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Electromagnetic Nature of Light

Maxwell's equations
In the nineteenth century, Maxwell, collected the known principles of electricity and
magnetism in a set of four equations known as the Maxwell‘s equations.

Law Integral Form Point (Differential) Form

(1) Gauss ∫ D . dA = ∫ ρ dV ∇⋅ D = ρ
(2) Gauss M ∫ B . dA = 0 ∇⋅ B = 0
Faraday ∂B ∂B
(3) ∫ E . d = ∫- . dA ∇⊗E = −
Lenz ∂t ∂t
Ampere ∂D ∂D
(4) ∫ H . d = ∫ (J + ∂t ) . d A ∇⊗H = J +
∂t
The symbols:
E: electric field intensity D: electric displacement
H: magnetic field intensity B: magnetic flux density (magnetic field)
ρ: volumetric electric free charge density J: electric current density
A: area ! : length V: volume
and ∫ denotes an integration over a closed surface or a closed path.
D =ε E , B=µH , ε = εo εr and µ=µo µr
ε: permittivity, εr: relative permittivity, εo: permittivity of free space,
µ: permeability, µr: relative permeability and µo: permeability of free space.
εo= 8.85 x 10-12 F/m and µo= 4 p x 10-7 H/m

Rule (1) is Gauss’ law of electric displacement, which states that the flux of electric
displacement over any closed surface is equal to the sum of free electric charges in the
volume enclosed by this surface. This law is a generalization of Gauss’s law of electrostatic
displacement, where only static charges are considered and fields do not change with time.

Rule (2) is Gauss’ law for magnetism. It reflects the fact that magnetic field lines are closed.

Rule (3) is Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. The left hand side is the
electromotive force “emf” induced over a hypothetical loop placed along the closed path.
The right hand side is the rate of change of the magnetic flux linked with the loop, while the
negative sign is due to Lenz’s law, which states that the induced current appears in such a
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direction that it opposes the change that produced it. In the special case of an electrostatic
field, the right hand side vanishes.

Rule (4) is a generalization of Ampere’s law. The term ∂D , that was introduced by
∂t
Maxwell, is derived as the displacement current density. An example of this current is the
current in the space between the plates of a capacitor. Without this term, electromagnetic
waves would not exist.

Electromagnetic waves
An important aspect of rules (3) and (4) is that a time varying magnetic field induces a
time varying electric field (rule 3) and a time varying electric field induces a time varying
magnetic field (rule4). Thus starting with any of them the process continues and an
electromagnetic wave is produced.
Assuming a homogeneous (no dependence of parameters on position), isotropic (no
dependence of parameters on direction), charge free (ρ =0), and current free (J=0) medium.
The Maxwell’s equations can be simplified as follows:
∇⋅ D = 0 ∇ ⋅ε E = 0 (1)
∇⋅B = 0 ∇⋅µH = 0 (2)
∂B
∇⊗E = −
∂t (3)
∂D
∇⊗H =
∂t (4)
From (3)
∂B ∂
∇ ⊗ ∇ ⊗ E = −∇ ⊗ ∇ ⊗ ∇ ⊗ E = −µ ∇⊗H
∂t ∂t
∂ ⎛ ∂D ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂E ⎞
∇ ⊗ ∇ ⊗ E = −µ ⎜ ⎟ = − µε ⎜ ⎟
∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∇ ⊗ ∇ ⊗ E = ∇(∇ ⋅ E ) − ∇ 2 E
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∂ ⎛ ∂E ⎞
− ∇ 2 E = − µε ⎜ ⎟
∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
2 ∂2 E 2 1 ∂2 E Wave equation
∇ E = µε ∇ E= 2
∂t 2 v ∂t 2 (5)
2 1 ∂2 H 1 ∂2 D 1 ∂2B
∇ H = 2 ∇2 D = 2 2
∇ B= 2
v ∂t 2 v ∂t 2 v ∂t 2
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The general solution of equation (5) is a wave traveling with speed. v=
µε
Maxwell arrived at equation (5) and he was the first to predict the existence of
electromagnetic waves.
In vacuum µ and ε are equal to µ0 and ε0 and v has the numerical value 3×108 m/s.

At the time of Maxwell, the speed of light in vacuum was known but no one related it to ε0
and µ0.

Maxwell observed that the speed he obtained for electromagnetic waves in vacuum (c=3×108
m/s) was equal to speed of light in vacuum. This observation drew his attention to the
electromagnetic nature of light. Now it is known that light is an electromagnetic wave
occupying a certain region in the electromagnetic spectrum called the visible region.
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c=
µ oε o

Plane wave solution

For simplicity and without losing any generality, assuming EMW propagating parallel
to the x- direction and the wave fronts form a set of planes parallel to the y – z plane. For the
plane wave case, the physical quantities (E and H) are constant over the wave fronts. The
wave equation becomes:
∂2 E ∂2 ∂2 H ∂2
= µε E = µε H
∂ x2 ∂ t2 ∂ x2 ∂ t2
This is the one-dimensional wave equation, which represents a plane wave traveling in either
the positive or negative x direction.
One possible solution of Maxwell's equations is the harmonic solution
E = E0 sin (ωt - kx + α)
H = H0 sin (ωt - kx + α)
which represents a plane harmonic wave traveling in the positive x-direction with a speed
ω 1
ν = =
k µε
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Some properties of the plane electromagnetic waves in a homogeneous, isotropic, charge

free, and current free medium.
* Plane electromagnetic waves are transverse waves; electric field intensity and magnetic
field intensity are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation.

E x

*The wave fronts are planes that contain the electric and magnetic field lines. At any
particular instant, E and H are constants over the wave front.

*The wave travels with a speed v = 1 1 1 c.

= ⋅ =
µε µrε r µ oε o n
*Direction of propagation of EMW is in the direction of the vector
S=E×H
This vector is called the Poynting vector. If the wave is traveling in the positive x-
direction, the y-axis may be taken along the electric field intensity. The magnetic field
intensity must be in the z-direction.
!
*If a harmonic variation is assumed, E and H are in phase and the ratio of the
"

! ! !$ %
instantaneous values is constant and = = =
" " "$ &

%
The quantity is called the characteristic impedance of the medium.
&

The Poynting vector of a plane harmonic wave

The magnitude of the Poynting S equals to the electromagnetic power crossing unit
perpendicular area and its direction is the direction of flow of energy which is the direction
of propagation of the wave.
The magnitude of the Poynting vector is:

E = E0 sin (ωt - kx + α)
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The Irradiance of a plane harmonic wave

The irradiance I (sometimes called the radiant flux density) is the time average of S, given by
1 1 𝜀 3
𝐼= 𝑆,-. = 𝐸
2 2 𝜇 2
For non-magnetic materials ( µr= 1), I can be expressed in terms of the refractive index, n
1
I = n c ε o Eo2
2
Energy density

Poynting theory reveals that energy is stored in electric and magnetic fields with density
1 1
𝑈 = 𝜀𝐸 3 + 𝜇𝐻 3
2 2
The first term in the right hand side is denoted as the electrical energy density Ue, while the
second term is denoted as the magnetic energy density Um. For a plane electromagnetic
wave, it can be easily shown that Ue=Um and U= 𝜀 E2.
Energy per unit time crossing unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation (in the
direction E × H) is

S = EH S = Uv
Note that:

𝐸 𝐸 1 𝜇 1 𝑐
= = 8 = =𝑣=
𝐵 𝜇 𝐻 𝜇 𝜀 √𝜇𝜀 𝑛