Vector Analysis

(Refresh)

Before we go ahead to understand the properties of EM waves, let us write learn to write the
Laws of Electromagnetism in different forms (Differential and Integral forms)
 GRADIENT
For a scalar function T of three variable T(x,y,z), the gradient of T is a
vector quantity given by:
T T T
T  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
x y z

- The gradient points in the

direction of the greatest rate of
increase of the function,

- and its magnitude is the slope

(rate of increase) of the graph
in that direction.
 DIVERGENCE
For a vector T the divergence of T is given by:
    
  T =  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ   (Tx xˆ + Ty yˆ + Tz zˆ )
 x y z 
 Tx Ty Tz 
=  + + 
 x y z 

It is a measure of how much the

vector T diverges / spreads out
from the point in question.
 DIVERGENCE
For a vector T the divergence of T is given by:


 x y z 
x y z

 Tx Ty Tz 

= + + 
 x y z 
It is a measure of how much the
vector T diverges / spreads out
from the point in question.
 CURL
For a vector T the Curl of T is given by:
    
  T =  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ   (Tx xˆ + Ty yˆ + Tz zˆ )
 x y z 
 xˆ yˆ zˆ 

   
=
 x y z 
T Ty Tz 
 x

It is a measure of how much the vector T curls around the point in

question.
 DIVERGENCE THEOREM
/ Green’s Theorem / Gauss’s Theorem
   A

 (  E)d  =  E  da
V A

Integral of a derivative (in this case the divergence) over a volume is equal to the value of
the function at the surface that bounds the volume.

 (Faucets within the volume) =  (Flow out through the surface)

V A
DIVERGENCE THEOREM
/ Green’s Theorem / Gauss’s Theorem
 STOKES’ THEOREM
  
 ( E) da =  E  dl
A C

Integral of a derivative (in this case the curl) over a patch of surface is equal to the
value of the function at the boundary (perimeter of the patch).

A
STOKES’ THEOREM
Eelectromagnetic waves

40
 Dipole Radiation
The correct formula for the electric field
_

P
- q

𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑟′:unit vector directed from q to P at earlier time

Important features
1. No information can propagate instantaneously
2. The electric field at the time t is determined by the position of the charge at an
earlier time, when the charge was at r’, the retarded position.
3. First two terms falls off as 1/r’2 and hence are of no interest at large distances
 Faraday’s Law
The induced electromotive force in any closed circuit is equal to the negative of the time rate of change of the magnetic flux
through the circuit.
BA N: Number of turns
Voltage generated = −N B: External magnetic field
t A: Area of coil

We know that Faraday´s law in the integral form in given as:

where C is the rectangle in the XY plane of length l, width x,

and S is the open surface spanning the contour C

Using the Faraday´s law on the contour C, we get:

this implies...
Keep this in mind...
 Ampere’s Law
Ampère's circuital law relates the integrated magnetic field around a closed loop to the
electric current passing through the loop.
The Ampere´s law with displacement current term can be written as:
In free space, the displacement current is related
to the time rate of change of electric field.
Y

Using Ampere´s law, for the contour C, we get:

this implies...
 Outcome of Faraday’s and Ampere’s laws
Using the eqns. obtained earlier:

Form of wave equation

Note: Similar Equation can be derived for Bz

22
Solution of EM wave
Wave Speed

Electric and Magnetic field

are related at every point.
 Laws of Electromagnetism
Laws of Electromagnetism in Integral and Differential forms:

https://i.stack.imgur.com/2QoMD.png
 EM Wave Equation (3D)
Electromagnetic waves

for E field for B field

In general, electromagnetic waves

1
 = 2
2 2

c t 2
Where  represents E or B or their components
 Laws of Electromagnetism
Put together, these are “Maxwell’s equations’ in vacuum

(1)
Gauss’s laws
(2)

Faraday’s law (3)

Ampere’s law (4)

(modified)
Wave Equation (in vacuum)
Use the following identity
𝛻× 𝛻×𝑇
Start from Maxwell’s 3rd Law: = 𝛻 𝛻 ⋅ 𝑇 − 𝛻2𝑇
𝜕𝐵 𝜕(𝛻 × 𝐵)
𝛻×𝐸 = − 𝛻× 𝛻×𝐸 =𝛻 𝛻⋅𝐸 − 𝛻2𝐸 =−
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕 𝛻×𝐵
𝛻 𝛻⋅𝐸 − 𝛻2𝐸 =−
𝜕𝑡
Use Maxwell’s 4th Law:

𝜕 2𝐸 1
𝜕𝐸
𝛻×𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝜕𝑡 𝛻 2 𝐸 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2 𝑐 2
= 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝜕𝑡
For E-field
Wave Equation (in vacuum)
Use the following identity
𝛻× 𝛻×𝑇
Start from Maxwell’s 4th Law: = 𝛻 𝛻 ⋅ 𝑇 − 𝛻2𝑇

𝜕𝐸 𝜕(𝛻 × 𝐸)
𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝛻× 𝛻×𝐵 =𝛻 𝛻⋅𝐵 − 𝛻 2𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕(𝛻 × 𝐸)
𝛻 𝛻⋅𝐵 − 𝛻2𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝜕𝑡
Use Maxwell’s 3rd Law:

𝜕𝐵 𝜕 2𝐵 1
𝛻×𝐸 = − 𝛻 2 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2 2
= 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝑐
Plane EM waves in vacuum
 Plane EM waves in vacuum

Wave vector k is perpendicular to E

Wave vector k is perpendicular to B

 Plane EM waves in vacuum

B is perpendicular to E

B, k and E make a right handed

Cartesian co-ordinate system
Plane EM waves in vacuum
Energy and Momentum (EM waves)

40
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 EM Waves Transport Energy and Momentum

The energy density of the E field (between the plates of a charged capacitor):
1
uE =  o E 2
2
Similarly, the energy density of the B field (within a current carrying toroid):
1
uB = B2
2 o
1
Using: E = cB and c=
 o o
uE = uB

The energy streaming through space in the form of EM wave is shared equally between
constituent electric and magnetic fields.
 EM Waves Transport Energy and Momentum
1 2
Total energy density of the EM field: u = u E + uB =  o E =
2
B
o
S represents the flow of electromagnetic energy associated with a traveling wave.

S symbolizes transport of energy per unit time across a unit area: Poynting Vector

uctA
S= = uc
tA
1
S= EB
o ct

Assume that the energy flows in the direction of the propagation of wave (in isotropic media)
 1    
S= EB S = c oE  B
2

o
The magnitude of S is the power per unit area crossing a surface whose normal is parallel to S.
 EM Waves Transport Energy and Momentum
  
Given: E = Eo cos(k  r − t)
   
B = Bo cos(k  r − t)
Instantaneous flow of energy per unit area per unit time
  
S = c  o Eo  Bo cos (k  r − t)
2 2

Time averaged value of the magnitude of the Poynting vector

c2 o  
S = Eo  Bo
2
The Irradiance is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the electric field:

c o 2
I S = Eo I = c o E 2
2
 EM Waves Transport Energy and Momentum

 1  
EM waves transport energy: S= EB
o
U: Energy of the EM wave
EM wave transport momentum: c: Speed of the EM wave

They exert a pressure:

Extra

Alternative Approach to Derive the EM-wave

equation (1D)

18
 EM Waves
Consider an oscillating electric field Ey
y

Ey

This will generate a magnetic

field along the z-axis
x

Bz

z
 Faraday’s Law
The induced electromotive force in any closed circuit is equal to the negative of the time rate of change of the magnetic flux
through the circuit.
Y
BA N: Number of turns
Voltage generated = −N B: External magnetic field
t A: Area of coil
E (x) Ey(x+x)
y
We know that Faraday´s law in the integral form in given as:

x
C
where C is the rectangle in the XY plane of length l, width x,
and S is the open surface spanning the contour C
Z
Using the Faraday´s law on the contour C, we get:

this implies...
Keep this in mind...
 Ampere’s Law
Ampère's circuital law relates the integrated magnetic field around a closed loop to the
electric current passing through the loop.
The Ampere´s law with displacement current term can be written as:
In free space, the displacement current is related
to the time rate of change of electric field.
Y
Ey
x
Using Ampere´s law, for the contour C, we get:

x
C
Bz(x)
z Bz(x+x) this implies...
 Outcome of Faraday’s and Ampere’s laws
Using the eqns. obtained earlier:

Form of wave equation

Note: Similar Equation can be derived for Bz

22
 EM Wave Equation (3D)
Electromagnetic waves

for E field for B field

In general, electromagnetic waves

1
 = 2
2 2

c t 2
Where  represents E or B or their components
 Solution of 3D wave equation
# A plane wave satisfies wave equation in Cartesian coordinates
# A spherical wave satisfies wave equation in spherical polar coordinates

# A cylindrical wave satisfies wave equation in cylindrical coordinates

In Cartesian coordinates

2 = 2 + 2 + 2 = 12 2
      
2 2 2 2

x y z c t
Separation of variables  (x, y, z, t) = X (x)Y ( y)Z (z)T (t)

1  2 X + 1  2Y + 1  2 Z = 1  1  2T 
Substituting for  we obtain 2  2 
X x 2
Y y 2
Z z 2
c  T t 
Variables are separated out. Each variable-term independent, and must be a constant
 Solution of 3D wave equation
So we may write 1  X = −k ; 1  Y = −k 2 ;
2
2
2

X x Y y
2 x 2 y

where we use
1  Z = −k 2 ;  1  T  = − 2
2 2
 = + + =
 2 
2 2 2 2 2
c
2 k k k k
Z z  T t 
2 z x y z

ik y y
Solutions are then X (x) = e ikx x
; Y ( y) = e ;
Z(z) = eikz z ; T (t) = eit

Total Solution is  (x, y, z, t) = X (x)Y ( y)Z (z)T (t)

i[  t (k x x+k y y +k z z )]
= Ae
 
i[t  k .r ]
= Ae Plane wave
 3D Plane waves

The surface of constant phase is:

Vectors k and R are orthogonal to each other. So, the surface swapped by a constant phase is a
two dimensional plane and the vector k is normal to that plane.
3D Plane waves
Dipole Oscillation, EM-Radiation.
 Dipole Radiation
What is the electric field produced at a point P by
a charge q located at a distance r?
𝑞 𝑒𝑒̂𝑟
E=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
Where, 𝑒𝑒̂𝑟 is an unit vector from P to the position
of the charge.

© 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc

If a charge moves non-uniformly, it radiates

 Dipole Radiation
The correct formula for the electric field
_

- q P

𝑒𝑟,𝑒𝑟′:unit vector directed from q to P at earlier time

Important features
1. No information can propagate instantaneously
2. The electric field at the time t is determined by the position of the charge at an
earlier time, when the charge was at r’, the retarded position.
3. First two terms falls off as 1/r’2 and hence are of no interest at large distances
 Dipole Radiation

Correct Expression
(at large distances)

This is electro-magnetic radiation or simply radiation.

It is also to be noted that only accelerating charges produce radiation.
Electric Dipole Oscillator

© SPK/SB Courtesy: Wikipedia

Radio-wave transmission
Dipole Radiation Pattern

https://youtu.be/UOVwjKi4B6Y

http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/light/01-DipoleRadiation/01-Dipole_320.html
 Electromagnetic Waves

At a given point x: