Chapter 8 POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS An nth degree polynomial with complex coefficients is of the form a0xn + a1xn -1 + ...

+ an -1x + an where the ai are complex numbers and a0 0. (Of course, the coefficients a0, ..., an may be

real numbers, since a real number is a special case of a complex number.) Thus a first degree polynomial is of the form ax + b and a second degree polynomial of the form ax2 + bx + c, with a 0 in both cases. A non-zero constant a is a polynomial of degree zero; the constant zero is also a polynomial, but it is not assigned a degree. The polynomial equation y = x2 - 6x + 1 defines y to be a function of x on the domain of all complex numbers; that is, it provides a rule for assigning a unique complex number y to each complex number x. The table x y = x2 - 6x + 1 4 -7 3 -8 2 -7 1 -4 0 1 i -6i 2i -3 - 12i

shows that this functional rule assigns -4 to 1, 1 to 0 , -6i to i, etc. A rule that makes y a function of x assigns precisely one value y to a fixed x; however, the same number y may be assigned to more than one x, as is seen here with -7 assigned to 2 and to 4. It is sometimes convenient to represent the rule that defines y to be a function of x by the symbol f(x). This notation enables one to express in a simple way the number assigned to a given x by the function. For example, f(1), f(2), and f(3) stand for the numbers assigned to 1, 2, and 3, respectively. If f(x) = x2 - 6x + 1, then f(1) = -4, f(2) = -7, f(3) = -8, f 2 ' 2
2

& 6 2 % 1,

f(a + b) = (a + b)2 - 6(a + b) + 1, and f(x + 1) = (x + 1)2 - 6(x + 1) + 1. Notice that f(a + b) is not necessarily the same as f(a) + f(b), since f(a + b) is the result of replacing x in x2 - 6x + 1 by a + b and is not f times a + b. If several functions are involved in a given discussion, one may use g(x), F(x), p(x), q(x), and so on, as alternates for f(x).

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8.1 THE FACTOR AND REMAINDER THEOREMS If an nth degree polynomial p(x) = a0xn + a1xn -1 + ... + an can be factored in the form p(x) = a0(x - r1)(x - r2)...(x - rn), a0 0, then the roots of the polynomial equation p(x) = 0 are found by setting each of the factors equal to zero, since a product of complex numbers is zero if and only if at least one of the factors is zero. Therefore, the roots are r1, ..., rn. We wish to establish a form of converse to this result: we wish to show that if r is a root of a polynomial equation p(x) = 0 then it follows that x - r is a factor of p(x); that is p(x) can be expressed in the form p(x) = (x - r)q(x) where q(x) is a polynomial in x. THE FACTOR THEOREM: Let p(x) = a0xn + a1xn -1 + ... + an be a polynomial in x. If r is a root of p(x), that is, if p(r) = 0, then x - r is a factor of p(x). Proof: Using the hypothesis that p(r) = 0, we have p(x) p(x) p(x) p(x) ' ' ' ' p(x) & 0 p(x) & p(r) (a0x n % a1x n&1 % % an) & (a0r n % a1r n&1 % % a n) a0(x n & r n) % a1(x n&1 & r n&1) % % (an & a n).

(1)

Since x - r is a factor of xn - rn, xn -1 - rn -1, and so on (see Example 2, Chapter 5), it follows that x - r is a factor of the entire right side of equation (1), and so is a factor of p(x).

We next use this theorem to obtain information concerning the case in which r is not a root of p(x). THE REMAINDER THEOREM: Let p(x) be a polynomial. Then for every complex number r there is a polynomial q(x) such that (2) p(x) = (x - r)q(x) + p(r) Proof: Let us define a new polynomial f(x) by

59

f(x) = p(x) - p(r) Then f(r) = p(r) - p(r) = 0. Hence r is a root of f(x) and, by the Factor Theorem, above, x - r is a factor of f(x), and so there is a polynomial q(x) such that f(x) = (x - r)q(x) Now p(x) - p(r) = (x - r)q(x), since both sides are equal to f(x); equation (2) is then obtained by transposing p(r). The polynomial p(r) is the remainder in the division of p(x) by x - r. In specific cases, the quotient polynomial q(x) of (2), above, may be found by long division or by a more compact form of division called synthetic division. We first illustrate these techniques on the example in which p(x) = x3 - 7x2 + 4x + 9, Dividing p(x) by x - 2, we have r =2.

x2 x-2 x3 x3

- 5x - 7x2 - 2x2 - 5x2 - 5x2

-6 + 4x + 9

+ 4x + 10x - 6x - 6x + 9 + 12 - 3

This shows that x3 - 7x2 + 4x + 9 = (x - 2)(x2 - 5x - 6) - 3. That is, p(x) = (x - 2)q(x) + p(2), with q(x) = x2 - 5x - 6 and p(2) = -3. The synthetic form of the division is as follows: 2 1 -7 2 1 -5 4 -10 -6 60 9 -12 -3

The steps in this synthetic form of the division are explained in the treatment of the general case which follows. The synthetic division of p(x) = a0xn + a1xn -1 + ... + an -1x + an by x - h is in the form h a0 a1 b1 c0 c1 a2 b2 c2 ... ... ... an -1 bn -1 cn -1 an bn cn

where c0 = a0, b1 = hc0, c1 = a1 + b1, b2 = hc1, c2 = a2 + b2, ..., bn = hcn -1, cn = an + bn. In general, each b is h times the previous c, c0 = a0, and each succeeding c is the sum of the a and b above it. The last c, cn , is the value of p(h), and the other cs are the coefficients of q(x) in the formula p(x) = (x - h)q(x) + p(h); they give us the expression p(x) = (x - h)(c0xn -1 + c1xn -2 + ... + cn -2x + cn -1) + cn . Example 1. Express p(x) = x5 + 25x2 + 7 in the form (x + 3)q(x) + p(-3). Solution: We note that h = -3 and that a0 = 1, a1 = 0, a2 = 0, a3 = 25, a4 = 0, and a5 = 7 in this problem. The synthetic division is therefore written -3 1 0 -3 1 Hence: x5 + 25x2 + 7 = (x + 3)(x4 - 3x3 + 9x2 - 2x + 6) - 11. Example 2. Use synthetic division to show that 5 is a root of p(x) = 2x3 - 40x - 50 = 0, and use this fact to solve the equation. Solution: We divide p(x) by x - 5 with the object of showing that the remainder p(5) is zero. Thus: -3 0 9 9 25 -27 -2 0 6 6 7 -18 -11

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0 10

-40 50 10

-50 50 0

10

This shows us that p(x) = (x - 5)(2x2 + 10x + 10). The roots of p(x) = 0 are therefore obtained from x - 5 = 0, as 5 and (&5 25 & 20)/2; we have, then 5, (&5 % 5)/2, and (&5 & 5)/2. Example 3. Let f(x) = 9x3 + x2 - 7x + 4. Find numbers a, b, c, and d such that (3) f(x) ' a % b(x % 1) % c(x % 1)2 % d(x % 1)3. 2(x2 + 5x + 5) = 0

We give two solutions. First solution: Letting x = -1 in (3), we see that a = f(-1). We therefore use synthetic division to express f(x) in the form (x + 1)g(x) + f(-1) and find that g(x) = 9x2 - 8x + 1 and a = f(-1) = 3. Now (3) becomes (x + 1)(9x2 - 8x + 1) + 3 = 3 + b(x + 1) + c(x + 1)2 + d(x + 1)3. On each side we subtract 3 and then divide by x + 1, thus obtaining (4) g(x) ' 9x 2 & 8x % 1 ' b % c(x % 1) % d(x % 1)2.

Letting x = -1, we see that b = g(-1). We therefore treat g(x) as f(x) was treated above, and find that g(x) = (x + 1)(9x - 17) + 18. Hence b = 18. Then (4) becomes (x + 1)(9x - 17) + 18 = b + c(x + 1) + d(x + 1)2. This leads to 9x - 17 = c + d(x + 1) or 62

9(x + 1) - 26 = c + d(x + 1). Hence c = -26 and then d = 9. Alternate solution: Let x + 1 = y. Then x = y - 1 and f(x) = f(y - 1) = 9(y - 1)3 + (y - 1)2 - 7(y - 1) + 4. Expanding and collecting like terms, we obtain f(x) ' 3 % 18y & 26y 2 % 9y 3 ' 3 % 18(x % 1) & 26(x % 1)2 % 9(x % 1)3. 8.2 INTEGRAL ROOTS Let the coefficients ai of the polynomial equation a0xn + a1xn -1 + ... + an -1x + an = 0 be integers. Then it can be shown that the only possibilities for integral roots are the integral divisors of the last coefficient an. For example, an integer that is a root of x4 + x3 + x2 + 3x - 6 = 0 would have to be one of the eight integral divisors 1, 2, 3, 6 of -6. Trial of each of these eight integers, as in Example 2 in Section 8.1, would show that 1 and -2 are the only integral roots. The work can be reduced, when one root is found, by substituting the quotient polynomial for the original polynomial in further work. Thus 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 3 3 6 -6 6 0

shows that x4 + x3 + x2 + 3x - 6 = (x - 1)(x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 6). Hence, 1 is a root and the other roots are the roots of the equation x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 6 = 0. 8.3 RATIONAL ROOTS We now consider a polynomial equation

63

a0xn + a1xn -1 + ... + an -1x + an = 0,

a0 0

of degree n with integer coefficients ai. It can be shown that if there is a rational root p/q, with p and q integers having no common integral divisor greater that 1, then p must be an integral divisor of an and q must be an integral divisor of a0. For example, if the rational number p/q in lowest terms is a root of 6x4 - x3 - 6x2 - x - 12 = 0 then p must be one of the twelve integral divisors 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12 of -12 and q one

of the integral divisors of 6. Without losing any of the possibilities, we may restrict q to be positive, that is, to be one of the integers 1, 2, 3, 6. The possible rational roots, therefore, are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 1/2, 3/2, 1/3, 2/3, 4/3, 1/6. Trials would show that 3/2 and -4/3 are the only rational roots. Example. Prove that 2 % 3 is not a rational number.

Solution: Let a '

2 % 3.

Then 2 2 1 1 1 ' ' ' ' ' 3 3 2 2a 8a 2 0.

a & a & 2 2a % a2 & a 4 & 2a 2 % a 4 & 10a 2 %

Hence a is a root of x4 - 10x2 + 1 = 0. This fourth degree polynomial equation has integer coefficients. The rule on rational roots tells us that the only possible rational roots are 1 and -1. Substituting, we see that neither 1 nor -1 is a root. Hence there are no rational roots. Since a is a root, it follows that a is not rational. Problems for Sections 8.1, 8.2, and 8.3 1. Express p(x) = x4 + 5x3 - 10x - 12 in the form (x + 2)q(x) + p(-2). 2. Express f(x) = 5x5 - x4 - x3 - x2 - x - 2 in the form (x - 1)g(x) + f(1). 3. Show that -1 is a root of x3 + 3x2 - 2 = 0, and find the other roots. 64

4. Show that 2 is a root of x3 - 6x + 4 = 0, and find the other roots. 5. Find a, given that -4 is a root of 5x6 - 7x5 + 11x + a = 0. 6. Find b, given that 3 is a root of x7 - 10x5 + 8x3 + 4x2 - 3x + b = 0. 7. Find all the integral roots of x4 - 2x3 - x2 - 4x - 6 = 0, and then find the other roots. 8. Find all the integral roots of x5 - 8x4 + 15x3 + 8x2 - 64x + 120 = 0, and then find the other roots. 9. Let f(x) = (x - a)3 - x3 + a3. Find f(0) and f(a), and use this information to find two factors of f(x). 10. Let g(x) = (x - a)5 - x5 + a5. Show that f(x) is divisible by x and by x - a, and find the other factors. 11. Find all the integral roots of 3x4 + 20x3 + 36x2 + 16x = 0, and then find the other roots. 12. Let f(x) = a0xn + a1xn -1 + ... + an -1x; that is, let an = 0. Also, let the ai be integers. Show that any non-zero integral root of f(x) = 0 is an integral divisor of an -1. 13. Find a rational root of 3x3 + 4x2 - 21x + 10 = 0, and then find the other roots. 14. Find all the roots of 6x4 + 31x3 + 25x2 - 33x + 7 = 0. 15. Find all the roots of 81x5 - 54x4 + 3x2 - 2x = 0. 16. Let f(x) = a0xn + a1xn -1 + ... + an -1x with the ai integers. State a necessary condition for a non-zero rational number to be a root of f(x) = 0. 17. Given that a and b are integers, what are possibilities for rational roots of x3 + ax2 + bx + 30 = 0? 18. Let f(x) = xn + a1xn -1 + ... + an -1x + an with the ai integers. Note that a0 = 1. Show that any rational root of f(x) = 0 must be an integer. 19. Let f(x) be a polynomial. Let r and s be roots of f(x) = 0 and let r s. exist polynomials g(x) and h(x) such that all of the following are true: (a) (b) (c) (d) f(x) = (x - r)g(x). g(s) = 0. g(x) = (x - s)h(x). f(x) = (x - r)(x - s)h(x). 65 Show that there

20. Let f(x) = 0 be a polynomial equation with distinct roots r, s, and t. Show that f(x) = (x - r)(x - s)(x - t)p(x), with p(x) a polynomial. 21. Prove that if r1, r2..., rn are distinct roots of a polynomial equation f(x) = 0, then f(x) is a multiple of (x - r1)(x - r2)...(x - rn). 22. Prove that 23. Prove that 24. Prove that
3

3 & 2, 5 % 3,

2 & 3, and & 2 & 3 are all irrational. 5 & 3, & 5 % 3, and & 5 & 3 are all irrational.

14 is irrational.

25. Find an eighth-degree polynomial equation with integer coefficients that has 2 % 3 % 7 as a root. 26. If f(x) is a function of x, the notation )f(x) represents f(x + 1) - f(x). Show that )x 2 ' 2x % 1 and )x 3 ' 3x 2 % 3x % 1. 27. Let )f(x) ' f(x % 1) & f(x). (a) (b) (c) (d) Find )f(x) for each of the following:

f(x) = a + bx. f(x) = a + bx + cx2. f(x) = a + bx + cx2 + dx3. f(x) = xn, with n a positive integer.

28. Find f(x + 2) - 2f(x + 1) + f(x) for: (a) f(x) = a + bx. (b) f(x) = a + bx + cx2. 29. Find f(x + 3) - 3f(x + 2) + 3f(x + 1) - f(x) for: (a) f(x) = a + bx. (b) f(x) = a + bx + cx2. (c) f(x) = a + bx + cx2 + dx3. 30. Let )nf(x), with n a positive integer, be defined inductively by

66

)1f(x) ' )f(x) ' f(x % 1) & f(x), )2f(x) ' )[)f(x)] ' )[f(x % 1) & f(x)] ' [f(x % 2) & f(x % 1)] & [f(x % 1) & f(x)], 3 2 ) f(x) ' )[) f(x)], ..., )m% 1f(x) ' )[)mf(x)], ... . [The function )nf(x) is called the nth difference of f(x).] Show that )nf(x) ' ' (&1)k
n k'0

n f(x % n & k). k

31. Let )nf(x) be defined as in Problem 30 above and show: )nf(x) ' 0, if f(x) is a polynomial of degree less than n. )nf(x) ' n!a0, if f(x) = a0xn + a1xn -1 + ... + an.

(a) (b)

32. Let f(x) = a + bx + cx2. Let r = f(0), s = f(1) - f(0), and t = f(2) - 2f(1) + f(0). (a) Show that f(x) = r + sx + tx(x - 1)/2. (b) Generalize this problem. 33. Let f(x) = 5x4 - 6x3 - 3x2 + 8x + 2. Use repeated synthetic division to find numbers a, b, c, d, and e such that f(x) = a + b(x - 2) + c(x - 2)2 + d(x - 2)3 + e(x - 2)4. 34. Use the method of the alternate solution for Example 3 in Section 8.1 to do Problem 33. 35. Let f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c, and let a, b, c, and r be complex numbers. Show that f(x) = f(r) + (3r2 + 2ar + b)(x - r) + s(x - r)2 + (x - r)3, and express s in terms of a and r. 36. Let f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c, and let r be a root of f(x) = 0. Show that f(x) is divisible by (x - r)2 if and only if 3r2 + 2ar + b = 0. 67

37. Let f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c, g(x) = 3x2 + 2ax + b, and h(x) = 6x + 2a. Show that f(x) = (x - r)3 if and only if f(r) = g(r) = h(r) = 0. 38. Let f(x) = x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d. Find s, t, and u in terms of a, b, c, and r such that f(x) = f(r) + s(x -r) + t(x - r)2 + u(x - r)3 + (x - r)4. 39. Do the methods of this chapter enable you to solve x3 - 3x + 1 = 0?

8.4 SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS If we multiply out (x - a)(x - b)(x - c)(x - d), we obtain an expression of the form x4 - s1x3 + s2x2 - s3x + s4, where s1 = a + b + c + d, s2 = ab + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd, s3 = abc + abd + acd + bcd, s4 = abcd. We note that sk is the sum of all products of a, b, c, and d taken k at a time. It is also clear that the sk are symmetric functions of a, b, c, and d; that is, they do not change value when any two of a, b, c, and d are interchanged. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, the proof of which is too advanced for this book, states that the general nth degree polynomial with complex coefficients a0xn + a1xn-1 + ... + an-1x + an, a0 0 has a factorization into linear factors a0(x - r1)(x - r2) ... (x - rn) where the ri are complex numbers. One can then see that (-1)kak/a0 is the sum of all the products of k factors chosen from r1, r2, ..., rn. The absolute value of a real number x is written as |x| and is defined as follows: If x $ 0, then |x| = x; if x < 0, then |x| = -x. Problems for Section 8.4 1. Let 3(x - r)(x - s) = 3x2 - 12x + 8. Find the following: (a) r + s. (b) rs. (c) (r + s)2. (d) r2 + s2. (e) r2 - 2rs + s2. (f) |r - s|. 68

2. Find the sum, product, and absolute value of the difference of the roots of 5x2 + 7x - 4 = 0. 3. Let (x - r)(x - s) = x2 + x + 1. Show the following: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) r = -(s + 1), s = -(r + 1). r3 + r2 + r = 0 = s3 + s2 + s. r = s2, s = r2. r-1 + s2 = -1, s-1 + r2 = -1. r4 + r-1s-1 + s4 = 0. r9 - r6 + r3 - 1 = 0 = s9 - s6 + s3 - 1. r10 + s7 + r4 + s = -2 = s10 + r7 + s4 + r. (r2 - r + 1)(s2 - s + 1)(r4 - r2 + 1)(s4 - s2 + 1) = 16.

4. Let r be a root of x2 + x + 1 = 0. Show the following: (a) x3 - a3 = (x - a)(x - ar)(x - ar2). (b) x3 + y3 + z3 - 3xyz = (x + y + z)(x + ry + r2z)(x + r2y + rz). 5. Let a, b, and c be the roots of x3 + 3x + 3 = 0. Find (a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1). 6. Given that (x - a)(x - b) = x2 - px + q, express each of the following in terms of p and q: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) a + b. ab. a2 + 2ab + b2. a2 + ab + b2. ab(a2 + ab + b2). a3b3. The coefficients of the expansion of (x - a2)(x - ab)(x - b2).

7. Let (x - r)(x - s) = x2 - px + q, and let (x - r3)(x - r2s)(x - rs2)(x - s3) = x4 - ax3 + bx2 - cx + d. Express a, b, c, and d in terms of p and q. 8. Let (x - a)(x - b) = x2 - ex + f, (x - c)(x - d) = x2 - gx + h, and (x - ac)(x - ad)(x - bc)(x - bd) = x4 - px3 + qx2 - rx + s. Find p, q, r, and s in terms of e, f, g, and h. 9. Let (x - a)(x - b)(x - c) = x3 - 3x + 1. Find each of the following: (a) (b) (c) (d) 2(a + b + c). (a + b)(a + c) + (a + b)(b + c) + (a + c)(b + c). (a + b)(a + c)(b + c). the equation y3 - py2 + qy - r = 0 whose roots are a + b, a + c, and b + c.

10. Do Problem 9 with (x - a)(x - b)(x - c) = x3 + 3x - 1. 69

11. Let s1 = a + b + c, and s2 = ab + ac + bc, and s3 = abc. Find numbers x, y, z, t, u, v, and w such that for all a, b, and c: (a) a3 + b3 + c3 = xs3 + ys1s2 + zs13. (b) a4 + b4 + c4 = ts1s3 + us22 + vs12s2 + ws14. 12. Let (x - r)(x - s)(x - t) = x3 - ax2 + bx - c. Express r5 + s5 + t5 in terms of a, b, and c. 13. Let (x -1)(x -2)(x - 3)...(x - n) = xn - s1xn-1 + s2xn-2 - ... + (-1)nsn. Show the following: (a) s1 ' (b) sn = n!. (c) 2s2 = (13 + 23 + ... + n3) - (12 + 22 + ... + n2). n%1 . 2

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