CHAPTER II

Elementary Theorems on the Roots of an Equation

12. Quadratic Equation. If a, b, c are given numbers, a 6= 0,

(1) ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a 6= 0)

is called a quadratic equation or equation of the second degree. The reader

is familiar with the following method of solution by “completing the square.”
Multiply the terms of the equation by 4a, and transpose the constant term;
then
4a2 x2 + 4abx = −4ac.
Adding b2 to complete the square, we get

(2ax + b)2 = ∆, ∆ = b2 − 4ac,

√ √
−b + ∆ −b − ∆
(2) x1 = x2 =
2a 2a
By addition and multiplication, we find that
−b c
(3) x1 + x2 = , x 1 x2 = .
a a
Hence for all values of the variable x,

(4) a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) ≡ ax2 − a(x1 + x2 )x + ax1 x2 ≡ ax2 + bx + c,

the sign ≡ being used instead of = since these functions of x are identically
equal, i.e., the coefficients of like powers of x are the same. We speak of
a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) as the factored form of the quadratic function ax2 + bx + c,
and of x − x1 and x − x2 as its linear factors.
In (4) we assign to x the values x1 and x2 in turn, and see that

0 = ax21 + bx1 + c, 0 = ax22 + bx2 + c.

14 THEOREMS ON ROOTS OF EQUATIONS [Ch. II

Hence the values (2) are actually the roots of equation (1).
We call ∆ = b2 − 4ac the discriminant of the function ax2 + bx + c or of
the corresponding equation (1). If ∆ = 0, the roots (2) are evidently equal,
√
so that, by (4), ax2 + bx + c is the square of a(x − x1 ), and conversely. We
thus obtain the useful result that ax2 + bx + c is a perfect square (of a linear
function of x) if and only if b2 = 4ac ( i.e., if its discriminant is zero).
Consider a real quadratic equation, i.e., one whose coefficients a, b, c are
all real numbers. Then if ∆ is positive, the two roots (2) are real. But if ∆ is
negative, the roots are conjugate imaginaries (§2).
When the coefficients of a quadratic equation (1) are any complex numbers,
∆ has two complex square roots (§9), so that the roots (2) of (1) are complex
numbers, which need not be conjugate.
For example, the discriminant of x2 − 2x + c is ∆ = 4(1 − c). If c = 1, then ∆ = 0
and x2 − 2x + 1 ≡ (x − 1)2 is a perfect square, and the roots 1, 1 of x2 − 2x + 1 = 0
are equal. If c = 0, ∆ = 4 is positive and the roots 0 and 2 of x2 − 2x ≡ x(x − 2) = 0
√
are real. If c = 2, ∆ = −4 is negative and the roots 1 ± −1 of x2 − 2x + 2 = 0 are
conjugate complex numbers. The roots of x2 − x + 1 + i = 0 are i and 1 − i, and are
not conjugate.

13. Integral Rational Function, Polynomial. If n is a positive integer

and c0 , c1 , . . . , cn are constants (real or imaginary),

f (x) ≡ c0 xn + c1 xn−1 + · · · + cn−1 x + cn

is called a polynomial in x of degree n, or also an integral rational function of x

of degree n. It is given the abbreviated notation f (x), just as the logarithm of
x + 2 is written log(x + 2).
If c0 6= 0, f (x) = 0 is an equation of degree n. If n = 3, it is often called a
cubic equation; and, if n = 4, a quartic equation. For brevity, we often speak
of an equation all of whose coefficients are real as a real equation.

14. The Remainder Theorem. If a polynomial f (x) be divided by x − c

until a remainder independent of x is obtained, this remainder is equal to f (c),
which is the value of f (x) when x = c.
Denote the remainder by r and the quotient by q(x). Since the dividend
is f (x) and the divisor is x − c, we have

f (x) ≡ (x − c)q(x) + r,

identically in x. Taking x = c, we obtain f (c) = r.

If r = 0, the division is exact. Hence we have proved also the following
useful theorem.
§14.] REMAINDER THEOREM 15

The Factor Theorem. If f (c) is zero, the polynomial f (x) has the
factor x − c. In other words, if c is a root of f (x) = 0, x − c is a factor of f (x).

For example, 2 is a root of x3 − 8 = 0, so that x − 2 is a factor of x3 − 8.

Another illustration is furnished by formula (4).

EXERCISES

Without actual division find the remainder when

1. x4 − 3x2 − x − 6 is divided by x + 3.
2. x3 − 3x2 + 6x − 5 is divided by x − 3.
Without actual division show that

3. 18x10 + 19x5 + 1 is divisible by x + 1.

4. 2x4 − x3 − 6x2 + 4x − 8 is divisible by x − 2 and x + 2.
5. x4 − 3x3 + 3x2 − 3x + 2 is divisible by x − 1 and x − 2.
6. r3 − 1, r4 − 1, r5 − 1 are divisible by r − 1.
7. By performing the indicated multiplication, verify that

rn − 1 ≡ (r − 1)(rn−1 + rn−2 + · · · + r + 1).

8. In the last identity replace r by x/y, multiply by y n , and derive

xn − y n ≡ (x − y)(xn−1 + xn−2 y + · · · + xy n−2 + y n−1 ).

9. In the identity of Exercise 8 replace y by −y, and derive

xn + y n ≡ (x + y)(xn−1 − xn−2 y + · · · − xy n−2 + y n−1 ), n odd;

n n n−1 n−2 n−2 n−1
x − y ≡ (x + y)(x −x y + · · · + xy −y ), n even.

Verify by the Factor Theorem that x + y is a factor.

10. If a, ar, ar2 , . . . , arn−1 are n numbers in geometrical progression (the ratio
of any term to the preceding being a constant r 6= 1), prove by Exercise 7 that their
sum is equal to
a(rn − 1)
.
r−1
16 THEOREMS ON ROOTS OF EQUATIONS [Ch. II

11. At the end of each of n years a man deposits in a savings bank a dollars.
With annual compound interest at 4%, show that his account at the end of n years
will be
a 
(1.04)n − 1
.04
dollars. Hint: The final deposit draws no interest; the prior deposit will amount
to a(1.04) dollars; the deposit preceding that will amount to a(1.04)2 dollars, etc.
Hence apply Exercise 10 for r = 1.04.

15. Synthetic Division. The labor of computing the value of a polyno-

mial in x for an assigned value of x may be shortened by a simple device. To
find the value of
x4 + 3x3 − 2x − 5
for x = 2, note that x4 = x · x3 = 2x3 , so that the sum of the first two terms
of the polynomial is 5x3 . To 5x3 = 5 · 22 x we add the next term −2x and
obtain 18x or 36. Combining 36 with the final term −5, we obtain the desired
value 31.
This computation may be arranged systematically as follows. After sup-
plying zero coefficients of missing powers of x, we write the coefficients in a
line, ignoring the powers of x.

1 3 0 −2 −5 2
2 10 20 36
1 5 10 18 31

First we bring down the first coefficient 1. Then we multiply it by the given
value 2 and enter the product 2 directly under the second coefficient 3, add
and write the sum 5 below. Similarly, we enter the product of 5 by 2 under the
third coefficient 0, add and write the sum 10 below; etc. The final number 31
in the third line is the value of the polynomial when x = 2. The remaining
numbers in this third line are the coefficients, in their proper order, of the
quotient
x3 + 5x2 + 10x + 18,
which would be obtained by the ordinary long division of the given polynomial
by x − 2.
We shall now prove that this process, called synthetic division, enables us
to find the quotient and remainder when any polynomial f (x) is divided by
x − c. Write

f (x) ≡ a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · + an ,
§16.] FACTORED FORM OF A POLYNOMIAL 17

and let the constant remainder be r and the quotient be

q(x) ≡ b0 xn−1 + b1 xn−2 + · · · + bn−1 .

By comparing the coefficients of f (x) with those in

(x − c)q(x) + r ≡ b0 xn + (b1 − cb0 )xn−1

+ (b2 − cb1 )xn−2 + · · · + (bn−1 − cbn−2 )x + r − cbn−1 ,
we obtain relations which become, after transposition of terms,
b0 = a0 , b1 = a1 + cb0 , b2 = a2 + cb1 , . . . , bn−1 = an−1 + cbn−2 , r = an + cbn−1 .
The steps in the work of computing the b’s may be tabulated as follows:
a0 a1 a2 ··· an−1 an c
cb0 cb1 ··· cbn−2 cbn−1
b0 b1 b2 ··· bn−1 , r

In the second space below a0 we write b0 (which is equal to a0 ). We multiply

b0 by c and enter the product directly under a1 , add and write the sum b1
below it. Next we multiply b1 by c and enter the product directly under a2 ,
add and write the sum b2 below it; etc.

EXERCISES

Work each of the following exercises by synthetic division.

1. Divide x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 5 by x − 2.
2. Divide 2x5 − x3 + 2x − 1 by x + 2.
3. Divide x3 + 6x2 + 10x − 1 by x − 0.09.
4. Find the quotient of x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24 by x − 4, and then divide the quotient
by x − 3. What are the roots of x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24 = 0?
5. Given that x4 − 2x3 − 7x2 + 8x + 12 = 0 has the roots −1 and 2, find the
quadratic equation whose roots are the remaining two roots of the given equation,
and find these roots.
6. If x4 − 2x3 − 12x2 + 10x + 3 = 0 has the roots 1 and −3, find the remaining
two roots.
7. Find the quotient of 2x4 − x3 − 6x2 + 4x − 8 by x2 − 4.
8. Find the quotient of x4 − 3x3 + 3x2 − 3x + 2 by x2 − 3x + 2.
9. Solve Exercises 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 of §14 by synthetic division.
18 THEOREMS ON ROOTS OF EQUATIONS [Ch. II

16. Factored Form of a Polynomial. Consider a polynomial

f (x) ≡ c0 xn + c1 xn−1 + · · · + cn (c0 6= 0),

whose leading coefficient c0 is not zero. If f (x) = 0 has the root α1 , which may
be any complex number, the Factor Theorem shows that f (x) has the factor
x − α1 , so that

f (x) ≡ (x − α1 )Q(x), Q(x) ≡ c0 xn−1 + c01 xn−2 + · · · + c0α−1 .

If Q(x) = 0 has the root α2 , then

Q(x) ≡ (x − α2 )Q1 (x), f (x) ≡ (x − α1 )(x − α2 )Q1 (x).

If Q1 (x) = 0 has the root α3 , etc., we finally get

(5) f (x) ≡ c0 (x − α1 )(x − α2 ) · · · (x − αn ).

We shall deduce several important conclusions from the preceding discus-

sion. First, suppose that the equation f (x) = 0 of degree n is known to
have n distinct roots α1 , . . . , αn . In f (x) ≡ (x − α1 )Q(x) take x = α2 ; then
0 = (α2 − α1 )Q(α2 ), whence Q(α2 ) = 0 and Q(x) = 0 has the root α2 . Similarly,
Q1 (x) = 0 has the root α3 , etc. Thus all of the assumptions (each introduced
by an “if”) made in the above discussion have been justified and we have the
conclusion (5). Hence if an equation f (x) = 0 of degree n has n distinct roots
α1 , . . . , αn , f (x) can be expressed in the factored form (5).
It follows readily that the equation can not have a root α different from
α1 , . . . , αn . For, if it did, the left member of (5) is zero when x = α and hence
one of the factors of the right member must then be zero, say α−αj = 0, whence
the root α is equal to αj . We have now proved the following important result.
Theorem. An equation of degree n cannot have more than n distinct
roots.

17. Multiple Roots.1 Equalities may occur among the α’s in (5). Sup-
pose that exactly m1 of the α’s (including α1 ) are equal to α1 ; that α2 6= α1 ,
while exactly m2 of the α’s are equal to α2 ; etc. Then (5) becomes

(6) f (x) ≡ c0 (x − α1 )m1 (x − α2 )m2 · · · (x − αk )mk , m1 + m2 + · · · + mk = n,

where α1 , . . . , αk are distinct. We then call α1 a root of multiplicity m1 of

f (x) = 0, α2 a root of multiplicity m2 , etc. In other words, α1 is a root of
1
Multiple roots are treated by calculus in §58.
§19.] FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA 19

multiplicity m1 of f (x) = 0 if f (x) is exactly divisible by (x − α1 )m1 , but is not

divisible by (x − α1 )m1 +1 . We call α1 also an m1 -fold root. In the particular
cases m1 = 1, 2, and 3, we also speak of α1 as a simple root, double root, and
triple root, respectively. For example, 4 is a simple root, 3 a double root, −2 a
triple root, and 6 a root of multiplicity 4 (or a 4-fold root) of the equation

7(x − 4)(x − 3)2 (x + 2)3 (x − 6)4 = 0

of degree 10 which has no further root. This example illustrates the next
theorem, which follows from (6) exactly as the theorem in §16 followed from (5).
Theorem. An equation of degree n cannot have more than n roots, a
root of multiplicity m being counted as m roots.

18. Identical Polynomials. If two polynomials in x,

a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · + an , b0 xn + b1 xn−1 + · · · + bn ,

each of degree n, are equal in value for more than n distinct values of x, they
are term by term identical, i.e., a0 = b0 , a1 = b1 , . . . , an = bn .
For, taking their difference and writing c0 = a0 − b0 , . . . , cn = an − bn , we
have
c0 xn + c1 xn−1 + · · · + cn = 0
for more than n distinct values of x. If c0 6= 0, we would have a contradiction
with the theorem in §16. Hence c0 = 0. If c1 6= 0, we would have a contradiction
with the same theorem with n replaced by n − 1. Hence c1 = 0, etc. Thus
a0 = b0 , a1 = b1 , etc.

EXERCISES

1. Find a cubic equation having the roots 0, 1, 2.

2. Find a quartic equation having the roots ±1, ±2.
3. Find a quartic equation having the two double roots 3 and −3.
4. Find a quartic equation having the root 2 and the triple root 1.
5. What is the condition that ax2 + bx + c = 0 shall have a double root?
6. If a0 xn + · · · + an = 0 has more than n distinct roots, each coefficient is zero.
7. Why is there a single answer to each of Exercises 1–4, if the coefficient of
the highest power of the unknown be taken equal to unity? State and answer the
corresponding general question.
20 THEOREMS ON ROOTS OF EQUATIONS [Ch. II

19. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. Every algebraic equa-

tion with complex coefficients has a complex (real or imaginary) root.
This theorem, which is proved in the Appendix, implies that every equation
of degree n has exactly n roots if a root of multiplicity m be counted as m roots.
In other words, every integral rational function of degree n is a product of
n linear factors. For, in §16, equations f (x) = 0, Q(x) = 0, Q1 (x) = 0, . . . each
has a root, so that (5) and (6) hold.

20. Relations between the Roots and the Coefficients. In §12 we

found the sum and the product of the two roots of any quadratic equation and
then deduced the factored form of the equation. We now apply the reverse
process to any equation
(7) f (x) ≡ c0 xn + c1 xn−1 + · · · + cn = 0 (c0 6= 0),

whose factored form is

(8) f (x) ≡ c0 (x − α1 )(x − α2 ) · · · (x − αn ).
Our next step is to find the expanded form of this product. The following
special products may be found by actual multiplication:
(x − α1 )(x − α2 ) ≡ x2 − (α1 + α2 )x + α1 α2 ,
(x − α1 )(x − α2 )(x − α3 ) ≡ x3 − (α1 + α2 + α3 )x2
+ (α1 α2 + α1 α3 + α2 α3 )x − α1 α2 α3 .
These identities are the cases n = 2 and n = 3 of the following general formula:
(9) (x − α1 )(x − α2 ) · · · (x − αn ) ≡ xn − (α1 + · · · + αn )xn−1
+ (α1 α2 + α1 α3 + α2 α3 + · · · + αn−1 αn )xn−2
− (α1 α2 α3 + α1 α2 α4 + · · · + αn−2 αn−1 αn )xn−3
+ · · · + (−1)n α1 α2 · · · αn ,
the quantities in parentheses being described in the theorem below. If we
multiply each member of (9) by x − αn+1 , it is not much trouble to verify that
the resulting identity can be derived from (9) by changing n into n + 1, so that
(9) is proved true by mathematical induction. Hence the quotient of (7) by c0
is term by term identical with (9), so that
α1 + α2 + · · · + αn = −c1 /c0 ,
α1 α2 + α1 α3 + α2 α3 + · · · + αn−1 αn = c2 /c0 ,
(10) α1 α2 α3 + α1 α2 α4 + · · · + αn−2 αn−1 αn = −c3 /c0 ,
..
.
α1 α2 · · · αn−1 αn = (−1)n cn /c0 .
§20.] RELATIONS BETWEEN ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS 21

These results may be expressed in the following words:

Theorem. If α1 , . . . , αn are the roots of equation (7), the sum of the roots
is equal to −c1 /c0 , the sum of the products of the roots taken two at a time
is equal to c2 /c0 , the sum of the products of the roots taken three at a time is
equal to −c3 /c0 , etc.; finally, the product of all the roots is equal to (−1)n cn /c0 .

Since we may divide the terms of our equation (7) by c0 , the essential part
of our theorem is contained in the following simpler statement:
Corollary. In an equation in x of degree n, in which the coefficient
n
of x is unity, the sum of the n roots is equal to the negative of the coefficient
of xn−1 , the sum of the products of the roots two at a time is equal to the
coefficient of xn−2 , etc.; finally the product of all the roots is equal to the
constant term or its negative, according as n is even or odd.
For example, in a cubic equation having the roots 2, 2, 5, and having unity as
the coefficient of x3 , the coefficient of x is 2 · 2 + 2 · 5 + 2 · 5 = 24.

EXERCISES

1. Find a cubic equation having the roots 1, 2, 3.

2. Find a quartic equation having the double roots 2 and −2.
3. Solve x4 − 6x3 + 13x2 − 12x + 4 = 0, which has two double roots.
4. Prove that one root of x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0 is the negative of another root
if and only if r = pq.

5. Solve 4x3 − 16x2 − 9x + 36 = 0, given that one root is the negative of another.
6. Solve x3 − 9x2 + 23x − 15 = 0, given that one root is the triple of another.
7. Solve x4 − 6x3 + 12x2 − 10x + 3 = 0, which has a triple root.
8. Solve x3 − 14x2 − 84x + 216 = 0, whose roots are in geometrical progression,
i.e., with a common ratio r [say m/r, m, mr].

9. Solve x3 − 3x2 − 13x + 15 = 0, whose roots are in arithmetical progression,

i.e., with a common difference d [say m − d, m, m + d].

10. Solve x4 − 2x3 − 21x2 + 22x + 40 = 0, whose roots are in arithmetical pro-
gression. [Denote them by c − 3b, c − b, c + b, c + 3b, with the common difference
2b].

11. Find a quadratic equation whose roots are the squares of the roots of x2 −
px + q = 0.
22 THEOREMS ON ROOTS OF EQUATIONS [Ch. II

12. Find a quadratic equation whose roots are the cubes of the roots of x2 − px +
q = 0. Hint: α3 + β 3 = (α + β)3 − 3αβ(α + β).
13. If α and β are the roots of x2 − px + q = 0, find an equation whose roots are
(i) α2 /β; and β 2 /α; (ii) α3 β and αβ 3 ; (iii) α + 1/β and β + 1/α.
14. Find a necessary and sufficient condition that the roots, taken in some order,
of x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0 shall be in geometrical progression.
15. Solve x3 − 28x + 48 = 0, given that two roots differ by 2.

21. Imaginary Roots occur in Pairs. The two roots of a real quadratic
equation whose discriminant is negative are conjugate imaginaries (§12). This
fact illustrates the following useful result.
Theorem. If an algebraic equation with real coefficients has the root a +
bi, where a and b are real and b 6= 0, it has also the root a − bi.
Let the equation be f (x) = 0 and divide f (x) by
(11) (x − a)2 + b2 ≡ (x − a − bi)(x − a + bi)

until we reach a remainder rx + s whose degree in x is less than the degree of

the divisor. Since the coefficients of the dividend and divisor are all real, those
of the quotient Q(x) and remainder are real. We have
f (x) ≡ Q(x) (x − a)2 + b2 + rx + s,


identically in x. This identity is true in particular when x = a + bi, so that

0 = r(a + bi) + s = ra + s + rbi.

Since all of the letters, other than i, denote real numbers, we have (§2) ra+s =
0, rb = 0. But b 6= 0. Hence r = 0, and then s = 0. Hence f (x) is exactly
divisible by the function (11), so that f (x) = 0 has the root a − bi.
The theorem may be applied to the real quotient Q(x). We obtain the
Corollary. If a real algebraic equation has an imaginary root of mul-
tiplicity m, the conjugate imaginary of this root is a root of multiplicity m.

Counting a root of multiplicity m as m roots, we see that a real equation

cannot have an odd number of imaginary roots. Hence by §19, a real equation
of odd degree has at least one real root.
Of the n linear factors of a real integral rational function of degree n (§19),
those having imaginary coefficients may be paired as in (11). Hence every
integral rational function with real coefficients can be expressed as a product of
real linear and real quadratic factors.
§22.] UPPER LIMIT TO THE REAL ROOTS 23

EXERCISES
√
1. Solve x3 − 3x2 − 6x − 20 = 0, one root being −1 + −3.
2. Solve x4 − 4x3 + 5x2 − 2x − 2 = 0, one root being 1 − i.
3. Find a cubic equation with real coefficients two of whose roots are 1 and
3 + 2i.
√
4. If a real cubic equation x3 − 6x2 + · · · = 0 has the root 1 + −5, what are
the remaining roots? Find the complete equation.
√
5. If an equation
√ with rational coefficients has a root a + √b, where a and b are
rational, but b is irrational, prove that it has the root a − b. [Use the method
of §21.]
√
6. Solve x4 − 4x3 + 4x − 1 = 0, one root being 2 + 3.
√ √ √ √
7. Solve x3 − (4 + 3)x2 + (5 + 4 3)x − 5 3 = 0, having the root 3.

8. Solve the equation in Ex. 7, given that it has the root 2 + i.

√
9. Find a cubic equation with rational coefficients having the roots 21 , 12 + 2.
√
10. Given that x4 − 2x3 − 5x2 − 6x + 2 = 0 has the root 2 − 3, find another
root and by means of the sum and the product of the four roots deduce, without
division, the quadratic equation satisfied by the remaining two roots.

11. Granted that a certain cubic equation has the root 2 and no real root different
from 2, does it have two imaginary roots?

12. Granted that a certain quartic equation has the roots 2±3i, and no imaginary
roots different from them, does it have two real roots?

13. By means of the proof of Ex. 5, may we conclude as at the end of §21
that every integral rational function with rational coefficients can be expressed as a
product of linear and quadratic factors with rational coefficients?

22. Upper Limit to the Real Roots. Any number which exceeds all
real roots of a real equation is called an upper limit to the real roots. We shall
prove two theorems which enable us to find readily upper limits to the real
roots. For some equations Theorem I gives a better (smaller) upper limit than
Theorem II; for other equations, the reverse is true. Evidently any positive
number is an upper limit to the real roots of an equation having no negative
coefficients.
24 THEOREMS ON ROOTS OF EQUATIONS [Ch. II

Theorem I. If, in a real equation

f (x) ≡ a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · + an = 0 (a0 > 0),

the first negative coefficient is preceded by k coefficients which are positive or

zero, and if G denotes the greatest of the numerical
p values of the negative
k
coefficients, then each real root is less than 1 + G/a0 .
For example, in x5 + 4x4 − 7x2 − 40x + 1 = 0, G = 40 and k = 3 since we must
supply the coefficient zero√to the missing power x3 . Thus the theorem asserts that
each root is less than 1 + 3 40 and therefore less than 4.42. Hence 4.42 is an upper
limit to the roots.
Proof. For positive values of x, f (x) will be reduced in value or remain
unchanged if we omit the terms a1 xn−1 , . . . , ak−1 xn−k+1 (which are positive or
zero), and if we change each later coefficient ak , . . . , an to −G. Hence

f (x) = a0 xn − G(xn−k + xn−k−1 + · · · + x + 1).

But, by Ex. 7 of §14,

xn−k+1 − 1
xn−k + · · · + x + 1 ≡ ,
x−1

if x 6= 1. Furthermore,
!
n xn−k+1 − 1 xn−k+1 {a0 xk−1 (x − 1) − G} + G
a0 x − G ≡ .
x−1 x−1

Hence, if x > 1,

xn−k+1 a0 xk−1 (x − 1) − G

f (x) > ,
x−1
xn−k+1 a0 (x − 1)k − G

f (x) > .
x−1

Thus, for x > 1p , f (x) > 0 and x is not a root if a0 (x − 1)k − G = 0, which is
true if x = 1 + k G/a0 .

23. Another Upper Limit to the Roots.

Theorem II. If, in a real algebraic equation in which the coefficient of the
highest power of the unknown is positive, the numerical value of each negative
coefficient be divided by the sum of all the positive coefficients which precede
it, the greatest quotient so obtained increased by unity is an upper limit to the
roots.
§23.] ANOTHER UPPER LIMIT TO THE ROOTS 25

For the example in §22, the quotients are 7/(1 + 4) and 40/5, so that Theorem II
asserts that 1 + 8 or 9 is an upper limit to the roots. Theorem I gave the better
upper limit 4.42. But for x3 + 8x2 − 9x + c2 = 0, Theorem I gives the upper limit 4,
while Theorem II gives the better upper limit 2.
We first give the proof for the case of the equation

f (x) ≡ p4 x4 − p3 x3 + p2 x2 − p1 x + p0 = 0

in which each pi is positive. In view of the identities

x4 ≡ (x − 1)(x3 + x2 + x + 1) + 1, x2 ≡ (x − 1)(x + 1) + 1,

f (x) is equal to the sum of the terms

p4 (x − 1)x3 + p4 (x − 1)x2 + p4 (x − 1)x + p4 (x − 1) + p4 ,

− p 3 x3 +p2 (x − 1)x + p2 (x − 1) + p2 ,
− p1 x + p0 .

If x > 1, negative terms occur only in the first and third columns, while the sum of
the terms in each of these two columns will be = 0 if

p4 (x − 1) − p3 = 0, (p4 + p2 )(x − 1) − p1 = 0.

Hence f (x) > 0 and x is not a root if

p3 p1
x=1+ , x=1+ .
p4 p4 + p2
This proves the theorem for the present equation.
Next, let f (x) be modified by changing its constant term to −p0 . We modify the
above proof by employing the sum (p4 +p2 )x−p0 of all the terms in the corresponding
last two columns. This sum will be > 0 if x > p0 /(p4 + p2 ), which is true if
p0
x=1+ .
p4 + p2

To extend this method of proof to the general case

f (x) ≡ an xn + · · · + a0 (an > 0),

we have only to employ suitable general notations. Let the negative coefficients
be ak1 , . . . , akt , where k1 > k2 > · · · > kt . For each positive integer m which is
5 n and distinct from k1 , . . . , kt , we replace xm by the equal value

d(xm−1 + xm−2 + · · · + x + 1) + 1

where d ≡ x − 1. Let F (x) denote the polynomial in x, with coefficients involv-

ing d, which is obtained from f (x) by these replacements. Let x > 1, so that
26 THEOREMS ON ROOTS OF EQUATIONS [Ch. II

d is positive. Thus the terms aki xki are the only negative quantities occurring
in F (x). If ki > 0, the terms of F (x) which involve explicitly the power xki are
aki xki and the am dxki for the various positive coefficients am which precede aki .
P
The sum of these terms will be = 0 if aki + d am = 0, i.e., if
−ak
x=1+ P i .
am

There is an additional case if kt = 0, i.e., if a0 is negative. Then the terms

of F (x) not involving x explicitly are a0 and the am (d + 1) for the various
P
positive coefficients am . Their sum, a0 + x am , will be > 0 if
−a
x> P 0 ,
am

which is true if
−a
x=1+ P 0 .
am

EXERCISES

Apply the methods of both §22 and §23 to find an upper limit to the roots of

1. 4x5 − 8x4 + 22x3 + 98x2 − 73x + 5 = 0.

2. x4 − 5x3 + 7x2 − 8x + 1 = 0.
3. x7 + 3x6 − 4x5 + 5x4 − 6x3 − 7x2 − 8 = 0.
4. x7 + 2x5 + 4x4 − 8x2 − 32 = 0.
5. A lower limit to the negative roots of f (x) = 0 may be found by applying our
theorems to f (−x) = 0, i.e., to the equation derived from f (x) = 0 by replacing x
by −x. Find a lower limit to the negative roots in Exs. 2, 3, 4.

6. Prove that every real root of a real equation f (x) = 0 is less than 1 + g/a0 if
a0 > 0, where g denotes the greatest of the numerical values of a1 , . . . , an . Hint: if
x > 0,
a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · = a0 xn − g(xn−1 + · · · + x + 1).
Proceed as in §22 with k = 1.

7. Prove that 1 + g ÷ |a0 | is an upper limit for the moduli of all complex roots
of any equation f (x) = 0 with complex coefficients, where g is the greatest of the
values |a1 |, . . . , |an |, and |a| denotes the modulus of a. Hint: use Ex. 5 of §8.
§24.] INTEGRAL ROOTS 27

24. Integral Roots. For an equation all of whose coefficients are inte-
gers, any integral root is an exact divisor of the constant term.
For, if x is an integer such that
(12) a0 xn + · · · + an−1 x + an = 0,
where the a’s are all integers, then, by transposing terms, we obtain
x(−a0 xn−1 − · · · − an−1 ) = an .
Thus x is an exact divisor of an since the quotient is the integer given by the
quantity in parenthesis.
Example 1. Find all the integral roots of
x3 + x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.

Solution. The exact divisors of the constant term 9 are ±1, ±3, ±9. By trial,
no one of ±1, 3 is a root. Next, we find that −3 is a root by synthetic division (§15):
1 1 −3 9 −3
−3 6 −9
1 −2 3 0
√
Hence the quotient is x2 − 2x + 3, which is zero for x = 1 ± −2. Thus −3 is
the only integral root.
When the constant term has numerous exact divisors, some device may
simplify the application of the theorem.
Example 2.2 Find all the integral roots of
y 3 + 12y 2 − 32y − 256 = 0.

Solution. Since all the terms except y 3 are divisible by 2, an integral root y
must be divisible by 2. Since all the terms except y 3 are now divisible by 24 , we
have y = 4z, where z is an integer. Removing the factor 26 from the equation in z,
we obtain
z 3 + 3z 2 − 2z − 4 = 0.
An integral root must divide the constant term 4. Hence, if there are any integral
roots, they occur among the numbers ±1, ±2, ±4. By trial, −1 is found to be a
root:
1 3 −2 −4 −1
−1 −2 4
1 2 −4 0
2
This problem is needed for the solution (§48) of a certain quartic equation.
28 THEOREMS ON ROOTS OF EQUATIONS [Ch. II

√
Hence the quotient is z 2 + 2z − 4, which is zero for z = −1 ± 5. Thus y = 4z = −4
is the only integral root of the proposed equation.

EXERCISES

Find all the integral roots of

1. x3 + 8x2 + 13x + 6 = 0. 2. x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24 = 0.

3. x3 − 10x2 + 27x − 18 = 0. 4. x4 + 4x3 + 8x + 32 = 0.

5. The equation in Ex. 4 of §23.

25. Newton’s Method for Integral Roots. In §24 we proved that an

integral root x of equation (12) having integral coefficients must be an exact
divisor of an . Similarly, if we transpose all but the last two terms of (12), we
see that an−1 x + an must be divisible by x2 , and hence an−1 + an /x divisible
by x. By transposing all but the last three terms of (12), we see that their sum
must be divisible by x3 , and hence an−2 + (an−1 + an /x)/x divisible by x. We
thus obtain a series of conditions of divisibility which an integral root must
satisfy. The final sum a0 + a1 /x + · · · must not merely be divisible by x, but
be actually zero, since it is the quotient of the function (12) by xn .
In practice, we must test in turn the various divisors x of an . If a chosen x
is not a root, that fact will be disclosed by one of the conditions mentioned.
Newton’s method is quicker than synthetic division since it usually detects
early and throws out wrong guesses as to a root, whereas in synthetic division
the decision comes only at the final step.
For example, the divisor −3 of the constant term of

(13) f (x) ≡ x4 − 9x3 + 24x2 − 23x + 15 = 0

is not a root since −23 + 15/(−3) = −28 is not divisible by −3. To show that none
of the tests fails for 3, so that 3 is a root, we may arrange the work systematically
as follows:

1 −9 24 −23 15 3
(14) −1 6 −6 5 (divisor)
0 −3 18 −18

First we divide the final coefficient 15 by 3, place the quotient 5 directly under the
coefficient −23, and add. Next, we divide this sum −18 by 3, place the quotient −6
§26.] ANOTHER METHOD FOR INTEGRAL ROOTS 29

directly under the coefficient 24, and add. After two more such steps we obtain the
sum zero, so that 3 is a root.
It is instructive to obtain the preceding process by suitably modifying synthetic
division. First, we replace x by 1/y in (13), multiply each term by y 4 , and obtain

15y 4 − 23y 3 + 24y 2 − 9y + 1 = 0.

We may test this for the root y = 13 , which corresponds to the root x = 3 of (13),
by ordinary synthetic division:
1
15 −23 24 −9 1 3
5 −6 6 −1 (multiplier)
15 −18 18 −3 0

The coefficients in the last two lines (after omitting 15) are the same as those of the
last two lines in (14) read in reverse order. This should be the case since we have
here multiplied the same numbers by 13 that we divided by 3 in (14). The numbers
in the present third line are the coefficients of the quotient (§15). Since we equate
the quotient to zero for the applications, we may replace these coefficients by the
numbers in the second line which are the products of the former numbers by 31 . The
numbers in the second line of (14) are the negatives of the coefficients of the quotient
of f (x) by x − 3.
Example. Find all the integral roots of equation (13).
Solution. For a negative value of x, each term is positive. Hence all the real
roots are positive. By §23, 10 is an upper limit to the roots. By §24, any integral
root is an exact divisor of the constant term 15. Hence the integral roots, if any,
occur among the numbers 1, 3, 5. Since f (1) = 8, 1 is not a root. By (14), 3 is
a root. Proceeding similarly with the quotient by x − 3, whose coefficients are the
negatives of the numbers in the second line of (14), we find that 5 is a root.

EXERCISES

1. Solve Exs. 1–4 of §24 by Newton’s method.

2. Prove that, in extending the process (14) to the general equation (12), we
may employ the final equations in §15 with r = 0 and write

a0 a1 a2 ... an−2 an−1 an c

−b0 −b1 −b2 ... −bn−2 −bn−1 (divisor)
0 −cb0 −cb1 ... −cbn−3 −cbn−2

Here the quotient, −bn−1 , of an by c is placed directly under an−1 , and added to it
to yield the sum −cbn−2 , etc.
30 THEOREMS ON ROOTS OF EQUATIONS [Ch. II

26. Another Method for Integral Roots. An integral divisor d of the

constant term is not a root if d − m is not a divisor of f (m), where m is any
chosen integer. For, if d is a root of f (x) = 0, then

f (x) ≡ (x − d)Q(x),

where Q(x) is a polynomial having integral coefficients (§15). Hence f (m) =

(m − d)q , where q is the integer Q(m).
In the example of §25, take d = 15, m = 1. Since f (1) = 8 is not divisible by
15 − 1 = 14, 15 is not an integral root.
Consider the more difficult example

f (x) ≡ x3 − 20x2 + 164x − 400 = 0,

whose constant term has many divisors. There is evidently no negative root, while
21 is an upper limit to the roots. The positive divisors less than 21 of 400 = 24 52 are
d = 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 5, 10, 20. First, take m = 1 and note that f (1) = −255 = −3·5·17.
The corresponding values of d − 1 are 0, 1, 3, 7, 15, 4, 9, 19; of these, 7, 4, 9, 19 are
not divisors of f (1), so that d = 8, 5, 10 and 20 are not roots. Next, take m = 2
and note that f (2) = −144 is not divisible by 16 − 2 = 14. Hence 16 is not a root.
Incidentally, d = 1 and d = 2 were excluded since f (d) 6= 0. There remains only
d = 4, which is a root.
In case there are numerous divisors within the limits to the roots, it is
usually a waste of time to list all these divisors. For, if a divisor is found to
be a root, it is preferable to employ henceforth the quotient, as was done in
the example in §25.

EXERCISES

Find all the integral roots of

1. x4 − 2x3 − 21x2 + 22x + 40 = 0.

2. y 3 − 9y 2 − 24y + 216 = 0.

3. x4 − 23x3 + 187x2 − 653x + 936 = 0.

4. x5 + 47x4 + 423x3 + 140x2 + 1213x − 420 = 0.

5. x5 − 34x3 + 29x2 + 212x − 300 = 0.

§27.] RATIONAL ROOTS 31

27. Rational Roots. If an equation with integral coefficients

(15) c0 xn + c1 xn−1 + · · · + cn−1 x + cn = 0

has the rational root a/b, where a and b are integers without a common divisor
> 1, then a is an exact divisor of cn , and b is an exact divisor of c0 .
Insert the value a/b of x and multiply all terms of the equation by bn . We
obtain
c0 an + c1 an−1 b + · · · + cn−1 abn−1 + cn bn = 0.
Since a divides all the terms preceding the last term, it divides that term. But
a has no divisor in common with bn ; hence a divides cn . Similarly, b divides
all the terms after the first term and hence divides c0 .
Example. Find all the rational roots of

2x3 − 7x2 + 10x − 6 = 0.

Solution. By the theorem, the denominator of any rational root x is a divisor

of 2. Hence y = 2x is an integer. Multiplying the terms of our equation by 4, we
obtain
y 3 − 7y 2 + 20y − 24 = 0.
There is evidently no negative root. By either of the tests in §§22, 23, an upper limit
to the positive roots of our equation in x is 1 + 7/2, so that y < 9. Hence the only
possible values of an integral root y are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8. Since 1 and 2 are not roots,
we try 3:
1 −7 20 −24 3
−1 4 −8
0 −3 12

Hence 3 is a root and the remaining roots satisfy the equation y 2 − 4y + 8 = 0 and
are 2 ± 2i. Thus the only rational root of the proposed equation is x = 3/2.
If c0 = 1, then b = ±1 and a/b is an integer. Hence we have the
Corollary. Any rational root of an equation with integral coefficients,
that of the highest power of the unknown being unity, is an integer.
Given any equation with integral coefficients

a0 y n + a1 y n−1 + · · · + an = 0,

we multiply each term by a0 n−1 , write a0 y = x, and obtain an equation (15)

with integral coefficients, in which the coefficient c0 of xn is now unity. By the
Corollary, each rational root x is an integer. Hence we need only find all the
32 THEOREMS ON ROOTS OF EQUATIONS [Ch. II

integral roots x and divide them by a0 to obtain all the rational roots y of the
proposed equation.
Frequently it is sufficient (and of course simpler) to set ky = x, where k is
a suitably chosen integer less than a0 .

EXERCISES

Find all of the rational roots of

40 3 130 2
1. y 4 − 3 y + 3 y − 40y + 9 = 0. 2. 6y 3 − 11y 2 + 6y − 1 = 0.

3. 108y 3 − 270y 2 − 42y + 1 = 0. [Use k = 6.]

4. 32y 3 − 6y − 1 = 0. [Use the least k.]

5. 96y 3 − 16y 2 − 6y + 1 = 0. 6. 24y 3 − 2y 2 − 5y + 1 = 0.

7. y 3 − 12 y 2 − 2y + 1 = 0. 8. y 3 − 23 y 2 + 3y − 2 = 0.

9. Solve Exs. 2–6 by replacing y by 1/x.

Find the equations whose roots are the products of 6 by the roots of
1
10. y 2 − 2y − 3 = 0. 11. y 3 − 12 y 2 − 31 y + 1
4 = 0.