மனனோன்மணியம் சுந் தரனோர் பல் கலலக்கழகம்

MANONMANIAM SUNDARANAR UNIVERSITY

TIRUNELVELI-627 012
த ொலைநிலை த ொடர் கல் வி இயக்ககம்

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE AND

CONTINUING EDUCATION

B.Sc. MATHEMATICS

I YEAR

ALGEBRA & TRIGONOMETRY

Sub. Code: JMMA11 (For Private Circulation only)

 MATHEMATICS –I YEAR

JMMA11: ALGEBRA & TRIGONOMETRY

SYLLABUS

Unit I

Reciprocal Equations-Standard form–Increasing or decreasing the roots of a given equation-

Approximate solutions of roots of polynomials by Horner’s method – related problems.

Unit II

Summation of Series: Binomial– Exponential –Logarithmic series (Theorems without proof) –

Approximations - related problems.

Unit III

Characteristic equation – Eigen values and Eigen Vectors - Similar matrices - Cayley -
Hamilton Theorem (Statement only) - Finding powers of square matrix, Inverse of a square
matrix up to order 3, - related problems.

Unit IV

Expansions of sin nθ, cos nθ in powers of sin θ, cos θ - Expansion of tan nθ in terms of tan θ,
Expansions of cosn θ, sinn θ, cosm θ sinn θ –Expansions of tan(θ1+θ2+ ,…,+θn)- related problems.

Unit V

Hyperbolic functions – Relation between circular and hyperbolic functions Inverse hyperbolic
functions, Logarithm of complex quantities, - related problems.

Text Book

1. T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai, T. Natarajan and K S. Ganapathy, Algebra Vol-I, S.

Viswanathan Publishers and Printers Pvt Ltd 2015.
2. S. Arumugam and A. Thangapandi Issac, Theory of Equations and Trigonometry, New
Gamma Publishing House, Palayamkottai. 2006

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 JMMA11: ALGEBRA & TRIGONOMETRY

CONTENTS

UNIT-I

Reciprocal Equation 4

Standard form of reciprocal equation 5

Increasing or decreasing the roots of a given equation 8

Horner's Method 15

UNIT-II

Binomial Series 26

Exponential Series 37

Logarithmic series 49

UNIT-III

Inverse matrix 64

Adjoint matrix 64

Relationship between adjoint and inverse matrices 65

Eigen Values And Eigen Vectors 81

Similar matrices 87

Cayley – Hamilton theorem 88

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 Higher powers of the matrices 90

UNIT-IV

Expansion of cos𝜃 and sin𝜃 94

Expansion of tan n θ in powers of tan θ 95

Expansion of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜃 103

Expansion of 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝜃 105

UNIT-V

Introduction 109

Hyperbolic Function 110

Relation Between Hyperbolic Functions 111

Inverse hyperbolic Functions 114

Logarithms of Complex quantities 123

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Unit I

Reciprocal Equations-Standard form–Increasing or decreasing the roots of a given equation-

Approximate solutions of roots of polynomials by Horner’s method – related problems.

Reciprocal Equation:

Definition:

If an equation remains unaltered, when 𝑥 is changed into its reciprocal, it is called a

reciprocal equation.
Let 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑃1 , 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑃2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑃𝑛 = 0 ………(1)

be a reciprocal equation. When 𝑥 is changed into its reciprocal 1/𝑥, we get the transformed
equation 𝑃𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑃𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑃𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ . +𝑃1 𝑥 + 1 = 0

𝑃𝑛 −1 𝑃𝑛−2 𝑃1 𝑥 1
(i.e.) 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + + 𝑃 = 0 ……….(2)
𝑃𝑛 𝑃𝑛 𝑃𝑛 𝑛

Since (1) is a reciprocal equation, it must be same as equation (2)

𝑃𝑛−1 𝑃𝑛−2 𝑃1 1
= 𝑃1 ; = 𝑃2 ⋯ ; = 𝑃𝑛−1 , = 𝑃𝑛
𝑃𝑛 𝑃𝑛 𝑃𝑛 𝑃𝑛
2
𝑃𝑛 = 1 ⇒ 𝑃𝑛 = ±1.

Case (i) 𝑃𝑛 = 1
Then, 𝑃𝑛−1 = 𝑃1 , 𝑃𝑛−2 = 𝑃2 , 𝑃𝑛−3 = 𝑃3
In this case, the coefficients of the terms equidistant from the beginning and the end are equal
in magnitude and have the same sign

Case (ii) 𝑃𝑛 = −1
Then 𝑃𝑛−1 = −𝑃1 , 𝑃𝑛−2 = −𝑃2 ….

In this case, the terms equidistant from the beginning and the end are equal in magnitude but
different in sign.

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Standard form of reciprocal equation:
If 𝛼 be a root of a reciprocal equation, 1/𝛼 also be a root, for it is a root of the transformed
equation and the transformed equation is identical with the first equation. Hence, the roots of
a reciprocal equation occur in pairs 𝛼, 1/𝛼, 𝛽, 1/𝛽

When the degree is odd, one of its roots must be its own reciprocal

(i.e.) 𝑟 = 1/𝑟

⇒ 𝑟 2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑟 = ±𝑖

Definition:

Even degree reciprocal equation with like sign is a S.R.E Result :-

(1) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 is a R.E and odd degree with like sign then 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥)
Then, is a standard 𝑅 ⋅ 𝐸
𝑥+1

(2) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 is a 𝑅 ⋅ 𝐸 and odd degree with Unlike sign then 𝑥 −1 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑓(𝑥)
Then, is a S.R.E
𝑥−1

(3) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 is a S.R.E with even degree with like sign then 𝑓(𝑥) is a 𝑆 ⋅ 𝑅 ⋅ 𝐸
(4) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 is a 𝑆 ⋅ 𝑅 ⋅ 𝐸 with even degree with unlike sign, dividing by 𝑥 2 − 1, this
reduces to a 𝑅 ⋅ 𝐸 of like sigh of even degree.

𝑓(𝑥)
Then 𝑥 2 −1 is a 𝑆 ⋅ 𝑅 ⋅ 𝐸.

Example 1:

Find the roots of the equation 𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 = 0.

Solution:
Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
Here, 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is the reciprocal eqn with odd degree and like sign.
⇒ (𝑥 + 1) is a factor of 𝑓 (𝑥 ),

𝑥 = −1 is a root of 𝑓(𝑥)

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 1 4 3 3 4 1

-1 0 -1 -3 0 -3 -1

1 3 0 3 1 0

f(x) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 + 1)

To find the remaining roots of 𝑓(𝑥). It is enough to solve the eq n (𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 + 1) = 0

………….(1)

Divide equation (1) by 𝑥 2 , we get

⇒ 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 3/𝑥 + 1/𝑥 2 = 0
………… ..(2)
𝑥 2 + 1/𝑥 2 + 3(𝑥 + 1/𝑥) = 0

Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1/𝑥.

(𝑥 + 1/𝑥)2 = 𝑦 2
𝑥 2 + 1/𝑥 2 + 2 = 𝑦 2

𝑥 2 + 1/𝑥 2 = 𝑦 2 − 2.

then equation (2) becomes,

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑦=
2𝑎

𝑦 2 − 2 + 3𝑦 = 0.

−3 ± √9 + 8 −3 ± √17
𝑦= =
2 2

−3 + √17 −3 − √17
𝑥 + 1/𝑥 = , 𝑥 + 1/𝑥 =
2 2
2 2
𝑥 + 1 −3 + √17 𝑥 + 1 −3 − √17
= , =
𝑥 2 𝑥 2

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2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − √17𝑥 + 2 = 0, 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + √17𝑥 + 2 = 0

These two equation yields the required outs of the given eqn.

Example 2:

Solve the equation 6𝑥 5 − 𝑥 4 − 43𝑥 3 + 43𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 = 0.

Solution:

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 5 − 𝑥 4 − 43𝑥 3 + 43𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 = 0

Here, 𝑓(𝑥) is a reciprocal eq n of odd degree with unlike sign
⇒ (𝑥 − 1) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥 = 𝐻 is a root of 𝑓(𝑥)

6 -1 -43 43 1 -6

1 0 6 5 -38 5 6

6 5 -38 5 6 0

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(6𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 − 38𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6)

To find the remaining root of 𝑓(𝑥).

Such that is enough to solve the equation

6𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 2 − 38𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 ……….(2)

Divide equation (1) by 𝑥 2

6𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 38 + 5/𝑥 + 6/𝑥 2 = 0
6(𝑥 2 + 1/𝑥 2 ) + 5(𝑥 + 1/𝑥) − 38 = 0

Put (𝑥 + 1/𝑥) = 𝑦 ⇔ (𝑥 2 + 1/𝑥 2 ) = 𝑦 2 − 2

Therefore, equation (1) becomes,

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 6(𝑦 2 − 2) + 5𝑦 − 38 = 0
6𝑦 2 − 12 + 5𝑦 − 38 = 0
6𝑦 2 + 5𝑦 − 50 = 0.
6𝑦 2 + 20𝑦 − 15𝑦 − 50 = 0
2𝑦(3𝑦 + 10) − 5(3𝑦 + 10) = 0
(3𝑦 + 10)(2𝑦 − 5) = 0
𝑦 = −10/3,5/2.
1 10
𝑥+ =− , 𝑥 + 1/𝑥 = 5/2
𝑥 3
𝑥 2 + 1 −10 𝑥2 + 1 5
= , =
𝑥 3 𝑥 2
3𝑥 2 + 3 = −10𝑥, 2𝑥 2 + 2 − 5𝑥 = 0.
3𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 3 = 0

2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2 = 0, 3𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 3 = 0

2x (x – 2 ) -1 (x -2) = 0, 3𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 𝑥 + 3 = 0

(2x – 1) (x – 2) = 0, 3x (x + 3) +1 (x + 3) = 0

(3x +1) (x + 3) = 0

X = ½,2 x = - 1/3, -3

The roots of f(x) are 1, 2, ½, - 1/3, -3

To increase or decrease the roots of a given equation by given quantity:

Let 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 … 𝛼𝑛 etc are be the roots of 𝑛th degree equation𝑓(𝑥) = 0.

To form an equation whose roots are decreased by ℎ..

That is 𝛼1 − ℎ, 𝛼2 − ℎ, … 𝛼𝑛 − ℎ
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 .
Let 𝑦 = 𝛼1 − ℎ, 𝛼2 − ℎ … 𝛼𝑛−ℎ
Now, 𝑦 = 𝛼1 − ℎ ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 − ℎ(∵ 𝑥 = 𝛼1 is a root)

⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦 + ℎ.

Similarly proceeding like this, we get.

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𝑎0 (𝑦 + ℎ)𝑛 + (𝑎1 )(𝑦 + ℎ)𝑛−1 … + 𝑎𝑛 = 0 ……… (1)

Expanding and collecting the coefficients of the powers of 𝑦, we get

𝐴0 𝑦 𝑛 + 𝐴1 𝑦 𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝐴𝑛 = 0 ……………. (2)

where, 𝐴0 , 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 … 𝐴𝑛 are the functions of 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 … 𝑎𝑛 .

Now, 𝑦 = 𝑥 − ℎ

⇒ 𝐴0 (𝑥 − 𝑛)𝑛 + 𝐴1 (𝑥 − ℎ)𝑛−1 + ⋯ 𝐴𝑛 = 0 ………. (3)

Equating (1) & (3) as they are identical.

we can easily find the co-efficient 𝐴0 , 𝐴1 ... 𝐴𝑛 By dividing it by (𝑥 − ℎ)𝑛

Remainder = 𝐴0
Quotient = 𝐴0 (𝑥 − ℎ)𝑛−1 + 𝐴1 (𝑥 − ℎ)𝑛−2 + ⋯

Result :-
To form an equation whose roots are decreased by ℎ, we have to divide by ℎ.

To form an equation whose roots are increased by ℎ, we have to divide by −ℎ.

Example 1:
Find the Quotient and the Remainder when 3𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 12 is divided by 𝑥 − 4.

Solution:
Given the equation is 3𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 2

To divide the equation by 𝑥 − 4, it is enough to do

𝑥 − 4 = 0, 𝑥 = 4.

3 8 8 12

4 0 12 80 352

3 20 88 364

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 R = 364

Q = 3𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 + 88

Find the Quotient and remainder when 2𝑥 6 + 3𝑥 5 − 15𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4 is by x +5

Solution:

The Given equation is 2𝑥 6 + 3𝑥 5 − 15𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4 = 0

To divide the equation by x+5 it it enough to do

x + 5 = 0, x = - 5

2 3 0 0 -15 2 -4

-5 0 -10 35 75 875 -4300 21490

2 -7 35 -175 860 -4298 21486

Q = 2𝑥 5 − 7𝑥 4 + 35𝑥 3 − 175𝑥 2 − 860𝑥 − 4298

R = 21486

Example 3:

To diminish the roots of the equation 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5 by 2

Solution:

Given equation is 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5

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 1 -5 7 -4 5

2 0 2 -6 2 -4

1 -3 1 -2 1

2 0 2 -2 -2

1 -1 -1 -4

2 0 2 2

1 1 1

2 0 2

1 3

The transformed equation is 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0

Example 4:

To diminish by 3 the roots of the equation 𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 − 6 = 0

Solution:

Given equation is 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 5

1 -4 3 0 -4 6

2 0 3 -3 0 0 -12

1 -1 0 0 -4 -6

2 0 3 6 18 54

1 2 6 18 50

2 0 3 15 63

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 1 5 21 81

2 0 3 24

1 8 45

0 3

1 11

The transformed equation is 𝑥 5 + 11𝑥 4 + 45𝑥 3 + 81𝑥 2 + 50𝑥 + 6 = 0.

Example 5:

Find the equation whose roots are the roots of 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 17𝑥 + 11 each diminished
by 2.

Solution:

Given equation is 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 17𝑥 − 11 = 0

1 -5 7 -17 11

2 0 2 -6 2 -30

1 -3 1 -15 -19

2 0 2 -2 -2

1 -1 -1 -17

2 0 2 2

1 1 1

2 0 2

1 3

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Example 6:

Increase by 7 the roots of the equation 3𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0

Solution:

Increasing the roots by 7 is equivalent to diminishing the roots by -7.

The given equation is 3𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0

3 7 -15 1 -2

-7 0 -21 98 -581 4060

3 -14 83 -580 4058

-7 0 -21 245 -2296

3 -35 328 -2876

-7 0 -21 392

3 -56 720

-7 0 -21

3 -77

The transformed equation is 3𝑥 4 − 77𝑥 3 + 720𝑥 2 − 2876𝑥 + 4058 = 0

Example 7:

Show that the 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 0eqn can be transformed into a reciprocal eqn by

diminishing its roots by unity. Hence solve the eqn

Solution:

First to diminish the given equation by 1.

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 1 -3 4 -2 1

1 0 1 -2 2 0

1 -2 2 0 1

1 0 1 -1 1

1 -1 1 1

1 0 1 0

1 0 1

1 0 1

1 1

The transformed equation is 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1. which is a R.E of even degree and like

sign.

𝑥4 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0 => divide 𝑏𝑦2

𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 + 1/𝑥 + 1/𝑥 2 = 0
(𝑥 2 + 1/𝑥 2 ) + (𝑥 + 1/𝑥) + 1 = 0

Put 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 1/𝑥) & 𝑦 2 − 2 = (𝑥 2 + 1/𝑥 2 )

𝑦2 − 2 + 𝑦 + 1 = 0
𝑦2 + 𝑦 − 1 = 0

−1 ± √1 − 4(1)(−1)
=
2(1)

−1 ± √1 + 4 −1 ± √5
= =
2 2

−1 + √5/2 , −1 − √5/2
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 𝑥 + 1/𝑥 = −1 + √5/2 𝑥 + 1/𝑥 = −1 − √5/2.
2(𝑥 2 + 1) = −𝑥 + √5𝑥 2𝑥 2 + 2 = −𝑥 − √5𝑥.
2𝑥 2 + 2 = −𝑥 + √5𝑥. 2𝑥 2 + 2 − 𝑥(−1 − √5)

2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − √5𝑥 + 2 = 0
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥(−1 + √5) + 2 = 0

1 + √5 ± √(−1 + √5)2 − 16
𝑥=−
4
√5 − 1 ± √−10 − 2√5 −(√5 + 1) + √−10 + 2√5
𝑥= and 𝑥 =
4 4

The Roots of the original equation are the above roots increased by 1,

√5 − 1 ± √−10 − 2√5 −(√5 + 1) ± √−10 + 2√5

𝑥= + 1, 𝑥=
4 4
√5 − 1 ± √−10 − 2√5 + 4 −(√5 + 1) ± √−10 + 2√5 + 4
𝑥= , 𝑥=
4 4
√5 + 3 ± √−10 − 2√5 −√5 + 3 ± √−10 + 2√5
𝑥= , 𝑥=
4 4

Exercises 1:

1. Find the equation whose roots are the roots of 𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 17𝑥 + 11 = 0 each
diminished by 2.
2. Find the equation whose roots are the roots of 4𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 − 3 = 0 each
increased by 2.
3. Find the equation each of whose roots exceeds by 2 a root of the equation
𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 = 0

Horner's Method:
Procedure :-
Horner's method is used to determine a real root of a numerical polynomial equation 𝑓(𝑥) =
0, correct to given place of decimal (ie) The root is 𝑎 ⋅ 𝛼1 𝑑2 𝑑3 ….

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Step 1:-
We are going to find the integral part a by trial find 2 consecutive integers where a real
positive roots of the given equation lies.

Let 𝑎 and 𝑎 + 1 be & consecutive integers, such that 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑎 + 1) are opposite sign,
therefore a root lies between 𝑎 and 𝑎 + 1.

Therefore the integral part of root is 𝑎. Let the root be 𝑎. 𝑑1 , 𝑑2 , 𝑑3 …

Step 2:-
To find 𝑑1
To diminish the roots of the equation by 𝑎. Now, equation is

𝜙1 (𝑥 ) = 0 …………. (1)

will have roots between zero and one. multiply the roots of (1) by 10 .
(i.e.) The coefficients of 𝜙1 (𝑥) are multiplied by 1,10,100,1000, … respectively. by trial find
the integer between which the roots of (1) lies which is 𝑑1 Now equation will be 𝜙2 (𝑥) = 0.
Example 1:

The equation 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0. has a root between 1 and 2. Calculate it to three places of

decimal.

Solution:
Given equation is 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1

𝑓(1) = 1 − 3 + 1 = −1 (−𝑣𝑒)
𝑓(2) = 8 − 6 + 1 = 3 (tie)

The root is 1. 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 .
step 1:- To find 𝑑 1

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 1 0 -3 1

1 0 1 1 -2

1 1 -2 -1

1 0 1 2

0 2 0

1 0 1

0 3

The transformed equation is 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 1 = 0. Let 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 10

Multiply the roots of the transformed equation 𝑓1 (𝑥) by 10

That is (i.e.) Multiply by 1,10,100,1000 . ... etc to the coefficients of 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and constant
term respectively.
Therefore the transformed equation is 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3042 − 1000 = 0
Now,

𝑓2 (1) = 1 + 30 − 1000 < 0

𝑓2 (2) = 8 + 120 − 1000 < 0
𝑓2 (3) = 27 + 100 − 1000 < 0
𝑓2 (4) = 64 + 480 − 1000 < 0
𝑓2 (5) = 125 + 750 − 1000 < 0
𝑓2 (6) = 216 + 1080 − 1000 > 0

∴ The roots of 𝑓2 (𝑥) lies between 5 and 6

step 2:-
Let the root be 1.5𝑑2 𝑑3 .

To find 𝑑2 , diminish the transformed equation by 5

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 1 30 0 -1000

5 0 5 175 875

1 35 175 -125

5 0 5 200

1 40 375

5 0 5

1 45

The transformed equation is 𝑥 3 + 45𝑥 2 + 375𝑥 −125 = 0.

Let 𝑓3 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 45𝑥 2 + 375𝑥 − 125 = 0.

Multiply the roots of the transformed equation 𝑓3 (𝑥) by 10
That is (i.e.) Multiply by 1,10,100,1000 etc to the coefficients of 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and constant term
respectively.
The transformed equation is 𝑓 + (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 450𝑥 2 + 37500𝑥 − 125000.
𝑓4 (0) = −125000 < 0
𝑓4(1) = −𝑣𝑒.
𝑓4 (2) = −𝑣𝑒.
𝑓4 (3) = −𝑣𝑒
𝑓4 (4) = the
The root lies between 3& 4 .
let the root be 1.53 d3
Step 3 :
To find 𝑑3 , diminish the root by 3 .

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 1 450 37500 -125000
3 0 3 1359 116577
1 453 38859 -8423
3 0 3 1368
1 456 40227
3 0 3
1 459

The transformed equation is 𝑥 3 + 459𝑥 2 + 40227 𝑥 − 8423 = 0

Let 𝑓5 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 459𝑥 2 + 40227𝑥 − 8423
Multiply the roots of the transformed equation 𝑓5 (𝑥) by 10
That is (i.e.) Multiply by 1,10,100, 1000 etc to the coefficience of 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 2 and 𝑥 & constant
term respectively.
the transformed equation is 𝑓5 (𝑥) =
𝑥 3 + 4590𝑥 2 + 4022700 x − 8423000
𝑓6 (0) = −8423000 < 0
𝑓6 (1) =< 0
𝑓6 (2) =< 0
𝑓6 (3) => 0
The root lies between 2 and 3 .
The root is 1.532 .
Example 2:

Find the positive root of the equation 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 −4 = 0 correct to 3 places of decimals.

Solution:
Given equation is 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4
𝑓(1) = 1 − 2 − 3 − 4 = −8 < 0.
𝑓(2) = 8 − 8 − 6 − 4 = −10 < 0
𝑓(3) = 27 − 18 − 9 − 4 = −4 < 0
𝑓(4) = 64 − 32 − 12 − 4 => 0.
The root lies between 3 & 4 .
Let the roots be 3 ⋅ 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 .
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Step 1:
To find 𝑑1 , diminish by 3 .

1 -2 -3 -4
3 0 3 3 0
1 1 0 -4
3 0 3 12
1 4 12
3 0 3
1 7

The transformed equation is,

𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 4 = 0

Let 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 4 = 0.

Multiply the roots of the transformed equation 𝑓1 (𝑥) by 10
That is (i.e) Multiply by 1,10,100,1000 ... etc to the coefficience of 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and constant
term respectively.
Therefore the transformed equation is
𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 70𝑥 2 + 1200𝑥 − 4000 = 0.
𝑓2 |2| =< 0
Now, 𝑓2 2(2) =< 0
𝑓2 (3) => 0

The root lies between 2 and 3 .

The root is 3.2𝑑2 𝑑3
To find 𝑑2 .

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 1 70 1200 -4000
2 0 2 144 2688
1 72 1344 -1312
2 0 2 1480
1 74 1492
2 0 2
1 76

𝑓3 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 76𝑥 2 + 1492𝑥 − 1312

Multiply the roots of the transformed equation 𝑓3 (𝑥) by 10

That is (i.e.) Multiply by 10,100,1000 …. etc for 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and constant term respectively
Let 𝑓4 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 760𝑥 2 + 149200𝑥 − 1312000
𝑓4 (0) = −1312000 < 0
𝑓4 (1) = 1 + 760 + 149200 − 1312000 < 0
𝑓4 (2) = 8 + 3040 + 298400 − 1312000 < 0
𝑓4 (3) = 27 + 684 + 447600 − 1312000 < 0
𝑓4 (4) = 64 + 12,160 + 596800 − 1312090 < 0
𝑓4 (5) = 125 + 19000 + 746000 − 1312000 < 0
𝑓4 (6) =< 0
𝑓4 (7) =< 10
𝑓4 (8) =< 20
𝑓4 (9) => 0
The root lies between 8 and 9 .
The root is 3 ⋅ 28𝑑3
To find 𝑑3 .
To find 𝑑3 , diminish the roots by 8 .

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 1 760 149200 -13,12,000
8 0 8 6144 12,42,752
1 768 155344 -69248
8 0 8 6208
1 776 161552
8 0 8
1 784

𝑥 3 + 784𝑥 2 + 161552𝑥 − 69248.

let 𝑓5 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 784𝑥 2 + 161552𝑥 − 69248
Multiply the roots of the transformed equation 𝑓5 (𝑥) by 10
That is (i.e.) Multiply by 10,100,1000. for 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and constant term respectively.
let 𝑓6 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 7840𝑥 2 + 16155200𝑥 − 69248000.
𝑓6 (0) = −𝑣𝑒
𝑓6 (1) = −𝑣𝑒
𝑓6 (2) = −𝑣𝑒
𝑓6 (3) = −𝑣𝑒
𝑓6 (4) = −𝑣𝑒
𝑓6 (5) = + ve
The root lies between 4 and 5
The root is 3.284 .2617
Example 3:

Find the root between 0 and 1 correct to 3 places of decimal 𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 − 6 = 0.

Solution:
Given: 𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 − 6 = 0.
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 − 6 = 0
𝑓(0) = (− ve )
𝑓(1) = ( +ve )
The rot lies between 0 & 1
The root is 0 ⋅ 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 .
step 1:- To find 𝑑1 , diminish by 0 .

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 1 0 18 -6
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 18 -6
0 0 0 0
1 0 18
0 0 0
1 0

The transformed equation is 𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 − 6 − 0.

Let f1(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 − 6 = 0.
Multiply the roots of the transformed equation by 10.
That is (i.e.) Multiply by 1,10,100, 1000 … etc to the coefficience of 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and constant
term respectively.
Therefore the transformed eqn
𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 1800 × −6000
𝑓2 (0) = (−𝑣𝑒)
𝑓2 (1) = (−𝑣𝑒)
𝑓2 (2) = (−𝑣𝑒)
𝑓2 (3) = (−𝑣𝑒)
𝑓2 (4) = (+𝑣𝑒)
The root is 0.3𝑑2 𝑑3
diminish the eqn 𝑓2 (𝑥) by 3 .

1 0 1800 -6000
3 0 3 9 5427
1 3 1809 -573
3 0 3 18
1 6 1827
3 0 3
1 9

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transformed equation is
f3 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 + 1827𝑥 − 573
Multiply the roots of the transformed equation by 10.
Multiply by 1, 10, 100 and 1000 ... for 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and constant term respectively The
transformed equation is
𝑓4 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 90𝑥 2 + 182700𝑥 − 573000.
𝑓4 (0) = (−𝑣𝑒 )
𝑓4 (1) = (−𝑣𝑒 )
𝑓4 (2) = (−𝑣𝑒 )
𝑓4 (3) = (−𝑣𝑒 )
𝑓4 (4) = (𝑣𝑒 )
The Root lies between 3 and 4
The Root is 0.33 d3 .
To find 𝑑3 , diminish the root by 3 .

1 90 182700 -573000
3 0 3 279 548937
1 93 182979 -24063
3 0 3 288
1 96 183267
3 0 3
1 99

𝑓5 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 99𝑥 2 + 183267𝑥 − 24063.

Multiply the roots of the equation f5(𝑥) by 10
Multiply by 1,10,100,1000 … etc for 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and constant term respectively.
The eq 𝑓6 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 990𝑥 2 + 18326700 -24063000 .

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 𝑓6 (0) = (-ve )
𝑓6 (1) = (−𝑣𝑒)
𝑓6 (2) = ( +ve )
The Root lies between 1 and 2
The Root is 0.331.

Exercises:

1. Find the root between 2 and 3 correct to two places of decimal 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 − 11 = 0.

2. Find the real root 𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 = 2 to three places of decimals.
3. Find the real root 𝑥 3 − 3 = 0 to three places of decimals.

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Unit III

Characteristic equation – Eigen values and Eigen Vectors - Similar matrices - Cayley -
Hamilton Theorem (Statement only) - Finding powers of square matrix, Inverse of a square
matrix up to order 3, - related problems.

Inverse matrix:

Let A be any matrix. If a matrix B exists such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the inverse
matrix of A.

Since AB and BA exist and equal to a square matrix, A and B must be square matrices of the
same order.

If an inverse matrix to A exists, then it is unique. Let B and C be the inverse matrices to A.

Then AB = BA = I and AC = CA = I

Pre-multiplying AB by C we got (AB = CI)

i.e., IB = CI

i.e., B = C

The inverse of A is defined by 𝐴−1 is denoted by 𝐴−1 .

Hence 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐼.

Adjoint matrix:

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
Let A be the square matrix [ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛

Then |A| is the determined of the matrix A.

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
Then |𝐴| = | ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ |
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛

Let the cofactors of the elements 𝑎11 , 𝑎12 , …. In the determinant be 𝐴11 , 𝐴12 , ….
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Then the transpose of the matrix

𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴1𝑛

⋯
𝐴21 𝐴22 𝐴2𝑛
[ ]
⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝐴𝑛1 𝐴𝑛2 ⋯ 𝐴𝑛𝑛

i.e., the matrix

𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴1𝑛
⋯
𝐴21 𝐴22 𝐴2𝑛
[ ]
⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝐴𝑛1 𝐴𝑛2 ⋯ 𝐴𝑛𝑛

Relationship between adjoint and inverse matrices:

We get

|𝐴| 0 0 0
0 |𝐴| 0 ⋯ 0
( )
𝐴 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 0 0 |𝐴| 0
⋮ ⋱ ⋮
[ 0 0 0 ⋯ |𝐴|]

Since,

𝑎11 𝐴11 + 𝑎12 𝐴12 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝐴1𝑛 = |𝐴|

𝑎21 𝐴21 + 𝑎22 𝐴22 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝐴2𝑛 = |𝐴|

………………………………………………

………………………………………………

𝑎𝑛1 𝐴𝑛1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝐴𝑛2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑛 = |𝐴|

𝑎11 𝐴21 + 𝑎12 𝐴22 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝐴2𝑛 = 0

………………………………………………

𝑎11 𝐴𝑛1 + 𝑎12 𝐴𝑛2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑛 = 0

𝑎21 𝐴11 + 𝑎22 𝐴12 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑛 = 0

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 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 ⋯ 0
∴ 𝐴(𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴) = |𝐴| 0 0 1 0 = |𝐴|𝐼
⋮ ⋱ ⋮
[0 0 0 ⋯ 1]

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
Hence 𝐴 ( |𝐴|
)=𝐼

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
Similarly, we can show that ( |𝐴|
)𝐴 = 𝐼

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
∴ |𝐴|
is the inverse matrix of A.

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
|𝐴|
is also called the reciprocal of the matrix and is denoted by 𝐴−1 .

The inverse of A exists only when |𝐴| ≠ 0.

i.e., when A is non-singular.

The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix A to process the inverse that |A| is
not zero. i.e., A is non-singular.

Let 𝐴−1 be the inverse of A

∴ 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐼

Hence |𝐴||𝐴−1 | = |𝐼 | = 1

∴ |𝐴| ≠ 0 and |𝐴−1 | ≠ 0.

∴ the condition |𝐴| ≠ 0 is necessary.

Let |𝐴| ≠ 0

1
𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴 { 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴}
|𝐴 |

1
𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴(𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)
|𝐴 |

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 |𝐴 | 0 0 0
1 0 |𝐴 | 0 ⋯ 0
𝐴𝐴−1 = 0 0 |𝐴 | 0
|𝐴 |
⋮ ⋱ ⋮
[ 0 0 0 ⋯ |𝐴|]

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 ⋯ 0
𝐴𝐴−1 = 0 0 1 0 =𝐼
⋮ ⋱ ⋮
[0 0 0 ⋯ 1]

Similarly, 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐼.

Hence the condition is sufficient.

Example 1:

(𝐴𝑇 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )𝑇

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
Let A be the matrix [ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ].
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛

𝑎11 𝑎21 𝑎𝑛1

𝑎12 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛2
Then 𝐴𝑇 = [ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]
𝑎1𝑛 𝑎2𝑛 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛

𝐴11 𝐴21 𝐴𝑛1

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 𝐼 𝐴12 𝐴22 ⋯
𝐴𝑛2
𝐴−1 = = [ ]
|𝐴 | |𝐴 | ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝐴1𝑛 𝐴2𝑛 ⋯ 𝐴𝑛𝑛

𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴1𝑛

𝐼 ⋯
𝐴 𝐴22 𝐴2𝑛
∴ (𝐴−1 )𝑇 = [ 21 ]
|𝐴 | ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝐴𝑛1 𝐴𝑛2 ⋯ 𝐴𝑛𝑛

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴𝑇
(𝐴𝑇 )−1 =
|𝐴𝑇 |

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 𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴1𝑛
1 𝐴21 𝐴22 ⋯
𝐴2𝑛
(𝐴𝑇 )−1 = [ ]
|𝐴 | ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝐴𝑛1 𝐴𝑛2 ⋯ 𝐴𝑛𝑛

Since |𝐴𝑇 | = |𝐴|

Hence (𝐴𝑇 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )𝑇

Inverse of 𝑨𝑩 is 𝑩−𝟏 𝑨−𝟏 :

Let A and B be non-singular square matrices and their inverses be respectively 𝐴−1 and 𝐵−1 .

Since A and B are non-singular matrices

|𝐴| ≠ 0; |𝐵| ≠ 0

∴ |𝐴𝐵| ≠ 0

We have 𝐴𝐵(𝐵−1 𝐴−1 ) = 𝐴(𝐵𝐵−1 )𝐴−1 (By associative law)

𝐴𝐵(𝐵−1 𝐴−1 ) = 𝐴𝐼𝐴−1

𝐴𝐵(𝐵−1 𝐴−1 ) = 𝐴𝐴−1

𝐴𝐵(𝐵−1 𝐴−1 ) = 𝐼

Similarly, (𝐵−1 𝐴−1 )𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼

∴ 𝐴𝐵(𝐵−1 𝐴−1 ) = (𝐵−1 𝐴−1 )𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼

∴ (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1

Corollary:

(i) (𝐴𝐵𝐶 )−1 = 𝐶 −1 𝐵−1 𝐴−1

(ii) (𝐴2 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )2
(iii) (𝐴𝑛 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )𝑛

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Example 2:

1 2 −1
Find the inverse of [3 8 2]
4 9 −1

Solution:

1 2 −1
[
Let 𝐴 = 3 8 2]
4 9 −1

|𝐴| = 1 (|8 2
|) − 2 (|
3 2
|) − 1 (|
3 8
|)
9 −1 4 −1 4 9

|𝐴| = 1(−8 − 18) − 2(−3 − 8) − 1(27 − 32)

|𝐴| = 1(−26) − 2(−11) − 1(−5)

|𝐴| = −26 + 22 + 5

|𝐴 | = 1 ≠ 0

∴ 𝐴−1 exists

𝐴11 𝐴12 𝐴13

Let 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = (𝐴21 𝐴22 𝐴23 )
𝐴31 𝐴32 𝐴33

8 2 3 8
| − |3 2|
+| +| |
9 −1 4 −1 4 9
2 −1 1 −1 1 2
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = − | | +| | −| |
9 −1 4 −1 4 9
2 7 1 −1 1 2
[ + |8 2| − |3 2
| +|
3 8]
|

(−8 − 18) −(−3 − 8) (27 − 32)

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = (−(−2 + 9) (−1 + 4) −(9 − 8) )
(4 + 8) −(2 + 3) (8 − 6)

−26 11 −5 𝑇
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = ( −7 3 −1)
12 −5 2

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 −26 −7 12
𝐴−1 = ( 11 3 −5)
−5 −1 2

Example 3:

1 2 −1
Find the inverse of the matrices [0 1 3]
0 0 1

Solution:

1 2 −1
Let 𝐴 = [0 1 3]
0 0 1

1
𝐴−1 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴
|𝐴 |

1 3 0 3 0 1
||𝐴| = 1 | | −2| |−1| |
0 1 0 1 0 0

= 1(1 − 0) − 2(0) − 1(0 ) = 1 ≠ 0

Therefore 𝐴−1 exists.

1 3 0 3 0 1
+| | −| | +| |
0 1 0 1 0 0
2 −1 1 −1 1 2
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = − | | +| | −| |
0 1 0 1 0 0
2 −1 1 −1 1 2
[+ |1 3 | − |0 3 | + |0 1]
|

1 0 0 𝑇
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴 = [−2 1 0]
7 −3 1

1 −2 7
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴 = [0 1 −3]
0 0 1

1 −2 7
Hence 𝐴−1 = [0 1 −3].
0 0 1

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Example 4:

1 2 1
Find the inverse of the matrices 𝐴 = [2 3 −1]
0 −1 3

Solution:

1 2 1
[
Let 𝐴 = 2 3 −1]
0 −1 3

1
𝐴−1 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴
|𝐴 |

|𝐴| = 1(9 − 1) − (6) + 1(−2)

= 1(8) − 12 − 2 = −6 ≠ 0

Therefore 𝐴−1 exists.

3 −1 2 −1 2 3
+| | −| | +| |
−1 3 0 3 0 −1
2 1 1 1 1 2
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = − | | +| | −| |
−1 3 0 3 0 −1
2 1 1 1 1 2
[ + |3 −1| − |2 −1
| +| |
2 3 ]

8 −6 −2 𝑇
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴 = [−7 3 1]
−5 3 −1

8 −7 −5
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴 = [−6 3 3]
−2 1 −1

−8 7 5
1
Hence 𝐴−1 = 6 [ 6 −3 −3].
2 −1 1

Example 5:

4 2 1
Find the inverse of the matrices [−3 0 5]
−1 1 6

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Solution:

4 2 1
Let 𝐴 = [−3 0 5]
−1 1 6

1
𝐴−1 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴
|𝐴 |

|𝐴| = 4(−5) − 2(−18 + 5) + 1(−3)

= −20 + 26 − 3 = 3 ≠ 0

Therefore 𝐴−1 exists.

0 5 −3 5 −3 0
+| | −| | +| |
1 6 −1 6 −1 1
2 1 4 1 4 2
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = − | | +| | −| |
1 6 −1 6 −1 1
2 1 4 1 4 2
[+ |0 5
| −|
−3 5
| +|
−3 0]
|

5 13 −3 𝑇
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴 = [−11 25 −6]
10 −23 6

5 −11 10
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴 = [ 13 25 −23]
−3 −6 6

5 −11 10
−1 1
Hence 𝐴 = 3 [ 13 25 −23]
−3 −6 6

5/3 −11/3 10/3

−1
𝐴 = [13/3 25/3 −23/3]
−1 −2 2

Example 6:

Find A satisfying the matrix equation

2 1 −3 2 −2 4
[ ]𝐴[ ]=[ ]
3 2 5 −3 3 −1

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Solution:

2 1 −3 2 −2 4
Given: [ ]𝐴[ ]=[ ]
3 2 5 −3 3 −1

2 1 −3 2
Let 𝐵 = [ ] and 𝐶 = [ ]
3 2 5 −3

−2 4
𝐵𝐵−1 (𝐴)(𝐶𝐶 −1 ) = 𝐵−1 [ ] 𝐶 −1
3 −1

−2 4
𝐴 = 𝐵−1 𝐶 −1 [ ]
3 −1

2 −1 −2 4 3 2
𝐴=[ ][ ][ ]
−3 2 3 −1 5 3

−4 − 3 8+1 3 2
𝐴=[ ][ ]
6+6 −12 − 2 5 3

−4 − 3 8+1 3 2
𝐴=[ ][ ]
6+6 −12 − 2 5 3

−7 9 3 2
𝐴=[ ][ ]
12 −14 5 3

−21 + 45 −14 + 27]

𝐴=[
36 − 70 24 − 42

24 13
𝐴=[ ]
−34 −18

Example 7:

1 2 2
Show that 𝐴 = [2 1 2] satisfies the equation 𝐴2 − 4𝐴 − 5𝐼 = 0. Hence determine its
2 2 1
inverse.

Solution:

𝐴2 − 4𝐴 − 5𝐼 = 0

1 2 2 1 2 2
𝐴2 = [2 1 2 ] [2 1 2]
2 2 1 2 2 1

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 1+4+4 2+2+4 2+4+2
𝐴2 = [2 + 2 + 4 4 + 1 + 4 4 + 2 + 2]
2+4+2 4+2+2 4+4+1

9 8 8
𝐴2 = [8 9 8]
8 8 9

4 8 8
4𝐴 = [8 4 8]
8 8 4

5 0 0
5𝐼 = [0 5 0]
0 0 5

0 0 0
2
𝐴 − 4𝐴 − 5𝐼 = [0 0 0] = 0
0 0 0

Multiply the equation by 𝐴−1

𝐴−1 𝐴2 − 4𝐴𝐴−1 − 5𝐼𝐴−1 = 0

𝐴 − 4 − 5𝐴−1 = 0

𝐴 − 4 = 5𝐴−1

𝐴−4
𝐴−1 =
5

1−4 2−4 2−4

𝐴 − 4 = [2 − 4 1 − 4 2 − 4]
2−4 2−4 1−4

−3 −2 −2
𝐴 − 4 = [−2 −3 −2]
−2 −2 −3

3 2 2
−
− −
5 5 5
𝐴−4 2 3 2
= − − −
5 5 5 5
2 2 3
−
[ 5 − − ]
5 5

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 3 2 2
− − −
5 5 5
2 3 2
𝐴−1 = − − −
5 5 5
2 2 3
[− 5 −
5
− ]
5

Example 8:

5 3]
If 𝐴 = [ find 𝐴 + 𝐴−1
7 4

Solution:

5 3]
Let 𝐴 = [
7 4

|𝐴| = 20 − 21 = −1  0.

Therefore, 𝐴−1 exists.

4 −3
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = [ ]
−7 5

4 −3 −4 3
𝐴−1 = −1 [ ]=[ ]
−7 5 7 −5

5 3] [−4 3 ] [ 1 6
Hence 𝐴 + 𝐴−1 = [ + = ]
7 4 7 −5 14 −1
Example 9:

7 4 2 1 3 4
If 𝐴 = [ ], 𝐵 = [ ], 𝐶 = [ ]. Prove that (𝐴𝐵𝐶)−1 = 𝐶 −1 𝐵−1 𝐴−1
−1 0 1 1 7 9

Solution:

7 4 2 1 14 + 4 7+4
𝐴𝐵 = [ ][ ]=[ ]
−1 0 1 1 −2 + 0 −1 + 0

18 11 3 4 131 171
𝐴𝐵𝐶 = [ ][ ] = [54 + 77 72 + 99] = [ ]
−2 −1 7 9 −6 − 7 −8 − 9 −13 −17

1
(𝐴𝐵𝐶)−1 = |𝐴𝐵𝐶| 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴𝐵𝐶)

|𝐴𝐵𝐶 | = −2227 + 2223

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 = −4

−17 −171
𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴𝐵𝐶 ) = [ ]
13 131

1 −17 −171
(𝐴𝐵𝐶)−1 = − 4 [ ]
13 131

1 17 171
(𝐴𝐵𝐶)−1 = 4 [ ] …………….. (1)
−13 −131

1
𝐶 −1 = |𝐶| 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐶)

|𝐶 | = 27 − 28 = −1 ≠ 0

∴ 𝐶 −1 exists

9 −4
𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐶 ) = [ ]
−7 3

−9 4
𝐶 −1 = [ ]
7 −3

1
B −1 = |𝐵| 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐵)

|𝐵 | = 2 − 1 = 1 ≠ 0

∴ B −1 exists

1 −1
𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐵) = [ ]
−1 2

1 −1
B −1 = [ ]
−1 2
1
A−1 = |𝐴| 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴)

|𝐴 | = 0 + 4 = 4 ≠ 0

∴ 𝐴−1 exists

0 −4
𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐶 ) = [ ]
1 7

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 1 0 −4
𝐴−1 = 4 [ ]
1 7

1 −9 4 1 −1 0 −4
𝐶 −1 𝐵−1 𝐴−1 = 4 [ ][ ][ ]
7 −3 −1 2 1 7

1 −9 − 4 9+8 0 −4
= 4[ ][ ]
7+3 −7 − 6 1 7

1 −13 17 0 −4
= 4[ ][ ]
10 −13 1 7

1 0 + 17 52 + 119 ]
𝐶 −1 𝐵−1 𝐴−1 = 4 [
0 − 13 −40 − 91

1 17 171
𝐶 −1 𝐵−1 𝐴−1 = 4 [ ] ………………………. (2)
−13 −131

From (1)&(2) equation,

(𝐴𝐵𝐶)−1 = 𝐶 −1 𝐵−1 𝐴−1

Hence Proved.

Example 10:

1 −1 0
Show that if 𝐴 = [0 −1 −1], 𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 + 3𝐴 − 2𝐼 = 0. Determine 𝐴−1 .
1 0 1

Solution:

1 −1 0 1 −1 0
𝐴2 = [0 1 −1] [0 1 −1]
1 0 1 1 0 1

1 − 0 + 0 −1 − 1 + 0 0+1+0
= [0 + 0 − 1 0 + 1 − 0 0 − 1 − 1]
1 + 0 + 1 −1 + 0 + 0 0−0+1

1 −2 1 1 −1 0
3 2
𝐴 = 𝐴 . 𝐴 = [−1 1 −2] [0 1 −1]
2 −1 1 1 0 1

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 1 − 0 + 1 −1 − 2 + 0 0+2+1
𝐴3 = [−1 + 0 − 2 1 + 1 − 0 0 − 1 − 2]
1 − 0 + 2 −2 − 1 + 0 0+1+1

2 −3 3
𝐴3 = [−3 2 −3]
3 −3 2

1 −2 1 3 −6 3
3𝐴2 = 3 [−1 1 −2] = [−3 3 −6]
2 −1 1 6 −3 3

1 −1 0 3 −3 0
3𝐴 = 3 [0 1 −1] = [0 3 −3]
1 0 1 3 0 3

2 0 0
2𝐼 = [0 2 0]
0 0 2

𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 + 3𝐴 − 2𝐼 = 0

2 −3 3 3 −6 3 3 −3 0 2 0 0
[−3 2 −3] − [−3 3 −6] + [0 3 −3] − [0 2 0] = 0
3 −3 2 6 −3 3 3 0 3 0 0 2

−1 3 0 1 −3 0
[0 −1 3 ] + [0 1 −3] = 0
−3 0 −1 3 0 1

0 0 0
[0 0 0] = 0
0 0 0

0=0

𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 + 3𝐴 − 2𝐼 = 0 ………….. (1)

⇒ (1) × 𝐴−1 ⇒ 𝐴2 − 3𝐴 + 3𝐼 − 2𝐴−1 = 0

2𝐴−1 = 𝐴2 − 3𝐴 + 3𝐼

1 −2 1 3 −3 0 3 0 0
−1
2𝐴 = [−1 1 −2] − [0 3 −3] + [0 3 0]
2 −1 1 3 0 3 0 0 3

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 −2 1 1 3 0 0
2𝐴−1 = [−1 −2 1 ] + [0 3 0]
−1 −1 −2 0 0 3

1 1 1
2𝐴−1 = [−1 1 1]
−1 −1 1

1 1 1
1
𝐴−1 = 2 [−1 1 1]
−1 −1 1

Example 11:

1 1 0
Show that if 𝐴 = [ 0 1 −1], 𝐴 satisfies the equation 𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 + 3𝐴 − 2𝐼 = 0.
−1 0 1
1 1 0 1 2 3
Calculate 𝐴−1 Solve the equation [ 0 1 −1] 𝑋 = [4 5 6].
−1 0 1 7 8 9

Solution:

𝐴3 = 𝐴2 . 𝐴

1 1 0 1 1 0
𝐴2 = [ 0 1 −1] [ 0 1 −1]
−1 0 1 −1 0 1

1+0−0 1+1+0 0−1+0

=[ 0+0+1 0 + 1 − 0 0 − 1 − 1]
−1 + 0 − 1 −1 + 0 + 0 0 − 0 + 1

1 2 −1 1 1 0
2
𝐴 .𝐴 = [ 1 1 −2] [ 0 1 −1]
−2 −1 1 −1 0 1

1+0+1 1+2−0 0−2−1

𝐴3 = [ 1 + 0 + 2 1+1−0 0 − 1 − 2]
−2 + 0 − 1 −2 − 1 + 0 0+1+1

2 3 −3
𝐴3 = [ 3 2 −3]
−3 −3 2

3 6 −3
3𝐴2 = [ 3 3 −6]
−6 −3 3
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 𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 + 3𝐴 − 2𝐼 = 0

2 3 −3 3 6 −3 3 3 0 2 0 0
[3 2 −3] − [ 3 3 −6] + [ 0 3 −3] − [0 2 0] = 0
−3 −3 2 −6 −3 3 −3 0 3 0 0 2

−1 −3 0 1 3 0
[0 −1 3 ]+[ 0 1 −3] = 0
3 0 −1 −3 0 1

0 0 0
[0 0 0] = 0
0 0 0

0=0

Hence Proved.

𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 + 3𝐴 − 2𝐼 = 0 ………….. (1)

⇒ (1) × 𝐴−1 ⇒ 𝐴2 − 3𝐴 + 3𝐼 − 2𝐴−1 = 0

2𝐴−1 = 𝐴2 − 3𝐴 + 3𝐼

1 2 −1 3 3 0 3 0 0
2𝐴−1 = [ 1 1 −2 ] − [ 0 3 −3 ] + [ 0 3 0]
−2 −1 1 −3 0 3 0 0 3

1 −1 −1
2𝐴−1 = [1 1 1]
1 −1 1

1 −1 −1
1
𝐴−1 = 2 [1 1 1]
1 −1 1

1 1 0 1 2 3
[0 1 −1] 𝑋 = [4 5 6]
−1 0 1 7 8 9

𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵

𝐴−1 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵

𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵

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 1 −1 −1 1 2 3
1
𝑋 = 2 [1 1 1 ] [4 5 6]
1 −1 1 7 8 9

1−4−7 2−5−8 3−6−9

1
𝑋 = 2 [1 + 4 + 7 2+5+8 3 + 6 + 9]
1−4+7 2−5+8 3−6+9

−10 −11 −12

1
𝑋 = 2 [ 12 15 18 ]
4 5 6

Exercises 1:

1 1 0
1. Show that 𝐴 = [ 0 1 −1] satisfies the equation 𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 + 3𝐴 − 2𝐼 = 0. Hence
−1 0 1
determine its inverse.

3 −3 4
2.If 𝐴 = 2 −3 4] , show that 𝐴−1 = 𝐴3
[
0 −1 1

3 1
3. If 𝐴 = [ ], show that 𝐴2 − 5𝐴 + 7𝐼 = 0.
−1 2

EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN VECTORS:

Given a matrix A of order n, determine the scalar 𝜆 and the non-zero vectors X which
simultaneously satisfies the equation

AX = λX.

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑥1

𝑎
Let A be [ 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] and X be [𝑥2 ].
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑥3

Hence the equation AX = λX becomes

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑥1 𝑥1

[𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] [𝑥2 ] = 𝜆 [𝑥2 ].
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑥3 𝑥3

𝑎11 𝑥1 𝑎12 𝑥2 𝑎13 𝑥3 λ𝑥1

i.e., [ 21 𝑥1
𝑎 𝑎22 𝑥2 𝑎23 𝑥3 ] - [ λ𝑥2 ] = 0.
𝑎31 𝑥1 𝑎32 𝑥2 𝑎33 𝑥3 λ𝑥3
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(𝑎11 − 𝜆)𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + 𝑎13 𝑥3 = 0.

𝑎21 𝑥1 + (𝑎22 − 𝜆)𝑥2 + 𝑎23 𝑥3 = 0.

𝑎31 𝑥1 + 𝑎32 𝑥2 + (𝑎33 − 𝜆)𝑥3 = 0.

These equations have non-trivial solutions are when

𝑎11 − λ 𝑎12 𝑎13

| 𝑎21 𝑎22 − λ 𝑎23 | = 0.
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 − λ

The expansion of the determinant gives a polynomial of degree 3 in λ which is denoted by ϕ

(λ).

The equation ϕ (λ) = 0 is called the characteristic equation of the matrix A.

The root of this equation are called the characteristic value or latent values or eigen values of
the matrix A.

Let P be the matrix formed by the eigen vectors 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 .

i.e., 𝑃 = [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ]

𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴[𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ]

= [𝐴𝑥1 , 𝐴𝑥2 , 𝐴𝑥3 ]

Since 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 satisfy the equation AX = λX when λ = λ1, λ2, λ3 we have

𝐴𝑋1 = 𝜆1 𝑥1 , 𝐴𝑋2 = 𝜆2 𝑥2 , 𝐴𝑋3 = 𝜆3 𝑥3 .

Therefore 𝐴𝑃 = [𝜆1 𝑥1 𝜆2 𝑥2 , 𝜆3 𝑥3 ]

𝜆1 0 0
= [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ] [ 0 𝜆2 0]
0 0 𝜆3

= PD

i.e., P-1AP = D

Here D is diagonal matrix.

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This process of finding P such that P-1AP = D is called diagonalising the matrix A.

Note:

1. The characteristic equation of the matrix A is [A – λI] = 0.

2. If the roots of the characteristic equation are not distinct. It may not be possible to
Diagonalise the matrix A.

Corollary (i):

AP = D, A = PDP-1

Corollary (ii):

λ1 0 0
𝐷 = [0 λ2 0]
0 0 λ3

λ1 − λ 0 0
Its characteristic equation is [ 0 λ2 − λ 0 ] = 0.
0 0 λ3 − λ

i.e., (λ1 − λ)( λ2 − λ)( λ3 − λ) = 0.

Hence the eigen values of D are λ1, λ2 , λ3.

Hence A and D have the same characteristic equation and the same eigen values.

Corollary (iii):

The eigen vectors of the matrix are linearly dependent.

We have to show that if 𝑐1 𝑥1 + 𝑐2 𝑥2 + 𝑐3 𝑥3 = 0 then 𝑐1 = 𝑐2 = 𝑐3 = 0.

Let us assume 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 exist such that

𝑐1 𝑥1 + 𝑐2 𝑥2 + 𝑐3 𝑥3 = 0 ………. (1)

Multiplying this equation (1) by A we get

𝑐1 𝜆1 𝐴 𝑥1 + 𝑐2 𝜆2 𝐴 𝑥2 + 𝑐3 𝜆3 𝐴 𝑥3 = 0

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𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑐1 𝜆1 𝑥1 + 𝑐2 𝜆2 𝑥2 + 𝑐3 𝜆3 𝑥3 = 0 ……….(2)

Multiplying this equation (2) by A we get

𝑐1 𝜆1 𝐴 𝑥1 + 𝑐2 𝜆2 𝐴 𝑥2 + 𝑐3 𝜆3 𝐴 𝑥3 = 0

𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑐1 𝜆12 𝑥1 + 𝑐2 𝜆22 𝑥2 + 𝑐3 𝜆32 𝑥3 = 0 … … … … (3)

These three equations (1), (2), (3) may be written in the form

1 λ1 λ1 2
[𝑐1 𝑥1 𝑐2 𝑥2 𝑐3 𝑥3 ] [1 λ2 λ2 2 ] = 0. ……….. (4)
1 λ3 λ3 2

1 λ1 λ1 2
If λ1, λ2, λ3 are all unequal then [1 λ2 λ2 2 ] ≠ 0 and hence the matrix
1 λ3 λ3 2

1 λ1 λ1 2
B = [1 λ2 λ2 2 ] is non-singular and hence an inverse of the matrix exists.
1 λ3 λ3 2

If we multiply equation (4) on the right by the inverse of the matrix B, we have
[𝑐1 𝑥1 𝑐2 𝑥2 𝑐3 𝑥3 ] = 0.

Since no X is zero, it implies that 𝑐1 = 0, 𝑐2 = 0, 𝑐3 = 0.

Hence 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 are linearly independent.

Corollary (iv):

The determinant of the matrix A is equal to the product of its eigen values and is numerically
equal to the absolute term of the characteristic equation.

Let 1 , 2 , 3 , be the eigen values of the matrix then

𝑎11 −  𝑎12 𝑎13
| 𝑎21 𝑎22 −  𝑎23 | = −( − 1 )( − 2 )( − 3 )
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 − 

Putting  = 0 on both sides, we get |𝐴| = 1 2 3

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Corollary (v):

The sum of the elements on the diagonal A is the sum of the eigenvalues of the Matrix

𝑎11 −  𝑎12 𝑎13

The characteristic equation is | 𝑎21 𝑎22 −  𝑎23 | = 0.
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 − 

Sum of the eigenvalues = Sum of the roots of the characteristic equation

𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 2
= 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 3

2 and 3 occurs only in the term (𝑎11 − )(a22 − )(a33 − ). When the determinant is
expended.

Coefficient of 3 = −1

Coefficient of 2 = 𝑎11 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎33

Hence 𝑎11 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎33 = Sum of the eigen values of the matrix 𝐴.

Example 1:

𝟐 −𝟐 𝟑
Diagonalise the matrix [𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 ].
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟏

Solution:

The characteristic equation is,

(2 − 𝜆) −2 3
| 1 (1 − 𝜆) 1 |=0
1 3 (−1 − 𝜆)
(−𝜆3 + 2𝜆2 + 5𝜆 − 6) = 0

(𝜆 − 1)(𝜆 + 2)(𝜆 − 3) = 0

∴ 𝜆 = −2,1,3.

When 𝜆 = 1, the equation becomes,

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𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 0

𝑥1 + 𝑥3 = 0

𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 0

𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
Hence −51 = =
5 5

Therefore, 𝑥1 = −1, 𝑥2 = 1, 𝑥3 = 1

𝑋1 = (−1,1,1)

Similarly for the value of 𝜆 = −2, the eigen vector is

𝑋2 = (11,1, −4)

And for 𝜆 = 3, the eigenvectors 𝑋3 = (1,1,1)

−1 11 1
Hence 𝑃 = [ 1 1 1]
1 −14 1

−15 25 −10
−1 1
We can easily see that 𝑃 = [ 0 2 −2 ]
30
15 3 12

Hence

2 −2 3 1 −15 25 −10 1 0 0 −15 25 −10

[1 1 1 ]= [ 0 2 −2 ] [0 −2 0] [ 0 2 −2 ]
30
1 3 −1 15 3 12 0 0 3 15 3 12

Example 2

Show that if 𝜆 is an eigenvalue of the matrix A, then 𝜆𝑛 is an eigenvalue of 𝐴𝑛 , where n is a

positive integer.

Solution:

Let P be the matrix with is such that 𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐷 where

𝜆1 0 0
𝐷 = [0 𝜆2 0 ] where 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , 𝜆3 are the eigenvalues of A.
0 0 𝜆3
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Hence (𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃)(𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃) = 𝐷. 𝐷

𝑃−1 𝐴(𝑃𝑃−1 )𝐴𝑃 = 𝐷2

𝑃−1 𝐴𝐼𝐴𝑃 = 𝐷2

𝑃−1 𝐴2 𝑃 = 𝐷2

Multiplying this equation by 𝑃 −1 𝐴𝑃 on both sides we get

(𝑃−1 𝐴2 𝑃)(𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃) = 𝐷2 (𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃)

𝑃−1 𝐴2 (𝑃𝑃 −1 )𝐴𝑃 = 𝐷2 𝐷

𝑃−1 𝐴2 𝐼𝐴𝑃 = 𝐷3

𝑃−1 𝐴3 𝑃 = 𝐷3

Continuing this process, we get 𝑃−1 𝐴𝑛 𝑃 = 𝐷𝑛

Hence 𝐴𝑛 and 𝐷𝑛 have the same eigenvalues.

𝜆𝑛1 0 0
𝐷𝑛 = [ 0 𝜆𝑛2 0]
0 0 𝜆𝑛3

 The eigenvalues of 𝐷𝑛 are 𝜆𝑛1 , 𝜆𝑛2 , 𝜆𝑛3 .

Hence the eigenvalues of 𝐴𝑛 are 𝜆𝑛1 , 𝜆𝑛2 , 𝜆𝑛3 .

Similar matrices:

Two matrices A and are said to be similar of there exists a non-singular matrix P such that
𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐵

If D is the diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are the eigenvalues of the matrix A, then
A and D are similar matrices.

Example 1:

If A and B are similar matrices, they have the same characteristic equation.

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Since A and B are similar, a matrix P exists such that

𝐵 = 𝑃 −1 𝐴𝑃

𝐵 − 𝜆𝐼 = 𝑃 −1 𝐴𝑃 − 𝜆𝐼

= 𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃 − 𝑃−1 𝜆𝐼𝑃

= 𝑃−1 (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 )𝑃

Hence |𝐵 − 𝜆I| = |P −1 (𝐴 − 𝜆 I)P|

= |𝑃−1 ||𝐴 − 𝜆 I||P|

= |𝑃−1 ||P||𝐴 − 𝜆 I|

= |𝑃−1 𝑃||𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 |

= |𝐼 ||𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 |

= |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 |

The characteristic equations of A and B are respectively |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0 and |𝐵 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0.

Hence they are equal.

Corollary:

Two similar matrices have the same eigenvalues.

Cayley – Hamilton theorem:

Every matrix satisfies its characteristic equation.

Proof:

Let A be a matrix of order n.

𝑎11 − 𝜆 𝑎12 𝑎1𝑛

⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝑎 𝑎22 − 𝜆
The matrix [𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼] is [ 21 ]
⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛 − 𝜆

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Let |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| be 𝛼0 + 𝛼1 𝜆 + 𝛼2 𝜆2 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛 𝜆𝑛 .

Since {𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴}𝐴 = |𝐴|𝐼,

We have {𝑎𝑑𝑗 [𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 ]}[𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 ] = |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼|𝐼

Hence 𝑎𝑑𝑗 [𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 ] is of the form

𝐵0 + 𝐵1 𝜆 + 𝐵2 𝜆2 + ⋯ + 𝐵𝑛−1 𝜆𝑛−1

Where 𝐵0 , 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 , … , 𝐵𝑛−1 are matrices of order n.

∴ (𝐵0 + 𝐵1 𝜆 + 𝐵2 𝜆2 + ⋯ + 𝐵𝑛−1 𝜆𝑛−1 )[𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 ] = (𝛼0 + 𝛼1 𝜆 + 𝛼2 𝜆2 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛 𝜆𝑛 )𝐼

Equating the different powers of λ on both sides we get,

𝐵0 𝐴 = 𝛼0 𝐼

𝐵1 𝐴 − 𝐵0 = 𝛼1 𝐼

𝐵2 𝐴 − 𝐵1 = 𝛼2 𝐼

…………………….

…………………….

𝐵𝑛−1 𝐴 − 𝐵𝑛−2 = 𝛼𝑛−1 𝐼

−𝐵𝑛−1 = 𝛼𝑛 𝐼

Multiplying these equations successively by 𝐼, 𝐴, 𝐴2 , … . , 𝐴𝑛−1 , 𝐴𝑛 and adding we get

𝛼𝑛 𝐴𝑛 + 𝛼𝑛−1 𝐴𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝛼1 𝐴 + 𝛼0 𝐼 = 0

Hence A satisfies its characteristic equation.

An important application of the Cayley-Hamilton theorem is to express the inverse of a matrix

in terms of powers of A.

we have shown that

𝛼0 𝐼 + 𝛼1 𝐴 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑛−1 𝐴𝑛−1 + 𝛼𝑛 𝐴𝑛 = 0

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Where 𝛼0 ≠ 0 and |𝐴| ≠ 0.

∴ 𝛼0 𝐼 = −𝛼1 𝐴 − 𝛼2 𝐴2 − ⋯ − 𝛼𝑛 𝐴𝑛

Per-multiplying by 𝐴−1 , we get

𝛼0 𝐴−1 𝐼 = −𝛼1 𝐴−1 𝐴 − 𝛼2 𝐴−1 𝐴2 − ⋯ − 𝛼𝑛 𝐴−1 𝐴𝑛

𝛼0 𝐴−1 = −𝛼1 𝐼 − 𝛼2 𝐴 − ⋯ − 𝛼𝑛 𝐴𝑛−1

𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼𝑛
∴ 𝐴−1 = − 𝐼 − 𝐴 − ⋯ − 𝐴𝑛−1
𝛼0 𝛼0 𝛼0

Higher powers of the matrices

Another important use is to calculate the higher powers of the matrices.

This is illustrated in examples 2 and 3 given below.

Example 1:

𝟐 𝟐 𝟎
Find the characteristic equation of the matrix 𝑨 = [ 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 ] and hence determine
−𝟕 𝟐 −𝟑
its inverse.

Solution:

2−𝜆 2 0
The characteristic equation is | 2 1−𝜆 1 |=0
−7 2 −3 − 𝜆

Simplifying we get 𝜆3 − 13𝜆 + 12 = 0.

Hence the matrix A satisfies the equation

𝐴3 − 13𝐴 + 12𝐼 = 0

Per-multiplying by 𝐴−1 , we have

𝐴2 − 13𝐼 + 12𝐴−1 = 0

∴ 12𝐴−1 = 13𝐼 − 𝐴2

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 2 2 0 2 2 0 8 6 2
𝐴2 = [ 2 1 1 ] [ 2 1 1 ] = [ −1 7 −2]
−7 2 −3 −7 2 −3 31 −18 11

1 0 0 8 6 2
12𝐴−1 = 13 [0 1 0] − [−1 7 −2]
0 0 1 31 −18 11

13 0 0 8 6 2
12𝐴−1 = [ 0 13 0 ] − [−1 7 −2]
0 0 13 31 −18 11

5 −6 −2
−1
12𝐴 =[ 1 6 2]
−31 18 2

1 5 −6 −2
−1 [ 1
𝐴 = 6 2]
12
−31 18 2

Example 2:

4 2
If 𝐴 = [ ] determine 𝐴𝑛 in terms of A.
3 3

Solution:

The characteristic equation is given by

|4 − 𝜆 −2 |
=0
3 3−𝜆

𝜆2 − 7𝜆 + 6 = 0

Hence A satisfies the equation

𝐴2 − 7𝐴 + 6𝐼 = 0

Let 𝜆𝑛 = 𝑓 (𝜆)(𝜆2 − 7𝜆 + 6) + 𝑝𝜆 + 𝑞 where 𝜆 = 1 𝑜𝑟 6, 𝜆2 − 7𝜆 + 6 = 0

∴ 1𝑛 = 𝑝 + 𝑞, 6𝑛 = 6𝑝 + 𝑞

6𝑛 − 1 6 − 6𝑛
∴𝑝= ,𝑞 =
5 5

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 (6𝑛 − 1)𝜆 + (6 − 6𝑛 )𝐼
∴ 𝜆 = 𝑓(𝜆)(𝜆2 − 7𝜆 + 6) +
𝑛
5

(6𝑛 −1)𝐴+(6−6𝑛 )𝐼
Hence 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑓 (𝐴)(𝐴2 − 7𝐴 + 6) + 5

1
𝐴𝑛 = 5 [(6𝑛 − 1)𝐴 + (6 − 6𝑛 )𝐼] since 𝐴2 − 7𝐴 + 6 = 0

𝑛
6𝑛 − 1 4 2
𝑛
6−6 1 0
𝐴 = [ ]+ [ ]
5 3 3 5 0 1

Example 3:

1 3
Calculate 𝐴4 when 𝐴 = [ ]
2 4

Solution:

The characteristic equation of the matrix A is

|1 − 𝜆 3 |
=0
2 4−𝜆

𝜆2 − 5𝜆 − 2 = 0

∴ 𝐴2 − 5𝐴 − 2𝐼 = 0

Hence 𝐴2 = 5𝐴 + 2𝐼

∴ 𝐴4 = (5𝐴 + 2𝐼)(5𝐴 + 2𝐼)

𝐴4 = 25𝑎2 + 20𝐴 + 4𝐼

𝐴4 = 25(5𝐴 + 2𝐼 ) + 20𝐴 + 4𝐼

𝐴4 = 145𝐴 + 54𝐼

1 3 1 0
𝐴4 = 145 [ ] + 54 [ ]
2 4 0 1

145 435] [54 0]

𝐴4 = [ +
290 580 0 54

199 435]
𝐴4 = [
290 634
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Exercises 2:

1. Find the eigen vales of the following matrices:

(𝑖 ) [8 −4]
2 2

−2 2 −3
[
(ii) 2 1 −6]
−1 −2 0

3 1 4
(iii) [0 2 6]
0 0 5

2. Find the eigen vales and the eigen vectors of the following matrices:

1 −1 0
(i) [ 1 2 1]
−1 2 −1

2 2 1
(ii) [1 3 1]
1 2 2

3. Diagonalise the following matrices

7 −2 −2
(i) [−2 1 4]
−2 4 1

−15 4 3
(ii) [ 10 −12 6]
20 −4 2

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 Unit IV

Expansions of sin n θ, cos n θ in powers of sin θ, cos θ - Expansion of tan n θ in terms of tan
θ, Expansions of cosn θ, sinn θ, cosm θ sinn θ –Expansions of tan(θ1+θ2+ ,…,+θn )- related
problems.

EXPANSIONS

Expansion of cos𝜽 and sin𝜽

we have (cos𝑛𝜃 +i sin𝑛𝜃) = (cos 𝜃 +i sin𝜃)n

If n is a positive integer, the expression on the right hand side can be expanded by Binomial
Theorem. Hence,

n 𝑛(𝑛−1) n -2
(cos n𝜃 + i sin n𝜃 ) = cos 𝜃+ n cos n -1 𝜃 (i sin 𝜃) + cos 𝜃 (i sin 𝜃)2
2!

𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2) n -3
+ cos 𝜃 (i sin 𝜃 )3 +……
3!

i 2 = -1, i3 = -i, i 4 = 1, i5 = i , ...

n 𝑛(𝑛−1) n -2 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)(𝑛−3) n -4
(cos n𝜃 + i sin n𝜃 ) = cos 𝜃+ cos 𝜃 (i sin 𝜃)2 + cos 𝜃
2! 4!
𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
(i sin 𝜃 )4 +…….+i(n cos n -1 𝜃 sin 𝜃 + Cos n -3 𝜃)
3!

Equating the real and imaginary parts we have

n 𝑛(𝑛−1) n -2 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)(𝑛−3)
cos n𝜃 = cos 𝜃− cos 𝜃 sin 2 𝜃+
2! 4!
𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
sin n𝜃 = 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝜃 sin 𝜃 + Cos n -3 𝜃sin3 𝜃 + ⋯
3!

Note:
1. The terms are alternately positive and negative
2. Each series continues till one of the factors in the numerator is zero and then ceases.
3.The sum of the powers of cos and sinθ in every term of the expansions equals n.
Both the series are in descending powers of cos and in ascending powers of sinθ

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Corollary 1:
sin 𝑛𝜃 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)
= 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + ⋯
si n 𝜃 3!

𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2) 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)(𝑛−3)(𝑛−4)
= 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−3 𝜃(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−5 𝜃
3! 5!

(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 2 ) + ⋯
Similarly in the expansions of cos n𝜃, by putting
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
Cos n θ can be expressed in a series containing powers of cos θ.

Corollary 2:
Coefficient of cosn-1 𝜃 in the expansion of
sin 𝑛𝜃
= 𝑛𝑐1 + 𝑛𝑐3 + 𝑛𝑐5 + ⋯ = 2𝑛−1
si n 𝜃

Corollary 3:
Coefficient of cosn 𝜃 in the expansion of
cos 𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝑐0 + 𝑛𝑐2 + 𝑛𝑐4 + ⋯ = 2𝑛−1

Expansion of tan n θ in powers of tan θ

sin n 𝜃
tan 𝑛𝜃 =
cos 𝑛𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑛𝑐2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑛𝑐4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−4 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 + ⋯
tan 𝑛𝜃 =
𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−1 𝜃 sin 𝜃 + 𝑛𝑐3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛−3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + ⋯
On dividing both the numerator and denominator by 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜃

Expansion of tan (A + B + C + ...)

cosA + isin A = cos A (1 + i tan A)
cosB + i sin B = cosB (1 + i tan B)
cos C + i sin C = cos C(1 + i tan C)
∴(cos A + i sin A)(cos B + i sin B)(cos C + i sin C )...
= cos A cos B cos C...(1 + i tan A)(1 + i tan B)(1 + i tan C)...
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= cos A cos B cos C...[1 + i ∑ tan 𝐴 + i2 ∑ tan 𝐴 tan B + i3 ∑ tan 𝐴 tan B]
= cos A cos B cos C...[1 + iS1 - S2 - iS3+ ...]
Where Sr is the sum of products taken r at a time of tan A, tan B, tan C,…
Equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides, we have
cos(A + B + C + ...) = cos A cos B cos C...(1 - S2 + S4 + ...)
sin(A + B + C + ...) = cos A cos B cos C...(S1 - S3 + S5 + ...)
𝑆1 − 𝑆3 + 𝑆5 + ...
∴tan( A + B + C + ...) = 1 − 𝑆2 + 𝑆4 + ...

Corollary:
Putting A = B = C = ... = 𝜃 taking n angles
Where Sr is the sum of the products taken r at a time of tan A, tan A, …, tan A n terms
Hence S1=tan θS2= 𝑛𝑐2 tan 2 θ , S3 =𝑛𝑐3 tan3 θ …..
𝑛𝑐1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 𝑛𝑐2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 θ + ⋯
tan 𝑛𝜃 =
1 − 𝑛𝑐2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑛𝑐4 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝜃 + ⋯
Example 1:
Express cos 8𝜃 in terms of sinθ
Solution:
cos 8𝜃+i sin 8𝜃=( cos 8𝜃+i sin 8𝜃)8
=𝑐𝑜𝑠 8 𝜃 + 8𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 7 𝜃(𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) + 8𝑐2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃(𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 + ⋯
=𝑐𝑜𝑠 8 𝜃 − 8𝑐2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 8𝑐4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 − 8𝑐6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝜃 + 8𝑐8 𝑖(8𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 7 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 +
8𝑐3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 8𝑐5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝜃 − 8𝑐7 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛7 𝜃
Equating the real parts, we have
cos 8𝜃 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 8 𝜃 − 8𝑐2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 8𝑐4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 − 8𝑐6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝜃 + 8𝑐8 𝑠𝑖𝑛8 𝜃.
cos8𝜃 = (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)4 − 28(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)3 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 70(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)2 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 − 28(1 −
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝜃+. 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
cos8𝜃 = (1 − 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃+6𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃−4𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝜃+𝑠𝑖𝑛8 𝜃) − 28(1 −
3𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃+3𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃−𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) + 70(1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃+𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 − 28(1 −
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝜃+𝑠𝑖𝑛8 𝜃
cos8𝜃 = (1 + 28 + 70 + 28 + 1)𝑠𝑖𝑛8 𝜃 + (−4 − 84 − 140 − 28)𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝜃 + (6 + 84 +
70)𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 + (−4 − 28)𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 1

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Example 2:
𝑠𝑖𝑛6𝜃
Express in terms of cos 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Solution:
cos 6𝜃+i sin 6𝜃=( cos 𝜃+i sin 𝜃)6
=𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃 + 6𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃(𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) + 6𝑐2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃(𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 + 6𝑐3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃(𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)3 + 6𝑐4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃(𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)4 +
6𝑐5 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)5 + (𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)6
=𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃 + 6𝑐2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 6𝑐4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝜃 + 𝑖(6𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 6𝑐3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 +
6𝑐5 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝜃
Equating the imaginary parts on both sides,
𝑠𝑖𝑛6𝜃 = 6𝑐1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 6𝑐3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 6𝑐5 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛6𝜃 = 6𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 20𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛6𝜃
= 6𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 − 20𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

=6𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 − 20𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) + 6(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)2

=32𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 − 32𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃+ 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Example 3:
If 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 3 +𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑃 = 0. Prove that tan−1 𝛼 +
tan−1 𝛽 + tan−1 𝛾 = 𝑛𝜋 radius except when q=1.
Solution:
𝑥 3 +𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑃 = 0.
𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = −𝑝,
𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾 = 𝑞,
𝛼𝛽𝛾 = −𝑝
tan−1 𝛼 = 𝑥1 , tan−1 𝛽 = 𝑥2 , tan−1 𝛾 = 𝑥3
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥1 , 𝛽 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥2 , 𝛾 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥3
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥2 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥3 ⇒ −𝑝 , 𝑠1= 𝑝
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥2 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥3 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥3 ⇒ +𝑞 , 𝑠2= 𝑞
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥3 ⇒ −𝑝 , 𝑠3= − 𝑝
𝑠3 − 𝑠1 −𝑝 + 𝑝
tan(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 ) = =
1 − 𝑠2 1−𝑞
tan(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 ) = 0
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Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli.
 (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 ) = 𝑛𝜋
tan−1 𝛼 + tan−1 𝛽 + tan−1 𝛾 = 𝑛𝜋

Example 4:
𝑎𝑏 𝑏𝑐
Prove that the equation 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 has four roots and that the sum of the 4 values

of 𝜃which satisfy it is equal to an odd multiple of radius 𝜋

Solution:
𝜃 𝜃
2 tan 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
2 2
We know that sin 𝜃 = 𝜃 , cos 𝜃 = 𝜃
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
2 2

2𝑡 1−𝑡 2
sin 𝜃 = 1+𝑡 2 , cos 𝜃 = 1+𝑡 2

Where t= tan 𝜃
𝑎ℎ(1 + 𝑡 2 ) 𝑏𝑘(1 + 𝑡 2 )
− = 𝑎2 − 𝑏2
1 − 𝑡2 2𝑡
2tah+(1+𝑡 2 )-bk(1+𝑡 2 )(1-𝑡 2 )=𝑎2 − 𝑏2 (2𝑡)(1 − 𝑡 2 )
2tah+2𝑡 3 𝑎ℎ − 𝑏𝑘(1 − 𝑡 4 ) = 2𝑡(𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ) − 2𝑡 3 (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )
2tah+2𝑡 3 𝑎ℎ − 𝑏𝑘 + 𝑏𝑘𝑡 4 − 2𝑡𝑎2 + 2𝑡𝑏2 + 2𝑡 3 𝑎2 − 2𝑡 3 𝑏2 = 0
Bk𝑡 4 + 2𝑡 3 (𝑎ℎ + 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ) + 2𝑡(𝑎ℎ − 𝑎2 +𝑏2 ) − 𝑏𝑘 = 0
Let 𝑡1 , 𝑡2 , 𝑡3 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡4 , be the
−2 −2
𝑠1 = = −2 𝑠3 = = −2
1 1

0 −11
𝑠2 = =0 𝑠4 = = −11
1 1
𝜃 𝜃2 𝜃3 𝜃4 𝑠 −𝑠3
tan( 21 + + + ) = 1−𝑠1
2 2 2 2 +𝑠4

denominator, 1-0-1=0
𝜃1 𝜃2 𝜃3 𝜃4
tan( + + + )=∞
2 2 2 2

𝜃1 𝜃2 𝜃3 𝜃4 𝜋
+ + + = (2𝑛 + 1)
2 2 2 2 2
𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃3 + 𝜃4 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋

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Example 5:
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
Find the equation whose roots are 2cos , 2cos 7 , 2𝑐𝑜𝑠
7 7

Solution:
By previous sum,
Sin7𝜃 = 7𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 56𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 112𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝜃 − 64𝑠𝑖𝑛7 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛7𝜃
= 7 − 56𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 112𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 − 64𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=7 − 28(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) + 28(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)2 − 8(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)3
We know that
cos2𝜃 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
sin2𝜃 =
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛7𝜃
= 7 − 28 + 28𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 28 + 28𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜃 − 56𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 8 + 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2𝜃 − 24𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
+ 24𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛7𝜃
= 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2𝜃 + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜃 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛7𝜃
= 8𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋
Where 𝜃 = ± 7 , ± ,±
7 7

sin7𝜃 = 0
8𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2𝜃 + 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜃 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 1 = 0
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋
Has the roots, ± 7 , ± ,±
7 7

Put cos2𝜃 = 𝑥 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,

2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
8𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1 = 0 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 cos± , cos± , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ±
7 7 7

Let y=2x
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
𝑦 3 − 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 1 = 0 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 2cos , 2cos 7 , 2𝑐𝑜𝑠
7 7

Example 6:
𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 1
Show that cos 9 , cos 9 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =8.
9

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Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli.
Solution:
We know that
cos9𝜃 = 256𝑐𝑜𝑠 9 𝜃 − 576𝑐𝑜𝑠 7 𝜃 + 432𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 − 120𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃+ 9cos𝜃
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋 10𝜋 12𝜋 14𝜋 16𝜋
where 𝜃 = 0, , , , , , , ,
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

therefore, 1=256𝑐𝑜𝑠 9 𝜃 − 576𝑐𝑜𝑠 7 𝜃 + 432𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 − 120𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃+ 9cos𝜃

put x= cos𝜃
256𝑥 9 − 576𝑥 7 + 432𝑥 5 − 120𝑥 3 + 9x has the roots,
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋 10𝜋 12𝜋 14𝜋 16𝜋
cos 0 = 1, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

since 1 is a root
(x -1) is the factor
256𝑥 8 + 256𝑥 7 + 320𝑥 6 − 320𝑥 5 + 112𝑥 4 + 112𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 − 8x+1=0
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋 10𝜋 12𝜋 14𝜋 16𝜋
has the roots , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ,
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
18𝜋 20𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠
9 9

The equation cos(2𝜋 − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

256𝑥 8 + 256𝑥 7 + 320𝑥 6 − 320𝑥 5 + 112𝑥 4 + 112𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 − 8x+1=0
Has the roots
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( )
9 9 9 9
Taking square root on both
16𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 −4x+1=0
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 8𝜋
cos , cos , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠
9 9 9 9
6𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠 = cos( ) = cos(3 − 1)
9 3 3
3𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠
3 3
𝜋 𝜋
=cos(𝜋 − 3 ) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 3
−1
=2
2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋 −1
The equation has the roots cos , cos , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ,
9 9 9 2
−1
X= 2 , 2𝑥 + 1 is a factor of the eqn
2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋
cos , cos , 𝑐𝑜𝑠
9 9 9
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Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli.
 2𝜋 4𝜋 8𝜋 −1
cos cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =
9 9 9 2

8𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
cos = cos(𝜋 − ) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠
9 9 9
𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 1
cos cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =
9 9 9 8

Example 7:
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋
Find the equation whose roots are tan 5 , tan , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 and tan
5 5 5

Solution:
We know that
tan5𝜃 =tan𝜃 − 5𝑐3 𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝜃 + 5𝑐5 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝜃
1 − 5𝑐2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 5𝑐4 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝜃
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋
where 𝜃 = 0, 5 , , ,
5 5 5

tan5𝜃 = 0
5tan𝜃 − 5𝑐3 𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝜃 + 5𝑐5 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝜃 = 0
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋
Has the roots when 𝜃 = 0, 5 , , ,
5 5 5

Put tan𝜃 = 𝑥
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋
5𝑥 − 10𝑥 3 + 𝑥 5 = 0 has the roots 𝑡𝑎𝑛0, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛
5 5 5 5

Since 0 is the roots of the equation we have

𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋
𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 2 + 5 = 0 has the roots, tan 5 , tan , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 and tan
5 5 5

Example 8:
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋 5𝜋
Prove that tan 11 tan 11 𝑡𝑎𝑛 11 tan 11 tan 11 =√11

Solution:
We know that
𝑛𝑐1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 𝑛𝑐3 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃 + 𝑛𝑐5 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝜃 − 𝑛𝑐7 𝑡𝑎𝑛7 𝜃+𝑛𝑐9 𝑡𝑎𝑛9 𝜃 − 𝑛𝑐11 𝑡𝑎𝑛11 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛11𝜃 =
1 − 11𝑐2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 11𝑐4 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝜃 − 11𝑐6 𝑡𝑎𝑛6 𝜃 + 11𝑐8 𝑡𝑎𝑛8 𝜃 − 11𝑐10 𝑡𝑎𝑛10 𝜃
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋 5𝜋 6𝜋 7𝜋 8𝜋 9𝜋 10𝜋
where 𝜃 = 0, 11 , 11 , 11 , 11 , 11 , 11 , 11 , 11 , 11 , 11

If we put 𝑡𝑎𝑛11𝜃 = 0, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛

11𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 11𝑐3 𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝜃 + ⋯ 𝑡𝑎𝑛11 𝜃 = 0 → (1)

101
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 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋 5𝜋 6𝜋 7𝜋 8𝜋 9𝜋 10𝜋
has roots 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 0, 11 , 11 , 11 , 11 , 11 , 11 , 11 , 11 , 11 , 11

Put tan𝜃 = 𝑥 then the eqn (1) reduces to

11𝑥 − 165𝑥 3 + 462𝑥 5 − 330𝑥 7 + 55𝑥 9 − 𝑥 11 = 0 → (2)
Hence equation (2) has roots 0,
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋 5𝜋 6𝜋 7𝜋 8𝜋 9𝜋 10𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛 11 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 11 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 11 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 11 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 11 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 11 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛
11 11 11 11

since
10𝜋 𝜋 9𝜋 2𝜋 8𝜋 3𝜋 7𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛
11 11 11 11 11 11 11
4𝜋 6𝜋 5𝜋
= −𝑡𝑎𝑛 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛
11 11 11
𝑥 − 55𝑥 + 330𝑥 − 462𝑥 + 165𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 = 0 → (3)
10 8 6 4

𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋 5𝜋
Has roots ±𝑡𝑎𝑛 11 , ±𝑡𝑎𝑛 , ±𝑡𝑎𝑛 11 , ±𝑡𝑎𝑛 11 , ±𝑡𝑎𝑛
11 11
2
put 𝑥 = 𝑦 then the eqn (3) reduce to
𝑦 5 − 55𝑦 4 + 330𝑦 3 − 462𝑦 2 + 165𝑦 − 11 = 0 → (4)
This equation has roots,
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛2 11 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 11 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 11 : 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 11 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 11 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 11 = 11
11 11
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋 5𝜋
tan 11 tan 11 𝑡𝑎𝑛 11 tan 11 tan 11 = √11

The negative sign is discarded

Since all the terms of the expression on the left side are positive, each angle involved being a
side.
Example 9:
𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋
Expand tan4𝜃 in terms of tan 𝜃 and show that tan 16 , tan 16 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛 16 , tan are roots of the
16

equation.
Solution:
𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝑠 −𝑠3 4𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃−4𝑐3 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝜃
tan4𝜃 = 1−𝑠1 = 1−4𝑐1 2 𝜃+4𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛 4 𝜃
2 +𝑠4 2𝑡𝑎𝑛 4

4𝑥−4𝑐3 𝑥 3
1=
1−4𝑐2 𝑥 2+𝑥 4

𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋
𝜃= , , , ,
16 16 16 16

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Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli.
 𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋
tan(4𝜃) = tan( 4 ) tan( ) tan( 4 ) tan( )
4 4

𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 + 1 − 4𝑥 + 4𝑥 3 = 0

Powers of sines and cosines of 𝜽 in terms of function of multiples of 𝜽.

Let cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = 𝑥

1
then cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = 𝑥

1
Adding , 2cos 𝜃 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 …………….(1)

1
Subtracting, , 2isin 𝜃 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 …………….(2)

𝑥 𝑛 =(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃

1
= (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)−𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃
𝑥𝑛

1
𝑥 𝑛 +𝑥 𝑛 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 ……………(3)

1
𝑥 𝑛 - 𝑥 𝑛 = 2𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃 ………........(4)

We make use of three relation (1)(2)(3) and (4) to expand 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜃 and𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝜃 in series of cosines
and sines of multiples of 𝜃.

Expansion of 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏 𝜽 when is a positive integer

1
2cos 𝜃 = 𝑥 + 𝑥

1
(2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑛 =(𝑥 + 𝑥 )𝑛

1 1 1 1 1
=𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛𝑐1 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑐2 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ … . . 𝑛𝑐𝑛−2 𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑛𝑐𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛

1 1 1
= 𝑥 𝑛 +𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛𝑐1 (𝑥 𝑛−2 +𝑥 𝑛−2 ) + 𝑛𝑐2 (𝑥 𝑛−4 +𝑥 𝑛−4 ) + ⋯

Since

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 1
𝑥 𝑛 +𝑥 𝑛 = 2cos 𝑛𝜃 , 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒

2𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜃 = 2cosn 𝜃 + 𝑛𝑐1 2cos(n − 2) 𝜃 + 𝑛𝑐2 2cos(n −4)𝜃 + …

2𝑛−1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜃 = cosn 𝜃 + 𝑛𝑐1 2cos(n − 2) 𝜃 + 𝑛𝑐2 2cos(n −4)𝜃 + …

Note:

1 𝑛
1) If n is odd there will be (n+1) terms in the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑥 ) and hence these can

be grouped in pairs. Hence the last term contains cos𝜃.We can easily see that the
coefficient of cos𝜃 in the expression of
1
2𝑛−1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 2 𝑛𝑐(𝑛−1)
2

1 𝑛
2) When n is even, the number of terms in the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑥 ) is (n +1) and the

middle term is independent of x and is left over when all the other terms are grouped in
pairs hence the last term in the expansion of
1
2𝑛−1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 2 𝑛𝑐𝑛
2

Example 1:

Expand cos6𝜃 and cos5𝜃 in ser ies o f cosines of mult iples o f 𝜃

Solution:

Let x=cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃

1
Then (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)6 = (𝑥 + 𝑥)6

1 1 1 1 1
=𝑥 6 + 6𝑐1 𝑥 5 𝑥 + 6𝑐2 𝑥 4 𝑥 2 + 6𝑐3 𝑥 3 𝑥 3 + 6𝑐4 𝑥 2 𝑥 4 + 6𝑐5 𝑥 𝑥 5

1 1 1
=(𝑥 6 +𝑥 6) + 6𝑐1 (𝑥 4 +𝑥 4) + 6𝑐2 (𝑥 2 +𝑥 2 ) + 6𝑐3 + ⋯

=2𝑐𝑜𝑠6𝜃 + 6𝑐1 (2𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃) + 6𝑐2 (2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) + 6𝑐3

25 cos6𝜃 =𝑐𝑜𝑠6𝜃 + 6(𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃) + 15 (𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) + 10

1
cos6𝜃=32 (𝑐𝑜𝑠6𝜃 + 6(𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃) + 15(𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) + 10)

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 1
again (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)5 = (𝑥 + 𝑥)5

1 1 1 1 1
=𝑥 5 + 5𝑐1 𝑥 4 𝑥 + 5𝑐2 𝑥 3 𝑥 2 + 5𝑐3 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 + 5𝑐4 𝑥 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 5

1 1 1
=(𝑥 5 +𝑥 5) + 5𝑐1 (𝑥 3 +𝑥 3) + 5𝑐2 (𝑥+𝑥)

=2𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝜃 + 5𝑐1 (2𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃) + 5𝑐2 (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

24 cos5𝜃 =𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝜃 + 5(𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃) + 10 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

Expansion of 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏 𝜽 when is a positive integer

1
2isin 𝜃 = 𝑥 −
𝑥
1
(2𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛 =(𝑥 − 𝑥 )𝑛

1 1 1
=𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑐1 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑐2 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑥 2 − 𝑛𝑐3 𝑥 𝑛−3 𝑥 3 + ⋯

Case (1) n is even

The number of turn in the expansion is odd. The sings of the term are alternatively positive and negative and

the last term is positive.

1 1 1
(2𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛 = (𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛) − 𝑛𝑐1 (𝑥 𝑛−2 + 2 ) + 𝑛𝑐2 (𝑥 𝑛−4 + 4)
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

𝑛
(i.e.)(2𝑛 )(−1) 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜃 = (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 ) − 𝑛𝑐1 2cos(𝑛 − 2)𝜃+ 𝑛𝑐2 cos(𝑛 − 4) 𝜃 … ..

Hence,

𝑛
((−1) 2 (2𝑛−1 )) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜃 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 ) − 𝑛𝑐1 cos(𝑛 − 2) 𝜃 + 𝑛𝑐2 cos(𝑛 − 4) 𝜃 …

case (2) n is odd

1
(2𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑐1 𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑛𝑐2 𝑥 𝑛−4 … . . −
𝑥𝑛

1 1 1
=(𝑥 𝑛 +𝑥 𝑛) − 𝑛𝑐1 (𝑥 𝑛−2 +𝑥 𝑛−2) + 𝑛𝑐2 (𝑥 𝑛−4 +𝑥 𝑛−4 )

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 =(2𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃 ) − 𝑛𝑐1 2𝑖sin(𝑛 − 2)𝜃+ 𝑛𝑐2 2isin (𝑛 − 4) 𝜃

(i.e.) 2𝑛−1 (𝑖)𝑛−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜃 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃) − 𝑛𝑐1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑛 − 2)𝜃+ 𝑛𝑐2 sin(𝑛 − 4) 𝜃 … ..

𝑛−1
(i.e.) 2𝑛−1 (𝑖) 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜃 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃 ) − 𝑛𝑐1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑛 − 2)𝜃+ 𝑛𝑐2 sin(𝑛 − 4) 𝜃 … ..

Example 1:

Expand 𝑠𝑖𝑛 7 𝜃 in a series of sines of multiples of 𝜃

Solution:

we have,

1 35 21 1 1
(𝑥 − 𝑥 )7 = 𝑥 7 − 7𝑥 5 + 21𝑥 3 − 35𝑥 + − 𝑥3 + 𝑥5 − 𝑥7
𝑥

1 1 1 1
=(𝑥 7 - 𝑥 7) − 7(𝑥 5 -𝑥 5 ) + 21(𝑥 3 +𝑥 3 ) − 35(𝑥 − 𝑥 )

putting x=cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃

1
so that , 𝑥 𝑛 -𝑥 𝑛 = 2isin 𝑛𝜃 for all integral values of n, we have

(2isin 𝜃)7 = 2isin 7𝜃 − 7( 2isin 5𝜃) + 21(2isin 3𝜃) − 35(2isin 𝜃)

(i.e.) 26 (-1)3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 7 𝜃 = sin 7𝜃 − 7( sin 5𝜃) + 21(sin 3𝜃) − 35(sin 𝜃)

−1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 7 𝜃 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛7𝜃 − 7 sin 5𝜃 + 21 sin 3𝜃 − 35 sin 𝜃)
64

Example 2:

Expand 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6 𝜃 in a series of sines of multiples of 𝜃

Solution:

we have,

1 15 6 1
(𝑥 − 𝑥 )6 = 𝑥 6 − 6𝑥 4 + 15𝑥 2 − 20 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 6

1 1 1
=(𝑥 6 - 𝑥 6) − 6(𝑥 4 -𝑥 4 ) + 15(𝑥 2 +𝑥 2 ) − 20

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 1 1
putting x=cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 2𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑛 +𝑥 𝑛 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 for all integer value of

(2isin 𝜃)6 = 2cos6 𝜃 − 6( 2cos4 𝜃) + 15(2cos2 𝜃) − 20

(i.e.) 26 (-1)3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6 𝜃 = 2cos 6𝜃 − 6( 2cos4 𝜃) + 15(cos 2𝜃) − 20

−1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 6 𝜃 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠6𝜃 − 6 cos4 𝜃 + 15 cos 2𝜃 − 10
32

Example 3:

Expand 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 𝑖𝑛 a series of of sines of multiples of 𝜃

Solution:

1 1
(2𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)3 (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)5 =(𝑥 − 𝑥 )3 (𝑥 + 𝑥 )5

1 1
=(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 )3 (𝑥 + 𝑥 )5

3 1 1
=(𝑥 6 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 6 )( 𝑥 2 + 2 + 𝑥 2)

1 1 1 1
=(𝑥 8 - 𝑥 8) + 2(𝑥 6 -𝑥 6) − 2(𝑥 4 +𝑥 4) − 6(𝑥 2 - 𝑥 2)

=2isin 8𝜃 + 2( 2isin 6𝜃) − 2(2isin 4𝜃) − 6(2isin 2𝜃)

(i.e.) 23 (-i) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝜃25 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 = 2𝑖(sin 8𝜃 + 2 sin 6𝜃 − 2 sin 4𝜃 − 6 sin 2𝜃)

−1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛8𝜃 + 2 sin 6𝜃 − 2 sin 4𝜃 − 6 sin 2𝜃)
2

Example 4:

Expand 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑖𝑛 a series of sines of multiples of 𝜃

Solution:

1 1
(2𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)4 (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 =(𝑥 − )4 (𝑥 + )2
𝑥 𝑥

1 1
=(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 )2 (𝑥 + 𝑥 )2

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 1 1
=(𝑥 4 − 2 + 𝑥 4)( 𝑥 2 − 2 + 𝑥 2 )

1 1 1
=(𝑥 6 - 𝑥 6) − 2(𝑥 4 -𝑥 4) − 2(𝑥 2 +𝑥 2) + 4

=2cos6 𝜃 − 2( 2cos4 𝜃) − 2(2cos2 𝜃) + 4

(i.e.) 24 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 𝜃22 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 =2cos 6𝜃 − 2( 2cos4 𝜃) − 2(cos 2𝜃) + 4

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠6𝜃 − 2 cos4 𝜃 − 2 cos 2𝜃 + 4)
26

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UNIT V

Hyperbolic functions – Relation between circular and hyperbolic functions Inverse

hyperbolic functions, Logarithm of complex quantities, - related problems.

Hyperbolic Function

Introduction:

If 𝜃 is expressed in Radians, cos 𝜃 and sin 𝜃 can be expanded is powers of 𝜃, the Result
Begins

𝜃2 𝜃4 𝜃6
cos 𝜃 = 1 − + − + ⋯ ∞ → (1)
2! 4! 6!
𝜃3 𝜃5 𝜃7
sin 𝜃 = 1 − + − + ⋯ ∞ → (2)
3! 5! 7!

(These expansions are valid for all values of. 𝜃, real or Imaginary.)

The student is familiar with the exponential series, for all values of 𝑥.

𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + + +⋯+ ⋯
1! 2! 𝑛!

where

1 1 1
𝑒 =1+ − +⋯+ +
1! 2! 𝑛!

Put 𝑥 = 𝑖𝜃 in (3) then,

𝑖𝜃 (𝑖𝜃)2 (𝑖𝜃)3
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 1 + + + + ⋯∞
1! 2! 3!
𝑖𝜃 𝜃 2 𝑖𝜃 3
= 1+ − − + ⋯∞
1! 2! 3!
𝜃2 𝜃4 𝜃 𝜃3 𝜃5
= (1 − + + ⋯ ∞) + 𝑖 ( − + ⋯ ∞)
2! 4! 1! 3! 5!
= cos 𝜃 + 𝑖sin 𝜃 from (1) and (2)

(this, formula is known as Euler's Formulas)

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Put 𝑥 = −𝑖𝜃 in (3) Then

(−𝑖𝜃) (−𝑖)2 (−𝑖𝜃)3

𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = 1 + + + +⋯∞
1! 2! 3!
𝑖𝜃 𝜃 2 𝑖𝜃 3 𝜃 4
=1− − + + …∞
1! 2! 3! 4!
𝜃2 𝜃4 𝜃 𝜃3
= (1 − + )−𝑖( − + ⋯ ∞)
2! 4! 1! 3!
= cos 𝜃 − 𝑖sin 𝜃

Hence we get the Relation

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖sin 𝜃
𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑖sin 𝜃.

Adding 2cos 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃

𝑒 −i𝜃+𝑒 +𝑖𝜃
ie, cos 𝜃 = ………..(4)
2

Subtracting we get the relation

2𝑖sin 𝜃 = 𝑒 −𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
𝑖𝑒) sin 𝜃 = … … . . (5)
2!

Hyperbolic Function:

1 1
The expression 2 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) and 2 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) are defined as hyperbolic cosines and

hyperbolic sine Respectively of the angle 𝑥 and symbolically.

𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
cos ℎ𝑥 = , sinh 𝑥 =
2 2

The hyperbolic tangent, secant cosecant and cotangent are obtained from the hyperbolic sine
and cosine. Just as the ordinary tangent, secant, cosecant and cotangent are obtained from the
ordinary sine and cosine.

Thus,

sinh 𝑥 1
tan ℎ𝑥 = , sec ℎ𝑥 =
cos ℎ𝑥 cosh 𝑥
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 1 1
cosec ℎ𝑥 = , coth 𝑥 =
sin ℎ𝑥 tan ℎ𝑥

Relation Between Hyperbolic Functions:

1
(1) cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 4 {(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )2 −(𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )2 } = 1

𝑒 𝑥−𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
(2) 2sinh 𝑥cosh 𝑥 = 2 ( )⋅( )
2 2

(𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒 −2𝑥 )
=
2
= sinh 2𝑥.

(3) cos ℎ2 𝑥 + sinh2 𝑥 = {1/4(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2 +(𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )2 }

= 1/4(𝑒 2𝑥 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 )+(𝑒 2𝑥 − 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 )}

𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥
= = cosh 2𝑥.
2

(4) From the relation. (3), we get the Relations

cosh 2𝑥 = 2cosh2 𝑥 − 1
cos ℎ2𝑥 = 1 + 2ln ℎ2 𝑥
cos ℎ2 𝑥 = 1/2(cos ℎ2𝑥 + 1)
sinh ℎ2 𝑥 = 1/2(cosh 2𝑥 − 1)

(5) The series for sinh x and cosh x derived Below.

𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 /2! + 𝑥 3 /3! + ⋯
𝑒 −𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 /2! − 𝑥 3 /3! + ⋯

Subtracting 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 = 2(𝑥 + 𝑥 3 /3! ⋯ ∞)

∴ sin ℎ𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 /3! + 𝑥 5 /5! ⋯ ∞

𝑥2 𝑥
Adding, 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 = 2 (1 + ! + 4 ! +⋯)
2

∴ cosh 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 2 /2! + 𝑥 4 /4! + ⋯ ∞

(6) we have seen that

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 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 2
∴ cos 𝜃 = , sin 𝜃 =
2 2

Put 𝜃 = 𝑖𝑥 in these relations We have

𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥
cos(𝑖𝑥) = = cos ℎ𝑥.
2
𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 sin ℎ𝑥
sin(𝑖𝑥) = = (𝑖)2
2 𝑖
= 𝑖sin ℎ𝑥.
∴ tan(𝑖𝑥) = 𝑖tan ℎ𝑥.

The following Relation also hold good :-

𝑒 𝑖0 − 𝑒 −10
sinh(𝑖0) = = 1sin 𝜃
2
𝑒 𝑖0 + 𝑒 −10
cos ℎ(𝑖𝜃) = = cos 𝜃
2

tan ℎ(𝑖𝜃) = 𝑖tan 𝜃

Using these relation, we can derive relation between hyper functions corresponding to
rotation Between circular functions.

For example,

(i) sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1, put 𝜃 = 𝑖𝑥

∴ sin2 (𝑖𝑥) + cos 2 (𝑖𝑥) = 1

i.e., (𝑖sin ℎ𝑥)2 + (cos ℎ𝑥)2 = 1 i.e., cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 1

(ii)

cos 2𝜃 = cos 2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃

cos(2𝑖𝑥) = cos 2 (𝑖𝑥) − sin2 (𝑖𝑥)
= (cosh 𝑥 ) − (𝑖sin ℎ𝑥)2
∴ cosh 2𝑥 = cosh2 𝑥 + sinh2 𝑥

(iii) sin 2𝜃 = 2sin 𝜃 ⋅ cos 𝜃

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sin(2𝑖𝑥) = 2sin(𝑖𝑥)cos(𝑖𝑥)

(i.e.)sin ℎ2𝑥 = 2𝑖sinh ℎcosh 𝑥

(i.e.) sin ℎ2𝑥 = 2sin ℎ𝑥cosh 𝑥

(iv)

1 + tan 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃
1 + tan2 (𝑖𝑥) + cec 2 (1𝑥)
1
1 + (𝑖tan ℎ)2 =
(cosh)2
(i. e) 1 − tan ℎ2 𝑥 + sech2 𝑥
(𝑣) sin(𝜃 + 𝜑) = sin 𝜃cos 𝑝 + cos 𝜃sin2 𝜃

Put 𝜃 = 𝑖𝑥, 𝑝 = 𝑖𝑦 then.

sin(𝑖𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = sin(𝑖𝑥)cos(𝑖𝑦) + cos(𝑖𝑥)sin(𝑖𝑦)

(i.e.) sinh(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑖sinh 𝑥cosh 𝑦 + (cosh (isis by)

∴ sinh(𝑥 + 𝑦) = sinh 𝑥cosh 𝑦 + cosh 𝑥 sin ℎ𝑦

Similarly

sin ℎ(𝑥 − 𝑦) = sin ℎ𝑥cos ℎ𝑦 − cosh 𝑥sin 𝑥

cos(𝜃 + 𝜑) = cos 𝜃cos 𝜑 − sin 𝜃sin 𝜑

Put 𝜃 = 𝑖𝑥, 𝜙 = 𝑖𝑦, then

cos(𝑖𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = cos 𝑖𝑥cos 𝑖𝑦 ⋅ sin 𝑖𝑥sin 𝑖𝑦

cos ℎ(𝑥 + 𝑦) = cos ℎ𝑥cos ℎ𝑦 − (𝑖sin ℎ𝑥)(𝑖sinh 𝑦)

= cos ℎ𝑥cosh 𝑦 + sinh𝑥sin ℎ𝑦.

Similarly

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cos ℎ(𝑥 − 𝑦) = cos ℎ𝑥cos ℎ𝑦 − sin ℎ𝑥sinh 𝑦

2tan 𝜃
tan 2𝜃 =
1 − tan2 𝜃

Rut 𝜃 = 𝑖𝑥

2tan(𝑖𝑥)
∴ tan(2𝑖𝑥) =
1 − tan2 (𝑖𝑥 ′ )
2𝑖tan ℎ𝑥
𝑖tan ℎ2𝑥 =
1 − (𝑖tan ℎ𝑥)2

2tan ℎ𝑥
tan ℎ2𝑥 =
1 + tanh ℎ2 𝑥

Inverse hyperbolic Functions:

We can express sin ℎ−1 𝑥, cos ℎ−1 𝑥, tan ℎ−1 𝑥 inters of logarithmic functions

(i) Let 𝑦 = sin ℎ−1 𝑥; Then 𝑥 = sin ℎ𝑦

∴ 1/2(𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦 ) = 𝑥

(i.e.) 𝑒 2𝑦 − 1 = 2𝑥𝑒 𝑦

(i.e.) 𝑒 2𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑦 − 1 = 0

2𝑥 ± √4𝑥 2 + 4
∴ 𝑒𝑦 = = 𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 + 1
2

Since 𝑒 𝑌 is always positive

𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1

Taking logarithms to the Base 𝑒 on both sides, we get",

𝑦 = log 𝑒 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)
∵ sinh ℎ−1 𝑥 = log 𝑒 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)

(ii) 𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑥 then 𝑥 = cos ℎ𝑦.

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 1 𝑦
∴ (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑦 ) = 𝑥
2

𝑒 2𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑦 + 1 = 0
∴ 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 − 1
= 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 (or)
1
=
𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1

∴ 𝑦 = log𝑒 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1) or

−log 𝑒 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1)

= ±log𝑒 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1)

The positive sign is usually taken

cos ℎ−1 𝑥 = log𝑒 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1)

Let 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 Then

𝑥 = tan ℎ𝑦
𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦
∴ 𝑦 =𝑥
𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑦

𝑢˙, 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦 = (𝑥)(𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦 )

ie, 𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑦 (1 − 𝑥)

1+𝑥
𝑒 2𝑦 =
1−𝑥
1+𝑥
2𝑦 = log𝑒 ( )
1−𝑥

(i.e.) 𝑦 = 1/2log 𝑒(1 + 𝑥/1 − 𝑥)

∴ tanh−1 𝑥 = 1/2log 𝑒(1 + 𝑥/1 − 𝑥).

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Example 1:

𝜋 𝜃
If cosh 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 , show that 𝑢 = log tan ( 4 + 2 )

Solution:

Let cosh 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃

u = cos h−1 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃)

= log 𝑒 (sec 𝜃 + √sec 2 − 1

= log 𝑒 (sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃)

1 + sin 𝜃
= log 𝑒 ( )
cos 𝜃

𝜃 𝜃
2 tan 2 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 2
= log 𝑒 {1 + }÷{ }
𝜃 𝜃
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 2 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 2

𝜃
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 2
= log 𝑒
𝜃
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 2

𝜋 𝜃
= log 𝑒 tan ( + )
4 2

Example 2:

If tan 𝐴 = tan ∝ tan ℎ𝛽 tan 𝐵 cos 𝛼 tan ℎ𝛽, Prove that

tan (𝐴 + 𝐵) = sinh2 𝛽cosec 2α.

Solution:

tan 𝐴 + tan 𝐵
tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
1 − tan 𝐴tan 𝐵

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 tan 𝛼tan 𝛽 + cot 𝛼tan ℎ𝛽
=
1 − tan 𝛼tan ℎ𝛽 ⋅ cot 𝛼tan ℎ𝛽
tan ℎ𝛽(tan 𝛼 + cot 𝛼)
=
1 − tanh2 𝛽
sin ℎ𝛽cos ℎ𝛽 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼
= 2 2
( + )
cos ℎ 𝛽 − sinh ℎ 𝛽 cos 𝛼 sin 𝛼
sin ℎ𝛽cos ℎ𝛽
=
sin 𝛼cos 𝛼sin 𝛽
1/2sin 2𝛽
=
1/2sin ℎ2𝛼
= sin ℎ2𝛽cosec 2𝛼.

Example 3:

Express cos ℎ6 𝜃 in terms of hyperbolic cosines of multiples of 𝜃.

Solution:

𝑒 𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝜃
cos ℎ6 𝜃 = ( )
2

1
= 26 [𝑒 6𝜃 + 6𝑐1 𝑒 4𝜃 + 6𝑐2 𝑒 2𝜃 + 6𝑐3 + 6𝑐4 𝑒 −2𝜃 + 6𝑐5 𝑒 −4𝜃 + 6𝑐6 𝑒 −6𝜃 ]

(by binomial theorem)

1
= [(𝑒 6𝜃 + 𝑒 −6𝜃 ) + 6𝑐1 (𝑒 4𝜃 + 𝑒 −4𝜃 ) + 6𝑐2 (𝑒 2𝜃 + 𝑒 −2𝜃 ) + 6𝑐3 ]
26

1
= [cosh 6𝜃 + 6. cosh 4 𝜃 + 15 cosh 2𝜃 + 10]
26

Example 4:

If cos 𝛼cosh 𝛽 = cos 𝜙, sin 𝛼sinh 𝛽 = sin 𝜙,

Prove that sin 𝜙 = ±sin2 𝛼 = ±sinh2 𝛽

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Solution:

cos 𝜙 sin 𝜙
cosh 𝛽 = , sinh 𝛽 =
cos 𝛼 sin 𝛼

we know that cosh2 𝛽 − sinh2 𝛽 = 1

cos 𝜙 2 sin 𝜙 2
( ) −( ) =1
cos 𝛼 sin 𝛼
cos 2 𝜙sin2 𝛼 = sin2 𝜙cos 2 𝛼 = sin2 𝛼cos 2 𝛼
(1 − sin2 𝜙)sin2 𝛼 − sin2 𝜙(1 − sin2 𝛼 ) = sin2 𝛼(1 − sin2 𝛼 )

sin2 𝛼 − sin2 𝜙sin2 𝛼 − sin2 𝜙 + sin2 𝜙sin2

= sin2 𝛼 − sin4 𝛼

−sin2 𝜙 = −sin4 𝛼
sin2 𝜙 = sin4 𝛼
sin 𝜙 = ±sin2 𝛼.

We have, sin 𝜙 = ±sin2 𝛼

sin 𝛼sinh 𝛽 = ±sin2 𝛼

sinh 𝛽 = ±sin 𝛼

Taking square on both sides

sinh2 𝛽 = ±sin2 𝛼 = sin 𝜙

Example 5:

If cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖sin 𝜃, prove thatcos 2𝑥 + cos ℎ2𝑦 = 2

Solution:

cos 𝜃 + 𝑖sin 𝜃 = cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)

= cos 𝑥cos 𝑖𝑦 − sin 𝑥sin 𝑖𝑦
= cos 𝑥cosh 𝑦 − 𝑖sin 𝑥sinh 𝑦

Equating real & Imaginary parts

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 cos 𝜃 = cos 𝑥cosh 𝑦
sin 𝜃 = −sin 𝑥sinh 𝑦
cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = 1
cos 𝑥cosh2 𝑦 + sin2 𝑥 sin ℎ2 𝑦 = 1
2

cos 2 𝑥cosh 𝑦 + (1 − cos 2 𝑥 )(sin2 ℎ𝑦) = 1

cos 2 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + sin2 𝑦 − cos 2 𝑥sinh2 𝑦 = 1
cos 2 𝑥 (cosh2 𝑦 − sinh2 𝑦) + sinh ℎ2 𝑦 = 1
cos 2𝑥 + 1 cosh 2𝑦 − 1
+ =1
2 2
cos 2𝑥 + cosh 2𝑦 = 2.

Example 6:

If sin(𝐴 + 𝑖𝐵) = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 prove that

𝑥2 𝑦2
i) sin2 𝐴 − cos2 𝐴 = 1

𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑖𝑖) + =1
cosh2 𝐵 sinh2 𝐵

Solution:

𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = sin(𝐴 + 𝑖𝐵)
= sin 𝐴cos 𝑖𝐵 + cos 𝐴sin 1𝐵
= sin 𝐴cosh 𝐵 + cos 𝐴𝑖sinh 𝐵

Equating real & Imaginary part

𝑥 = sin 𝐴cosh 𝐵
𝑦 = cos 𝐴sinh 𝐵

𝑥2 𝑦2 sin2 𝐴cos 2 ℎ𝐵 cos 2 𝐴sin2 ℎ𝐵

𝑖) − = −
sin2 𝐴 cos 2 𝐴 sin2 𝐴 sin2 𝐴
2 2
= cos ℎ𝐵 − sin ℎ𝐵 = 1

𝑥2 𝑦2 sin2 𝐴cos 2 ℎ𝐵 cos 2 𝐴sin2 ℎ𝐵

+
ii) cosh2 𝐵 sinh2 𝐵 = 1 = +
cos 2 ℎ𝐵 sin2 ℎ𝐵
2 2
= sin 𝐴 + cos 𝐴 = 1.

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Example 7:

sin 2𝑥
If tan(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, prove that 𝑢/𝑣 = sinh 2𝑦.

Solution:

sin(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
tan(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) =
cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
2cos(𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦)sin(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
=
2cos(𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦)cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
sin(2𝑥) + sin(2𝑖𝑦)
=
cos 2𝑥 + cos 2𝑖𝑦
sin 2𝑥 + 𝑖sinh 2𝑦
=
cos 2𝑥 + cosh 2𝑦

This expression is given as u+iv

sin 2𝑥
∴𝑢=
cos 2𝑥 + cosh 2𝑦

sinh 2𝑦
𝑢=
cos 2𝑥 + cosh 2𝑦
sin 2𝑥
𝑢/𝑣 = .
sinh 2𝑦

Example 8:

If cos ℎ(𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) cos(𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 ) = 1, prove that

1) cos 𝑏cos 𝑐cos ℎ𝑎cos ℎ𝑑 + sin 𝑏 sin 𝑐sin ha sin ℎ𝑑 = 1

2.) tan ℎ𝑎tan 𝑏 = tan, hd tan 𝑐

Solution:

1 = cosh(𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)cos(𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑)

= {cosh 𝑎 cosh(𝑖𝑏) + sin ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑏}

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 {cos 𝑐cos(𝑖𝑑) − sin 𝑐sin(𝑖𝑑)
cos ℎ(𝑖𝑦) = cos 𝑦
and sin ℎ(𝑖𝑦) = 𝑖sin 𝑦
∴ cos ℎ(𝑖𝑏) = cos 𝑏and sin ℎ(𝑖𝑏)
= 1sin 𝑏

substitute these values in equation (1), we have.

1 = (cos ℎ𝑎cos 𝑏 + 𝑖sinh 𝑎sin 𝑏)(cos 𝑐 cos ℎ𝑑 − 𝑖sin 𝑐sinh 𝑑 )

= (cos ℎ 𝑎 cos 𝑏 cos 𝑐 + sinh 𝑎 sin 𝑏 sinh 𝑑 )

+i(sin ℎ𝑎 sin 𝑏 cos 𝑐 cos ℎ𝑑 − cos ℎ𝑎 cos 𝑏 sin𝑐 sinh 𝑑 )

Equating the real parts, we get the result (1)

Equating the imaginary parts, we have

sin ℎ𝑎 sin 𝑏 cos 𝑐 cos ℎ𝑑 − cos ℎ𝑎 cos 𝑏 sin𝑐 sinh 𝑑 = 0

sin ℎ 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏 sin 𝑐 sin ℎ𝑑

− =0
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ℎ𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑑

tan ℎ𝑎 tan 𝑏 − tan 𝑐 tan ℎ𝑑 = 0

Example 9:

Separate into real and imaginary parts tan ℎ (1 + i)

Solution:

𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑖𝑥 ) = 𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥

sin(𝑖 − 1)
∴ 𝑖tan ℎ(1 + 1) =
cos(𝑖 − 1)

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 2cos(𝑖 + 1)sin(𝑖 − 1)
=
2cos(𝑖 + 1)cos(𝑖 − 1)
sin(2𝑖) − sin(2)
=
cos(2𝑖) + cos(2)
𝑖sinh 2 − sin 2
=
cosh 2 + cos(2)

sin ℎ(2) + 𝑖sin 2

∴ tan ℎ(𝑖 + 1) =
cos ℎ(2) + cos(2)

Example 10:

Separate into real and imaginary parts tan−1 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦))

Solution:

Let tan−1 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽

Then tan(𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽) = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

we easily see' that tan(𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽) = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

tan 2𝛼 = tan(𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽 + 𝛼 − 𝑖𝛽)

tan(𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽) + tan(𝛼 − 𝑖𝛽)
=
1 − tan(𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽)tan(𝛼 − 𝑖𝛽)

𝛼 + 𝑖𝑦 + 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
=
1 − (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦)
2𝑥
tan 2𝛼 =
1 − (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
2𝑥
𝛼 = 1/2tan−1 ( )
1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦2
tan(2𝛽𝑖) = tan[(𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽) − (𝛼 − 𝑖𝛽)]

tan (𝛼+𝑖𝛽)−tan(𝛼−𝑖𝛽)
is 𝑖tanh 2𝛽 = 1+tan(𝛼+𝑖𝛽)tan(𝛼−𝑖𝛽)

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 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) − (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦)
=
1 + (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦)
2𝑖𝑦
=
1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
2𝑦
tanh 2𝛽 =
1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
1 2𝑦
𝛽 = tan ℎ−1 ( ).
2 1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

Exercises:

1+𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 2 𝑥
1. Prove that cosh 2𝑥 = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑥

2. Prove that sin ℎ 3𝑥 = 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 + 4 sin ℎ3

𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 3 𝑥+3 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥
3. Prove that tan ℎ 3𝑥 = 1+3 tan ℎ 2𝑥
1 𝑥+1
4. Prove that cotℎ−1 𝑥 = 2 log (𝑥−1)
𝑥 2+1
5. Prove that tanℎ−1 (𝑥 2−1) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 (𝑥 > 0)

Logarithms of Complex quantities:

Definition:

If 𝑢 and 𝑧 be any two complex quantities such that 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑢 , then 𝑢 is called the logarithm of 𝑧
and we write 𝑢 = log 𝑒 𝑧 or simply log 𝑧

To find the logarithm of 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚

Let log 𝑒 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽

Then by definition

𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝛼+𝑖𝛽
= 𝑒 𝛼 ⋅ 𝑒 𝛼 (cos 𝛽 + 𝑖sin 𝛽)
𝑥 = 𝑒 𝛼 cos 𝛽, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝛼 sin 𝛽

1
Hence 𝑒 2𝛼 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝛼 = 2 log(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )

𝑦 𝑦
and tan 𝛽 = + 𝛽tan−1
𝑥 𝑥
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 1 𝑦
log 𝑒 (𝑥 + (𝑦) = (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖tan−1 ( )
2 𝑥

= log 𝛾 + 𝑖𝜃

𝑦
Where 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 and tan 𝜃 = 𝑥

This the real part of the logarithm of a complex quantity is the logarithm of its modulus and
the imaginary part is its amplitude.

General value of logarithm of x + iy

let log 𝑒 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽

Then 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝛼+𝑖𝛽

= 𝑒 𝛼 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑖𝛽
= 𝑒 𝛼(cos 𝛽+𝑖sin 𝛽)
= 𝑒 𝛼{cos(2𝑛𝜋+𝛽)+𝑖sin (2𝑛𝜋+𝛽)
= 𝑒 𝛼 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑖{(2𝑛𝜋+𝛽)
= 𝑒 𝛼+2𝑛𝜋𝑖+i𝛽

It follows from the definition that 𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽 + 2𝑛𝜋𝑖 is the value of log 𝑒 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) This is called
the general value and is written with a capital letter

log 𝑒 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽
log 𝑒 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = log 𝑒 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) + 2𝑏𝜋𝑖

It is thus clear that the logarithm of a complex quantity has more than one value. It is easy to
note that the several values of log(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) differ. from one another by an integral multiple of
2𝜋𝑖

1
log 𝑒 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = log(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖tan−1 (𝑥) + 2𝑛𝜋𝑖
2

Corollary 1: Put 𝑦 = 0

1
Then log 𝑥 = 2 log(𝑥 2 ) + 2𝑛𝜋𝑖 = log 𝑥 + 2𝑛𝜋𝑖

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Hence the logarithm of a real positive quantity is many valued and that the principal value of
the logarithm in its ordinary logarithm which is real.

Corollary 2:

Let 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 be negative (say, −𝑥, )

if log(𝑥 + i𝑦) − 𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽, then

𝑥 − 𝑒 𝛼 cos 𝛽, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝛼 sin 𝛽

In this case, 𝑒𝛼cos 𝛽 = −𝑥, and

𝑒 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = 0
𝑥 2 = 𝑒 2𝛼 ∴ 𝑒 𝛼 = 𝑥

cos 𝛽 = −1 and sin 𝛽 = 0

𝛽=𝜋
log(−𝑥1 ) = log 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝜋
log(−𝑥1 ) = log 𝑥1 + 𝑖(2𝑛 + 1)𝜋

Hence the principal value of the logarithm of a negative quantity is imaginary corollary 3.

Put 𝑥 = 0

1
log 𝑒 (𝑖𝑦) = log(𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖tan−1 (∞) + 2𝑛𝜋𝑖
2
𝜋
= log 𝑦 + 𝑖 + 2𝑛𝜋𝑖
2
1
= log 𝑦 + 𝑖 (2𝑛 + ) 𝜋
2

Hence the logarithm of a purely imagining quantity consists of two Parts one real part and other
imaginary.

Example 1:

Find log(1 − 𝑖)

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Solution:

log(1 − 𝑖) = log(1 − 𝑖) + 2𝑛𝜋𝑖

1 −1
= log{12 + (−1)2 } + 𝑖tan−1 ( ) ⋅ 2𝑛𝜋𝑖
2 𝑖
1
= log 2 + 𝑖tan−1 (−1) + 2𝑛𝜋𝑖
2
1 3𝜋
= log 2 + 𝑖 + 2𝑛𝜋𝑖
2 4
1 3𝜋
= log 2 + 𝑖 (2𝑛𝜋 + )
2 4

Example 2:

If log sin(𝜃 + 𝑖𝜙) = 𝐿 + 𝑖𝐵, prove that 2𝑒 2𝐿 = cos ℎ2𝜙 − cos 2𝜃

Solution:

𝐿 + 𝑖𝐵 = log sin(𝜃 + 𝑖𝜙)

= log(sin 𝜃cos 𝑖𝜙 + cos 𝜃sin 𝑖𝜙)
= log(sin 𝜃cosh 𝜙 + 𝑖cos 𝜃sinh 𝜙)
1 (cos 𝜃sinh 𝜙
= log {(sin 𝜃cosh 𝜙)2 + )
2 sin 𝜃cosh 𝜙
1
𝐿 = log[(sin 𝜃cosh 𝜙)2 + (cos 𝜃sinh 𝜙)2 }
2
𝑒 2𝐿 = (sin 𝜃cosh 𝜙)2 + (cos 𝜃sinh 𝜙)2
= sin2 𝜃cosh2 𝜙 + cos 2 𝜃sinh2 𝜙
1 − cos 2𝜃 1 + cos 2𝜃
0= ⋅ cosh ℎ2 𝜙 + ⋅ sinh2 𝜃
2 2
1
1 = {(cosh2 𝜙 + sinh ℎ2 𝜙) − (cosh2 𝜙 − sinh2 𝜙)}
2
2𝑒 = cos 2 𝜙 2 + sinh2 𝜙 − cos 2𝜃(cosh2 𝜙 − sinh2 𝜙}
2𝐿

= cosh 2𝜙 − cos 2𝜃

Example 3:

Deduce the expansion of tan−1 𝑥 in powers of 𝑥 from the expansion of log(𝑎 + 𝑖 ∘ 𝑏)

Solution:

1 𝑏
log(𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) = log(𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ) + 𝑖tan−1 ( )
2 𝑎
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Put 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 𝑥

1
log(1 + 𝑖𝑥) = log(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + tan−1 (𝑥)
2

tan 𝑥 = imaginery part of log(1 + 𝑖𝑥)

1 1 1 1
= imagine ry Part (𝑖𝑥) − 2 (𝑖𝑥)2 + 3 (𝑖𝑥)3 − 4 (𝑖𝑥)4 + 5 (𝑖𝑥)5 + ⋯

1 1 1 1
= imagery Part (𝑖𝑥) + 2 𝑥 2 − 3 𝑖𝑥 3 − 4 𝑥 4 + 5 𝑖 5 …

1 1
tan−1 𝑥 =𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 5 …
3 5

Example 4:

Reduce (𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽)𝑥+𝑖𝑦 to the term 𝐴 + 𝑖𝐵

Solution:

(𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽)(𝑥+𝑖𝑦) = 𝑒 (𝑥+𝑖𝑦)log(𝛼+𝑖𝛽)
= 𝑒 (𝑥+𝑖𝑦){log(𝛼+𝑖𝛽)+2𝑛𝜋𝑖}
= 𝑒 (𝑥+𝑖𝑦) {log 𝛾 + 𝑖 ′ 𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝑖}

𝛽
Where 𝛾 = √𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 and 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝛼 )

(𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽)𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥log 𝛾−𝑦(𝜃+2𝑛𝜋) ⋅ 𝑒 𝑖 {𝑦log 𝛾 + 𝑥(𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋)}

= 𝑒 𝑥log 𝛾−𝑦(𝜃+2𝑛𝜋) [cos{𝑦log 𝛾 + 𝑥(𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋)} + 𝑖sin{𝑦cog 𝛾 + 𝑥(𝜃 + 2𝑛(𝜋)}]

𝐴 = 𝑒 𝑥log 𝛾−𝑦(𝜃+2𝑛𝜋) [cos{𝑦 log 𝛾 + 𝑥(𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋)}] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 𝑒 𝑥log 𝛾−𝑦(𝜃+2𝑛𝜋)}

Example 5:

4𝑛+1
Show the log 𝑖 𝐿˙ = 4𝑚+1, where 𝑚 and 𝑛 are integers.

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Solution:

Let log𝑖 𝑖 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

Then 𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑥+𝑖𝑦

Taking the general value of the logarithm on both sides, we have

(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)log 𝑖 = log 𝑖
log 𝑒 𝑖
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 =
log 𝑒 𝑖
1
(2𝑛 + ) 𝜋𝑖
= 2
1
(2𝑚 + 2) 𝜋𝑖 ∘
4𝑛 + 1
=
4𝑚 + 1

When 𝑛 and 𝑚 are integers.

Example 6:

Find the general value of log (−3) (−2)

Solution:

Let log (−3) (−2) = 𝑥 + 𝑦

log 𝑒 (−2)
(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) =
log 𝑒 (−3)
(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)log𝑒 (−3) = log 𝑒 (−2)
(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)log′ 3 + 𝑖(2𝑚 + 1)𝜋𝑦 = log 2 + 𝑖(2𝑛 + 1)𝜋

equating the real and imaginary Parts on both sides we get.

𝑥log 3 − 𝑦(2𝑚 + 1)𝜋 = log 2

𝑦log 3 + 𝑥(2𝑚 + 1)𝜋 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋

Solving the equations (1) and (2) we get

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 (2𝑚 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 2 + (log 2)(log 3)
𝑥=
(log 3)2 + (2𝑚 + 1)2 𝜋 2
log 3(2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 − (2𝑚 + 1)𝜋log 2
and 𝑦 =
(log 3)2 + (2𝑚 + 1)2 𝜋 2

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Prepared by

Mrs. S. KALAISELVI M.SC., M.Phil., B.Ed., (Ph.D.)

Assistant Professor of Mathematics,

Sarah Tucker College (Autonomous), Tirunelveli-627007

Tirunelveli District.

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