditions are subcritical & initial E1

Note that ∆z should be subtracted from E1 & While Total Energy (TEL) unchanged,
E reduced

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 Transitions in Channel Beds
Consider an abrupt rise ∆z in the open-channel bed

Assume that upstream conditions are supercritical & initial E1

Note that ∆z should be subtracted from E1 & While Total Energy (TEL) unchanged,
E reduced
RESULT : Water depth must rise after the step

12-25
 Chokes
 Chokes can only occur when the
channel is constricted, but will not
occur where the flow area
expanded such as drops or
expansions.

 In designing a channel transition

that would tend to restrict the
flow, engineer wants to avoid
forcing a choke to occur if at all
 Chokes

Figure 12.16: Rise in a channel bed: (a) a small step-up,

(b) a bigger step-up
 Chokes

Figure 12.16: Rise in a channel bed: (c) a still bigger step-up,

and (d) changes in the specific energy.
 Example
 Water flows with velocity of 3m/s at
a depth of 3m in a rectangular
channel of 3m wide. Then there is
upward step as shown in the Figure
below. Determine how much the step
should be raised for critical depth to
occur at the step.

10-29
Enlargements and constrictions in channel widths

(a)
(b)

(c)

(d)

(a) A contracted channel. (b) Water levels in a contracted channel.

(c) Specific Energy Diagram for a contracted channel. (d) Water level in a
contracted channel-supercritical flow.
EXAMPLE

A 6.0 m rectangular channel carries a discharge of 30 m 3/s at a depth of

2.5m. Determine the constricted channel width that produces critical depth.
 EXAMPLE: solution

q2 52
E y  2
2.5  2
2.70m
2 gy 2 * 9.81 * 2.5

3
E  E min  y c  y c 1.80m
2

q2
y c 3  q  gy c3 7.56 m 2 / s
g

b2 = Q/ q2 = 30 / 7.56 = 3.07 m
 6.5 Hydraulic Jump
• A hydraulic jump occurs when flow changes from a supercritical flow
(unstable) to a sub-critical flow (stable).
• There is a sudden rise in water level at the point where the hydraulic
jump occurs.
• Rollers (eddies) of turbulent water form at this point. These rollers cause
dissipation of energy.
• A hydraulic jump occurs in practice at the toe of a dam or below a sluice gate

where the velocity is very high.

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General Expression for Hydraulic Jump:
In the analysis of hydraulic jumps, the following assumptions are made:
(1) The length of hydraulic jump is small. Consequently, the loss of head
due to friction is negligible.
(2) The flow is uniform and pressure distribution is due to hydrostatic
before and after the jump.
(3) The slope of the bed of the channel is very small, so that the
component of the weight of the fluid in the direction of the flow is
neglected.

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 Location of hydraulic jump
Generally, a hydraulic jump occurs when the flow changes from
supercritical to subcritical flow.

The most typical cases for the location of hydraulic jump are:
1. Jump below a sluice gate.
2. Jump at the toe of a spillway.
3. Jump at a glacis.
(glacis is the name given to sloping floors provided in hydraulic
structures.)

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• The net force in the direction of flow = the rate of change of moment in that direction
Q
 (V2  V1)
g
The net force in the direction of the flow, neglecting frictional resistance and the
component of weight of water in the direction of flow,
R = F1 - F2 .
Therefore, the impulse-moment yields
Q
F1  F2  (V2  V1 )
g
Where F1 and F2 are the pressure forces at section 1 and 2, respectively.
Q
 A1 y1   A2 y2  (V2  V1 )
g
 Q2 1 1
 A1 y1   A2 y2  (  )
g A2 A1
Q2 Q2
 A1 y1   A2 y2
gA1 gA2
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y = the distance from the water surface to the centroid of the flow area
 Q2 Q2
 A1 y1   A2 y2
gA1 gA2

Comments:
• This is the general equation governing the hydraulic jump for any
shape of channel.
• The sum of two terms is called specific force (M). So, the equation
can be written as:
M1 = M2
• This equation shows that the specific force before the hydraulic
jump is equal to that after the jump.

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 Hydraulic Jump in Rectangular Channels

A1  B y1 y1 y2
y1  A2  B y2 y2 
2 2
Q2 Q2 Q2 y1 Q2 y2
 A1 y1   A2 y2  ( By1 )( )   ( By2 )( )
gA1 gA2 g B y1 2 g B y2 2

Q q 2  y2  y1  y22  y12
using q   
B g  y1 y2  2

2 q2
 y1 y2 ( y2  y1 )
g
, we get

2
2 2 2 q
y2 y1  y2 y1  0
g 38
This is a quadratic equation, the solution of which may be written as:

2
y1  y1   2q 2  y2 1  8 q 2 
y2         1 1
2  2  g y1  y1 2  g y13 

2
y2 y
 2  2 q 2
y1 1  8 q 2 
y1         1 1
2  2  g y2  y2 2  g y23 

where y1 is the initial depth and y2 is called the conjugate depth. Both are called

conjugate depths.
These equations can be used to get the various characteristics of hydraulic jump.

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 2
3 q
But for rectangular channels, we have yc 
g
y 1   y 
3

Therefore, 2
   1 18 c  
y1 2  y1  
 
 3
y1 1   yc  
  1 1  8  
y2 2   y2  
 

These equations can also be written in terms of Froude’s number as:

y2 1

  1 18F1
y1 2
2
 F1
V1
g y1

y1 1  V2
  1 1 8 F22  F2 
y2 2   g y2

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 Head Loss in a hydraulic jump (HL):
Due to the turbulent flow in hydraulic jump, a dissipation (loss) of energy
occurs:
H L  E  E1  E2
Where, E = specific energy q2
For rectangular channels: Es  y 
2 g y2
hence, q2  q 2 
H L y1  y 
2  2


2 g y1  2 g y22 
2 q2
But  y1 y2 ( y2  y1 )
g
( y2  y1 )3
After simplifying, we obtain E H L 
4 y1 y2
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 Height of hydraulic jump (hj):
The difference of depths before and after the jump is known as the
height of the jump,
hj  y2  y1

Length of hydraulic jump (Lj):

The distance between the front face of the jump to a point on the
downstream where the rollers (eddies) terminate and the flow becomes
uniform is known as the length of the hydraulic jump. The length of the
jump varies from 5 to 7 times its height. An average value is usually
taken:
L j 6 h j
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 Examples
1. A rectangular channel which is 7 m wide carries
a discharge of 12 m3/s. If the mean velocity of flow
before the hydraulic jump is 7m/s calculate the
height of the jump and the energy dissipated.

2. A Horizontal rectangular channel of constant width

is fitted with a sluice gate. When the sluice gate is
opened water issues with a velocity of 6m/s if the
depth is 0.5 m at a Venacontracta. Determine
whether a hydraulic jump will form or not. If so,
calculate the energy dissipated.

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