3.

The number of ways to select objects from p alike of one kind, q alike of second kind and r alike
of third kind and n distinct objects such that selection includes at least one object of each kind =
pqr.
Points of Intersection between Geometrical Figures
1. Number of points of intersection of ‘n’ non-concurrent and non parallel lines is nC2.
2. Number of lines that can be drawn, passing though any 2 points out of n given points in
which no three of them are collinear, is nC2.
3. Number of triangles that can formed, by joining any three points out of n given points in
which no three of them are collinear is nC3.
n ( n − 3)
4. Number of diagonals that can be drawn in a ‘n’ sided polygon is
2
Definition of Permutation (Arrangements)
A permutation of given objects is an arrangement of the objects in a line or row, unless specified
otherwise.
For example, if 3 objects are represented as A, B, C, then permutations (arrangements or orders) of
A, B, C in a row can be done in the following ways: ABC, BAC, CAB, ACB, BCA, CBA
THEOREM (Number of Permutations (arrangements, order) of n distinct objects taken all at a time)
The total number of permutations of n distinct objects = n!
THEOREM (Number of Permutations (arrangements, order) of n distinct objects taken r at a time)
n!
The total numbers of permutations of r objects, out of n distinct objects, is = ,1  r  n .
( n − r )!
This number is denoted as nPr or P(n, r) or nAr or A(n, r)
THEOREM (Permutation of Objects when not all objects are distinct)

( n1 + n 2 + ... + n k )!
Let there be n1 A1s, n2 A2s, …, nk Ak’s. Then the number of permutations =
n1 !n 2 !......n k !

(this number is known as a multinomial coefficient.)

THEOREM (Arrangement of n distinct objects with repetition of objects)
Total number of way to permutate n distinct types of objects (each type of objects available in
sufficient
quantity) taken r at a time when objects can be repeated any number of times is n r.
Some Miscellaneous Applications of Permutations
(i) Always Including p Particular Objects in the Arrangement
The number of ways to select and arrange (permutate) r objects from n distinct objects such that\
arrangement should always include p particular objects = n – pCr – p × r!.
(ii) Always Excluding p particular Objects in the Arrangement
The number of ways to select and arrange r objects from n distinct objects such that p particular
objects
are always excluded in the selection = n – pCr × r!.
(iii) ‘p’ Particular Objects Always Together in the Arrangement
The number of ways to arrange n distinct objects such that p particular objects remain together in
the
arrangement (n – p + 1)! p!
(iv) ‘p’ Particular Objects Always Separated in the Arrangement
The number of ways to arrange n different objects such that p particular objects are always
separated.
= n – p + 1Cp × (n – P)! × p!
(v) Rank of a Word in the Dictionary
In these type of problems, dictionary of words is formed by using all the arrangement of all letters
at a time of the given word. The dictionary format means words are arranged in the alphabetical
order. You will be supposed to find the rank (position) of the given word or some other word in the
dictionary.
Circular Permutation
When objects are to be arranged (ordered) in a circle instead of a row, it is known as Circular
Permutation.
THEOREM: The number of circular permutations of n distinct objects (n – 1)!

Binomial THEOREM

Some important results related to summation of binomial coefficients :

 Algebra Theory
Remainder Theorem: If a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x – a), then the remainder is equal to f(a).
Factor THEOREM: (x-a) is a factor of polynomial f(x), if and only if, f(a)= 0
Fundamental THEOREM of Algebra: Every polynomial function of degree ≥ 1 has at least one zero
in the complex numbers. In other words, if we have

with n ≥ 1, then there exists atleast one hC such that

From this, it is easy to deduce that a polynomial function of degree ‘n’ has exactly n zeroes.

Notes:
1. Some of the zeroes of a polynomial may repeat.
2. If a root α is repeated m times, then m is called multiplicity of the root ‘α’ or α is called m fold
root.
3. The real numbers of the form , etc. are called, ‘quadratic surds’. In

general, a , b and a , b are quadratic surds, if a, b are not perfect squares. In a polynomial
with
integral coefficients (or rational coefficients),if one of the zeroes is a quadratic surd, then it has
the
conjugate of the quadratic surd also as a zero.
IDENTITY THEOREM: Polynomial f(x) of degree n is identically zero if it vanishes for atleast n + 1
distinct values of ‘x’.
Corollary: The only periodic polynomial function is constant function
Polynomial Equations:
P ( x ) = a n x n + a n −1x n −1 + .. + a1x + a 0 = 0 is called a polynomial equation in x of degree n.

1. Every polynomial equation of degree n has n roots counting repetition.

2. If a n x n + a n −1x n −1 + ...a1x + a 0 = 0 (1)
a n  0 and a i , ( i = 0,1, 2,3,...., n ) are all real numbers and if,  + i is a zero of (1), then  − i is also

a root. For real polynomial, complex roots occur in conjugate pairs.

However, if the coefficients of Eq.(1) are complex numbers, it is not necessary that the roots occur
in conjugate pairs.

Corollary (Integer Root Theorem)

Every rational root of x n + a n −1x n −1 + .. + a 0 ;0  i  n − 1 is an integer, where a i ( i = 0,1, 2,.., n − 1) is
an integer, and each of these roots is a divisor of a0.
VIETA’S Relations
If 1, 2, 3,….., n are the roots of the polynomial equation

Then

If we represent the sum

respectively, as

(Read it ‘sigma 1’, ‘sigma 2’, etc.) with the coefficients.

Then

These relations are know as Vieta’s relations.

−b c
1. ax2 + bc + c = 0 , where , β are its roots. Thus, 1 =  +  = and 2 =  =
a a
2. ax2 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 where , β and  are its roots. Thus,
 c
Here, expressing 2 =  (  +  ) +  = will be helpful when we apply this property in
a
computations.
3. where , β, ,  are its roots

Here, again,2 can be written as ( + β) (  + ) + β +  and 3 can be written as β(+) +

(+β)
Common Roots of Polynomial Equations
A number α is a common root of the polynomial equations f (x) = 0 and g(x) = 0 if and only if, it is a
root of the HCF of the polynomials f(x) and g(x)
HCF of two polynomials, f(x) and g(x) is a polynomial h(x) of the greatest possible degree which
divides both f(x)and g(x) exactly.
Note: The HCF of two polynomials is not unique, because a.h(x) is also a HCF, where ‘a’ is a
constant (either real or complex). The HCF of two polynomials can be found by the Euclidean
algorithm.
Division Algorithm
If f(x) and g(x) are two non-zero polynomials, then there exist unique polynomials q(x) and r(x)
such that where either r(x) = 0
The polynomial q(x) is called the quotient and r(x) the remainder.
When f(x) is divided by g(x), then degree of

Particular Case:
When g(x) = ax + b a linear polynomial, then either r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg g(x) = 1 i.e. deg r(x) = 0
So that r(x) is a constant.
Transformation of Equation:
(a) To transform an equation into another whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of the given
equation.

Let
be the given equation. If x be a root of the given equation and y that of the transformed equation,
then

Hence, the transformed equation is obtained by putting x = 1/y in f(x) = 0 and is therefore f(1/y) = 0
i.e.,

or
Reciprocal Equations: All those equations which remain unchanged when x is replaced by 1/x are
called reciprocal
equation. These are of two types
(i) those in which the coefficient of terms, equidistant from the beginning and the end, are equal and
at the same sign. E.g.,

(ii) Those in which these coefficients are equal but of opposite sign e.g.,
Note:
(i) if α is a root of the reciprocal equation, then 1/ must be its root. Hence, the root of a reciprocal
equation occur in pairs of ,1/,β,1/β,,1/ and so on.
(ii) In case, the equation be of odd degree then it will be seen that one of its roots must be either +1
or – 1.
(iii) In case, the equation be of even degree and of 2nd type, then it will be seen that x2 – 1 will always
be its factor
(b) To transform an equation into another, whose roots are the roots of the given equation with sign
changed.
If y be the root of the transformed equation, then y = -x and x = -y. Hence, transformed equation is
obtained by putting x = -y in f(x) = 0,
∴ f(-y) = 0, which takes the form

(c) To transform a given equation into another, whose roots are the roots of the given equation
multiplied by a given number m.
If y be a root of the transformed equation, then y = mx or x = y/m. Hence, the transformed equation
is obtained by putting x = y/m in f(x) = 0 ∴ f(y/m) = 0
i.e.

Or

Note
1. The above transformation is very useful when we are dealing with equations with fractional
coefficients. We can get rid of fractional coefficients by multiplying the roots of the given equation
by the LCM of the denominators of the fractional coefficients. Similarly, if the coefficient of leading
term be not unity but k and we want to make it unity, then it can be done so by multiplying the roots
of the given equation by k.
2. If we have to divide the roots of the given equation by m, we say that we have to multiply its roots
by 1/m.
(d) To transform a given equation into another, whose roots are the roots of the given equation
diminished (or increased) by a constant h.
Let

If y be a root of the transformed equation, then y = x – h and x = y + h. Hence, the transformed

equation is obtained by putting x = y + h in and is therefore,
f(y+h) = 0
or

The simplification of the above equation will be difficult and let us suppose that this equation, when
simplified and arranged in descending powers of y takes the form.

The problem is to find A0, A1,A2,…,An

Now y = x – h

…(iii)
The LHS of the above is identical with LHS of line (i) and hence, if f(x) be divided by (x – h), then

the remainder is the value of An and the quotient is and the

quotient when again divided by (x - h) leaves the remainder An - 1. If we continue the above process,
then we shall find An, An-1,….,A2,A1 and the last quotient A0 is clearly equal to a0.
 Inequalities
Basic Rules
(i) Transitivity
The transitive property of inequality states:
If a > b and b > c, then a > c.
More generally, if a1 > a2, a2 > a3, ….,an-1 > an , then a1 > an .
(ii) Addition and Subtraction
A common constant c may be added to or subtracted from both sides of an inequality:
If a > b, then for every c, a + c > b + c and a – c > b – c.
(iii) Multiplication and Division
For any real numbers, a, b and non-zero c,
If c is positive, then multiplying or dividing by c does not change the inequality:
If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc and a/c < b/c.
If c is negative, then multiplying or dividing by c inverts the inequality:
If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc and a/c > b/c.
Addition and Multiplication of Two Inequalities
If , then
If then
Applying a Function to Both Sides of an Inequality
Any monotonically increasing function may be applied to both sides of an inequality (provided they
are in the domain of that function) and it will still hold.
Weirstras’s Inequality

If are real numbers belongs to [0, 1] then

Modulus Inequalities