Maxwells Equations
q
S E dA o
B dA
Gauss's law electric
0 Gauss's law in magnetism
d B
E ds dt
Faraday's law
B ds
dE
o
dt
oI
Ampere-Maxwell law
The two Gausss laws are symmetrical, apart from the absence of the term for
magnetic monopoles in Gausss law for magnetism
Faradays law and the Ampere-Maxwell law are symmetrical in that the line
integrals of E and B around a closed path are related to the rate of change of
the respective fluxes
Gausss law (electrical):
The total electric flux through any
closed surface equals the net charge
inside that surface divided by o
This relates an electric field to the
charge distribution that creates it
Gausss law (magnetism):
The total magnetic flux through any
closed surface is zero
This says the number of field lines
that enter a closed volume must
equal the number that leave that
volume
This implies the magnetic field lines
cannot begin or end at any point
Isolated magnetic monopoles have
not been observed in nature
q
S E dA o
B dA
Faradays law of Induction:
This describes the creation of an electric field by a
changing magnetic flux
The law states that the emf, which is the line
integral of the electric field around any closed path,
equals the rate of change of the magnetic flux
through any surface bounded by that path
One consequence is the current induced in a
conducting loop placed in a time-varying B
The Ampere-Maxwell law is a generalization of
Amperes law
It describes the creation of a magnetic field by an
electric field and electric currents
The line integral of the magnetic field around any
closed path is the given sum
dB
E ds dt
B ds
oI
dE
o
dt
Maxwells Equations in integral form
r r Q 1
A E dA o o
r r
B dA 0
dV
Gausss Law
Gausss Law for Magnetism
r r
r r
d B
d
Faradays Law
E
d
l
dA
C
dt
dt A
r
r
r r
r
d E
dE
C B d l o Iencl oo dt o A J o dt dA
Amperes Law
Maxwells Equations in free space
(no charge or current)
r r
E dA 0
Gausss Law
r r
B dA 0
Gausss Law for Magnetism
r r
r r
d B
d
C E d l dt dt A B dA
r r
r r
d E
d
C B d l o o dt o o dt A E dA
Faradays Law
Amperes Law
Hertzs Experiment
An induction coil is connected to a
transmitter
The transmitter consists of two spherical
electrodes separated by a narrow gap
The discharge between the electrodes
exhibits an oscillatory behavior at a very
high frequency
Sparks were induced across the gap of the
receiving electrodes when the frequency of
the receiver was adjusted to match that of
the transmitter
In a series of other experiments, Hertz also
showed that the radiation generated by this
equipment exhibited wave properties
Interference, diffraction, reflection,
refraction and polarization
He also measured the speed of the radiation
Implication
A magnetic field will be produced in empty space if there
is a changing electric field. (correction to Ampere)
This magnetic field will be changing. (originally there
was none!)
The changing magnetic field will produce an electric field.
(Faraday)
This changes the electric field.
This produces a new magnetic field.
This is a change in the magnetic field.
An antenna
Hook up an
AC source
We have changed the magnetic
field near the antenna
An electric field results! This is
the start of a radiation field.
Look at the cross section
Accelerating
electric charges
give rise to
electromagnetic
waves
Called:
Electromagnetic Waves
E and B are perpendicular (transverse)
We say that the waves are polarized.
E and B are in phase (peaks and zeros align)
Angular Dependence of Intensity
This shows the angular
dependence of the radiation
intensity produced by a dipole
antenna
The intensity and power
radiated are a maximum in a
plane that is perpendicular to
the antenna and passing
through its midpoint
The intensity varies as
(sin2 / r2
Harmonic Plane Waves
r
E
At t = 0
spatial period or
wavelength
r
E
2
v f
T
T 2 k
At x = 0
temporal period
Applying Faraday to radiation
r r
d B
C E d l dt
r r
E d l E dE y Ey dEy
C
d B dB
dxy
dt
dt
dB
dEy
dxy
dt
dE
dB
dx
dt
Applying Ampere to radiation
r r
d E
C B d l oo dt
r r
B d l Bz B dB z dBz
C
d E dE
dxz
dt
dt
dE
dBz o o
dxz
dt
dB
dE
o o
dx
dt
Fields are functions of both
position (x) and time (t)
dE
dB
dx
dt
Partial derivatives
are appropriate
B
E
o o
x
t
dB
dE
o o
dx
dt
E
B
2
x
x t
2
E
B
x
t
B
2E
o o 2
t x
t
2E
2E
oo 2
2
x
t
This is a wave
equation!
The Trial Solution
The simplest solution to the partial differential
equations is a sinusoidal wave:
E = Emax cos (kx t)
B = Bmax cos (kx t)
The angular wave number is k = 2/
is the wavelength
The angular frequency is = 2
is the wave frequency
The trial solution
E E y E o sin kx t
2E
2E
oo 2
2
x
t
2E
2
k E o sin kx t
2
x
2E
2
E o sin kx t
2
t
k 2 E o sin kx t o o 2 E o sin kx t
2
1
2
k
o o
The speed of light
(or any other electromagnetic radiation)
2
v f
T
T 2 k
1
vc
k
o o
The electromagnetic spectrum
2
v f
T
T 2 k
Another look
dE
dB
dx
dt
B Bz Bo sin kx t
E E y E o sin kx t
d
d
E o sin kx t Bo sin kx t
dx
dt
E o k cos kx t Bo cos kx t
Eo
1
c
Bo k
o o
Energy in Waves
1
1 2
2
u 0 E
B
2
2 0
u 0 E
Eo
1
c
Bo k
o o
1 2
u B
0
0
u
EB
0
Poynting Vector
r 1 r r
S
EB
0
EB E 2 c B 2
S
o o c
o
r
S cu
Poynting vector points in the direction the wave moves
Poynting vector gives the energy passing through a unit area
in 1 sec.
Units are Watts/m2
2
2
E
B
E
c
B
m
a
x
m
a
x
m
a
x
m
a
x
ISc
u
av2
a
v
e
o2o2o
Intensity
The wave intensity, I, is the time average of
S (the Poynting vector) over one or more
cycles
When the average is taken, the time average
of cos2(kx - t) = is involved
Radiation Pressure
F 1 dp
P
A A dt
Maxwell showed:
U
p
c
(Absorption of radiation
by an object)
r
Save
1 dU
P
Ac dt
c
What if the radiation reflects off an object?
Pressure and Momentum
For a perfectly reflecting surface,
p = 2U/c and P = 2S/c
For a surface with a reflectivity somewhere
between a perfect reflector and a perfect absorber,
the momentum delivered to the surface will be
somewhere in between U/c and 2U/c
For direct sunlight, the radiation pressure is about
5 x 10-6 N/m2
