CENTRAL UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING REPORT

TOPCLASS CONSULTANCY LTD.

Jeff-Zanni, Mwerichi Stephen Junior

CIE/22/02/0186

FEBRUARY, 2025.
Executive Summary

The Central University Commercial Area Facilities Design Project is a strategic initiative

aimed at enhancing the university's infrastructure to support academic and commercial

activities. The project, spearheaded by the Department of Civil Engineering, is being

carried out in collaboration with TopClass Consultancy Ltd. to deliver a comprehensive

design and implementation plan.

The project encompasses the design of key facilities, including a shopping mall,

institutional and commercial office spaces, a university printing press, and essential

supporting infrastructure such as security posts and canteens. The consulting services will

be carried out in three phases: conceptual design, final design, and an oral presentation

for evaluation.

The structural engineering aspect of the project focuses on ensuring safety, functionality,

and sustainability through rigorous load assessments, optimal material selection, and

adherence to national and international design codes. The integration of modern

construction techniques and sustainable practices will enhance the durability and cost

efficiency of the facilities.

TopClass Consultancy Ltd. has adopted a multidisciplinary approach, incorporating

geotechnical, highway, water supply, drainage, and waste management engineering to

ensure a holistic infrastructure solution. Quality assurance protocols and stakeholder

collaboration will be critical in achieving successful project execution.

This report serves as a blueprint for the development of a resilient and future-ready

commercial hub that aligns with Central University’s long-term growth objectives.

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Table of Contents
Executive Summary .......................................................................................................... ii

List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vi

List of Figures .................................................................................................................. vii

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ................................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Objectives................................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Scope .......................................................................................................................... 3

Chapter 2: DESK STUDY .......................................................................................................... 5

2.1 Design Approaches .................................................................................................... 5

2.2 Design Codes ............................................................................................................. 7

2.3 Design Criteria ........................................................................................................... 8

2.4 Load Requirements .................................................................................................... 8

Chapter 3: MATERIALS.......................................................................................................... 11

3.1 Cement ..................................................................................................................... 12

3.2 Concrete Grade......................................................................................................... 13

Chapter 4: CONCRETE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ............................................................ 13

4.1 BEAMS .................................................................................................................... 13

4.2 COLUMNS .............................................................................................................. 16

4.3 SLABS ..................................................................................................................... 18

4.4 STAIRCASE ............................................................................................................ 20

4.5 RAMPS .................................................................................................................... 22

Chapter 5: REINFORCEMENTS ............................................................................................. 24

5.1 LOADING AND LOAD COMBINATION ............................................................ 26

5.2 PRELIMINARY SIZING OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ................................... 30

Chapter 6: BILL OF QUANTITIES (BOQ) ............................................................................. 32

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 Chapter 7: CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 34

References ........................................................................................................................ 36

Appendices ....................................................................................................................... 37

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List of Tables

Table 2.1 Imposed Loads ............................................................................................... 20

Table 5.1 Calculations ................................................................................................... 30

Table 6.1 Bill of Quantities ............................................................................................ 34

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List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Layout of Site .................................................................................................. 1

Figure 4.1 Pictures of Beams .......................................................................................... 15

Figure 4.2 Pictures of Columns in Construction............................................................. 17

Figure 4.3 Pictures of Slabs in Construction .................................................................. 19

Figure 4.4 Pictures of Staircase ...................................................................................... 21

Figure 4.5 Pictures of Ramps .......................................................................................... 24

Figure 5.1 Picture of Reinforcement Bars ...................................................................... 26

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Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Central University (CU), in line with its commitment to advancing educational

infrastructure, has allocated resources for the development of a commercial area at its
Miotso Campus. This commercial hub is intended to serve the diverse needs of the
university community by incorporating key commercial and institutional facilities that
complement the academic environment. As part of the preliminary report for this project,
the focus is on providing a robust structural framework that ensures safety, functionality,
and sustainability. The Department of Civil Engineering is overseeing the
implementation project and has engaged a Civil Engineering consulting firm (TopClass
Consultancy Ltd.) to handle the design and scheduling components. The structural
engineering aspect, forming a critical part of this preliminary phase, will emphasize the
selection of appropriate structural systems, materials, and load assessments necessary for
the successful execution of the project.

Figure 1.1 Layout of Site

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1.2 Objectives

The primary objective of this project is to complete the design documentation of the
commercial area facilities within the stipulated timeline, adhering to national and
international standards, and within the allocated budget. TopClass Consultancy Ltd. will
also oversee construction supervision and contract management during the construction
phase to ensure that the final development meets the specified quality benchmarks. We
aim to deliver functional, safe, and sustainable infrastructure that supports the academic
and commercial activities of the university community. Also, TopClass Consultancy Ltd.
aims to achieve the following structural objectives for the successful completion of the
Central University Commercial Area Facilities design Project:

1.2.1 Structural Integrity and Safety:

Design robust structural systems that ensure the safety and stability of all commercial and

institutional facilities, adhering to national and international structural engineering

standards.

1.2.2 Optimized Structural Design:

Develop cost-effective and efficient structural solutions by selecting appropriate

construction materials and structural systems such as beam-slab, flat slab, and ribbed

floor systems that suit the intended use of each facility.

1.2.3 Accurate Load Assessment:

Conduct comprehensive load assessments, including dead loads, live loads, wind loads,

and seismic considerations, to ensure the structural designs can withstand all anticipated

stresses and environmental factors.

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1.2.4 Foundation Design:

Design suitable foundation systems based on geotechnical reports, ensuring safe bearing

capacities, minimal settlement, and optimal depth of placement for various structures

within the commercial area.

1.2.5 Sustainability and Resilience:

Incorporate sustainable structural engineering practices by using environmentally friendly

materials and design methods that enhance the durability and longevity of the facilities.

1.2.6 Compliance and Quality Assurance:

Ensure all structural designs comply with relevant regulatory standards and codes while

implementing quality assurance measures throughout the design and construction phases.

1.2.7 Coordination with Interdisciplinary Teams:

Collaborate closely with geotechnical, highway, water supply, drainage, and waste

management engineers to ensure structural designs align seamlessly with the overall

infrastructure development.

1.3 Scope

The scope of the consulting services encompasses the design and development of the

following key facilities:

1. General Layout: Comprehensive site layout showcasing the location and

integration of all facilities.

2. Shopping mall: Design of a modern shopping mall to cater to retail needs.

3. Institutional and Commercial Offices: Provision of office spaces for banks,

restaurants, and a bookshop.

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 4. University Printing Press: A fully equipped printing facility to support the

university’s academic activities.

5. Supporting Infrastructure: Including canteens, security posts, and other

ancillary services.

Nevertheless, since we’re majoring on the structural aspect, this report will cover these

aspects:

1. Structural design principles

2. Design codes and criteria
3. Load combination and analysis
4. Material selection
5. Preliminary sizing of key structural members
6. Environmental considerations

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Chapter 2: DESK STUDY

Desk study serves as an essential preliminary phase of the design process. It involves a

detailed review of existing information related to the project site and surrounding

infrastructure. This includes the analysis of topographical maps, geological surveys, soil

test reports, historical data on site usage, climate data, and any available structural

documentation. The desk study helps to:

1. Identify potential site constraints and opportunities.

2. Determine the need for further site-specific investigations.

3. Establish baseline information for design considerations
4. Minimize risks by highlighting critical factors that could affect structural design
and construction processes.

The findings of the desk study inform critical decisions during the conceptual design
stage and guide the direction of subsequent investigations and analyses.

2.1 Design Approaches

This refers to the underlying principles, methods, and considerations that guide the
planning, conceptualization, and execution of engineering projects. These
philosophies provide a framework for engineers to make informed decisions, solve
complex problems, and achieve specific goals. Several design philosophies are
commonly employed in civil engineering, and their application may vary based on
the type of project, environmental factors, and technological advancements. Some
philosophies of Design Approaches include:

1. Limit State Design:

This philosophy involves defining various limit states, including ultimate and

serviceability states, and ensuring the structure remains within acceptable limits.

Structures are designed to ensure that specific limit states, such as strength, stability, and

serviceability, are not exceeded under different loading conditions.

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2.1.1 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD):

This incorporates factors of safety to account for uncertainties in material properties and

loads. It considers both the applied loads and the structural resistance in the design

process. It allows for a more rational and economical design by considering the actual

variability in loads and material properties.

These are some of the philosophies of Design Approaches, TopClass Consultancy Ltd.

Will however adopt the following structural design approaches for the CU project:

1. Conceptual Structural Framework: Selection of suitable structural systems

based on functional requirements, aesthetics, and constructability. Considerations

include frame structures, load-bearing walls, and hybrid systems depending on the

facility.

2. Load Path Analysis: Assessment of how loads will be transmitted through the

structure to the foundation. This includes the analysis of vertical and lateral load-

resisting systems.

3. Material Selection Strategy: Choosing appropriate construction materials such

as reinforced concrete, steel, or composite materials based on durability,

availability, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact.

4. Seismic and Wind Load Considerations: Designing for resilience against

seismic and wind forces by incorporating appropriate damping systems, shear

walls, and bracing.

5. Foundation Systems Design: Developing foundation solutions based on

geotechnical findings, including shallow and deep foundation designs tailored to

subsoil conditions.

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 6. Sustainability Integration: Embedding sustainable practices through the use of

eco-friendly materials, energy-efficient design elements, and adaptable structural

systems for future modifications.

7. Collaborative Design Coordination: Ensuring the structural design is aligned

with architectural intent and integrated with other engineering disciplines through

continuous coordination and use of Building Information Modeling (BIM) tools.

This comprehensive approach ensures that the structural designs developed by

TopClass Consultancy Ltd. meet the highest standards of safety, functionality, and

sustainability while aligning with the overall objectives of Central University’s

commercial area development project.

2.2 Design Codes

Design codes are standardized regulations, guidelines, and specifications used in

structural and civil engineering to ensure the safety, durability, and efficiency of a built

environment. These codes provide the minimum requirements for material selection,

structural integrity, and performance under various loading conditions. Commonly

referenced design codes include:

1. Eurocodes (EN 1990 - EN 1999): European standards for structural design.

2. British Standards (BS 8110, BS 5950, etc.): Guidelines for concrete and steel
structures
3. Ghana Building Code (GhBC) GS 1207:2018: modified adoption of the

International Building Code. It lays down the essential requirements that

buildings must conform. The Committee responsible for the adoption of this Code

is the National Technical Committee on Ghana Building Code.

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Adhering to these design codes ensures that all structures comply with safety regulations,

load resistance criteria, and industry best practices.

2.3 Design Criteria

Design Criteria are the fundamental parameters and requirements that guide the structural

design of a project. They define the essential aspects of safety, functionality,

performance, and sustainability. The key design criteria for this project include:

1. Structural Safety: Ensuring all structures meet the required safety standards to

withstand anticipated loads and environmental conditions.

2. Serviceability: Maintaining structural integrity and usability without excessive

deflection, vibration, or cracking.

3. Material Selection: Choosing materials based on durability, cost, and

environmental impact.

4. Load Considerations: Accounting for dead loads, live loads, wind loads, seismic

activity, and other environmental factors.

5. Code Compliance: Adhering to national and international design codes and

regulations.

6. Sustainability: Incorporating eco-friendly materials and energy-efficient design

elements

7. Constructability: Ensuring the design is practical and feasible for construction

within budget and time constraints.

2.4 Load Requirements

2.4.1 Dead Load (Gk):

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Dead load refers to the permanent, static weight of a structure, including all fixed

components such as walls, floors, roofs, and other non-movable elements. It accounts for

the weight of construction materials and any permanent installations, ensuring the

structure can support its own mass over time.

Dead load is calculated by determining the weight of all permanent structural elements in

a building. This includes walls, floors, roofs, columns, beams, and fixed equipment. The

calculation follows these steps:

1. Identify Materials and Components: List all permanent elements of the

structure and their respective materials.
2. Obtain Unit Weights: Use standard unit weights from material handbooks or
design codes (e.g., concrete, steel, masonry).
3. Determine Volume: Calculate the volume of each element based on architectural
and structural drawings.
4. Calculate Load: Multiply the volume of each element by its unit weight to obtain
its individual dead load.
5. Summation: Add all individual dead loads to determine the total dead load acting
on the structure.

The total deadload is used in structural analysis to ensure the stability and safety of the
building under permanent forces.

2.4.2 Live Load (Qk):

Live load represents represents the variable, dynamic forces exerted on a structure due to

occupancy and usage. This includes people, furniture, vehicles, and temporary

equipment. Unlike dead loads, live loads fluctuate over time and are factored into design

calculations to ensure structural safety under changing conditions. It is also known as

imposed loads.

I used BS 6399 part 1 to obtain the imposed loads on the various use of space in the

structure. Partial factor of safety for live load = 1.6

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 Imposed load for shop spaces 4.0 KN/m2

Imposed load for corridor spaces 3.0 KN/m2

Imposed load for offices spaces 2.5 KN/m2

Imposed load for accessible roof 1.5 KN/m2

Imposed loads on stairs 4.0 KN/m2

Imposed load for ramp 5.0 KN/m2

Imposed load for toilet 2.0 KN/m2

Table 2.1: Imposed Loads

2.4.3 Wind load (Wk):

Wind load refers to the forces exerted by wind on a structure. These loads depend on

wind speed, building height, shape, and exposure conditions. Wind load calculations

follow design codes such as Eurocode to ensure structural stability against lateral forces.

2.4.4 Seismic loads:

Seismic loads are the forces induced by ground motion during an earthquake. They

depend on the building's mass, height, soil conditions, and seismic zone classification.

Structures must be designed to resist seismic forces by incorporating lateral load-resisting

systems like shear walls, braced frames, and base isolators to enhance stability and safety.

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Chapter 3: MATERIALS

Construction materials play a crucial role in the structural integrity, durability, and

sustainability of a project. The selection of materials depends on factors such as strength,

cost, availability, environmental impact, and compliance with design codes. The primary

materials used in construction include:

1. Concrete: A versatile and durable material used for foundations, columns, beams,

and slabs. It provides high compressive strength and can be reinforced with steel

for additional tensile strength.

2. Steel: Commonly used for structural frameworks, reinforcements, and load-

bearing elements due to its high strength-to-weight ratio and ductility.

3. Bricks and Blocks: These masonry materials are widely used for walls and

partitions due to their durability, thermal insulation properties, and ease of

installation.

4. Wood: Often used in framing, formwork, and finishes. Wood offers sustainability

benefits but requires protection against pests and moisture.

5. Glass: Used for windows, facades, and partitions to enhance aesthetics, natural

lighting, and energy efficiency.

These are some of the Materials used in Construction. For this project we shall be using

more Reinforced Concrete than Steel, which is the other commonly used material for

several reasons:

1. Durability: It resists fire, corrosion, and weather effects better than steel.
2. Cost-Effectiveness: Generally, reinforced concrete is more economical than steel,
especially for large structures.

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 3. Low Maintenance: Requires minimal maintenance compared to steel, which is
prone to rust and corrosion.
4. Versatility: Can be molded into various shapes, making it suitable for different
architectural designs.
5. Better Load Distribution: Distributes loads more evenly, reducing stress
concentration points in structures.

3.1 Cement

Cement is a fundamental construction material used as a binding agent in concrete,

mortar, and plaster. It is a fine powder that, when mixed with water, undergoes a

chemical reaction known as hydration, forming a hard and durable substance. Cement is

primarily composed of limestone, clay, silica, and other materials that are heated in a kiln

to produce clinker, which is then ground into a fine powder.

Types of Cement include:

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): The most commonly used cement for

general construction purposes.

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC): Contains pozzolanic materials, improving

durability and resistance to chemical attacks.

3. Rapid Hardening Cement: Gains strength quickly, suitable for fast-track

construction projects.

Cement plays a crucial role in modern construction, offering strength, durability, and

versatility for various structural applications.

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3.2 Concrete Grade

This is the compressive strength of concrete mixtures used in various structural

applications. It is denoted by the letter "C" followed by a number, such as C20, C25 and

C30. The grade of concrete indicates the characteristic compressive strength of the

concrete after a specified curing period, usually 28 days. Due to the sub and

superstructure of the building we would be using a variation of concrete grade of C25 and

C30 with a blinding concrete grade of C15 and C25.

Chapter 4: CONCRETE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

Structural members are components or elements of a building or structure that are

designed to support loads and stresses and transfer them to the foundation or other

supporting members. They are the building blocks of a structure. They include beams,

columns, slabs, staircase, ramps etc

4.1 BEAMS

Beams are horizontal or sloping structural members that support loads from floors, roofs,

walls, or other structural elements. They are designed to resist bending moments, shear

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forces, and torsion, and to transfer these loads to the supporting columns, walls, or

foundations.

Types of Beams include:

1. Simply Supported Beams: Supported at both ends, with no restraint against

rotation or translation.

2. Cantilever Beams: Supported at one end, with the other end free to move.

3. Fixed Beams: Supported at both ends, with restraints against rotation and

translation.

4. Continuous Beams: Supported at multiple points, with no gaps or interruptions.

5. Tapered Beams: Beams with a varying cross-sectional area, often used to reduce

weight or increase structural efficiency.

Functions of Beams include:

1. Load Transfer: Beams transfer loads from the supported elements (e.g., floors,

roofs) to the supporting elements (e.g., columns, walls).

2. Bending Resistance: Beams resist bending moments caused by the loads, which

can lead to deformation or failure.

3. Shear Resistance: Beams resist shear forces, which can cause the beam to fail by

sliding or crushing.

4. Torsion Resistance: Beams resist torsion, which can cause the beam to twist or

rotate.

Beam Design Considerations:

1. Material Selection: Choice of material affects the beam's strength, stiffness, and

durability.

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 2. Cross-Sectional Area: The beam's cross-sectional area affects its strength and

stiffness.

3. Span Length: The distance between supports affects the beam's bending moment

and shear force.

4. Load Type and Magnitude: The type and magnitude of loads affect the beam's

required strength and stiffness.

5. Deflection and Vibration: Beams must be designed to minimize deflection and

vibration, ensuring user comfort and structural safety.

In summary, beams are critical structural elements that play a vital role in supporting

loads and ensuring the stability and safety of buildings and other structures.

Figure 4.1 Pictures of Beams

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4.2 COLUMNS

Columns are vertical structural members that support loads from beams, floors, roofs, or

other structural elements. They are designed to resist compressive forces, bending

moments, and shear forces, and to transfer these loads to the foundation or other

supporting elements.

Types of columns include:

➢ Short Columns: Columns with a length less than 3-4 times their least lateral

dimension.

➢ Long Columns: Columns with a length greater than 3-4 times their least lateral

dimension.

➢ Slender Columns: Columns with a high length-to-diameter ratio, prone to

buckling.

➢ Tapered Columns: Columns with a varying cross-sectional area, often used to

reduce weight or increase structural efficiency.

➢ Composite Columns: Columns composed of multiple materials, such as

concrete-filled steel tubes.

Functions of Columns Include:

➢ Load Transfer: Columns transfer loads from the supported elements (e.g.,

beams, floors) to the supporting elements (e.g., foundation, footings).

➢ Compression Resistance: Columns resist compressive forces, which can cause

the column to crush or deform.

➢ Bending Resistance: Columns resist bending moments, which can cause the

column to deform or fail.

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 ➢ Shear Resistance: Columns resist shear forces, which can cause the column to

fail by sliding or crushing.

Column Design Considerations:

➢ Material Selection: Choice of material affects the column's strength, stiffness,

and durability.

➢ Cross-Sectional Area: The column's cross-sectional area affects its strength and

stiffness.

➢ Length and Slenderness: The column's length and slenderness affect its buckling

resistance.

➢ Load Type and Magnitude: The type and magnitude of loads affect the column's

required strength and stiffness.

➢ End Conditions: The column's end conditions (e.g., pinned, fixed) affect its

behaviour and design.

In summary, columns are critical structural elements that play a vital role in supporting

loads and ensuring the stability and safety of buildings and other structures.

Figure 4.2 Pictures of Columns in Construction

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4.3 SLABS

Slabs are flat, horizontal or slightly inclined structural elements that are used to support

loads from floors, roofs, or other structural elements. They are typically made of

concrete, steel, or composite materials, and are designed to resist various types of loads,

including gravity loads, lateral loads, and environmental loads.

Types of Slabs Include:

➢ One-way Slabs: Slabs that are supported on two opposite sides, with the load

being transferred in one direction.

➢ Two-way Slabs: Slabs that are supported on all four sides, with the load being

transferred in two directions.

➢ Flat Slabs: Slabs that are supported directly on columns, without the use of

beams.

➢ Waffle Slabs: Slabs that are made up of a series of recessed panels, giving a

waffle-like appearance.

➢ Ribbed Slabs: Slabs that are made up of a series of ribs or beams, which provide

additional structural support.

Slab Functions Include:

Load Transfer: Slabs transfer loads from the supported elements (e.g., floors,

roofs) to the supporting elements (e.g., beams, columns).

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 Bending Resistance: Slabs resist bending moments, which can cause the slab to

deform or fail.

Shear Resistance: Slabs resist shear forces, which can cause the slab to fail by

sliding or crushing.

Torsion Resistance: Slabs resist torsion, which can cause the slab to twist or

rotate.

Slab Design Considerations:

Material Selection: Choice of material affects the slab's strength, stiffness, and

durability.

Thickness: The slab's thickness affects its strength, stiffness, and ability to resist

loads.

Reinforcement: The use of reinforcement (e.g., rebar, fibres) affects the slab's

strength, stiffness, and ability to resist loads.

Support Conditions: The slab's support conditions (e.g., simply supported, fixed)

affect its behaviour and design.

Load Type and Magnitude: The type and magnitude of loads affect the slab's

required strength and stiffness.

In summary, slabs are critical structural elements that play a vital role in supporting loads

and ensuring the stability and safety of buildings and other structures.

Figure 4.3 Pictures of Slabs in Construction

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4.4 STAIRCASE

A staircase is a structural element that provides a means of vertical circulation between

floors in a building. It is a series of steps and landings that connect the floors, allowing

users to move safely and easily between levels.

Components of a Staircase:

Steps: The individual units that make up the staircase, consisting of a tread (the

horizontal surface) and a riser (the vertical surface).

Landings: The platforms that connect the flights of stairs, providing a resting

place for users.

Stringers: The structural members that support the treads and risers, typically

made of wood, steel, or concrete.

Newel posts: The vertical posts that support the handrail and provide additional

structural support.

Handrail: The railing that provides a graspable surface for users to hold onto

while using the staircase.

Types of Staircases:

Straight staircase: A staircase that runs straight up without any turns or curves.

L-shaped staircase: A staircase that turns at a 90-degree angle, forming an L-

shape.

U-shaped staircase: A staircase that turns at two 90-degree angles, forming a U-

shape.

Spiral staircase: A staircase that curves around a central column, often used in

tight spaces

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 Helical staircase: A staircase that curves around a central column, with each step

being a separate entity.

Staircase Design Considerations:

Safety: The staircase must be designed to ensure user safety, with adequate

handrails, proper step dimensions, and sufficient lighting.

Accessibility: The staircase must be designed to accommodate users with

disabilities, with features such as wheelchair ramps or elevators.

Aesthetics: The staircase can be a design feature in a building, with various

materials, shapes, and styles available.

Structural integrity: The staircase must be designed to withstand various loads,

including dead loads, live loads, and environmental loads.

Building codes: The staircase must comply with local building codes and

regulations, including those related to safety, accessibility, and structural

integrity.

In summary, a staircase is a critical component of a building's vertical circulation system,

requiring careful design and construction to ensure safety, accessibility, and

structural integrity.

Figure 4.4 Pictures of Staircase

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4.5 RAMPS

Ramps are inclined surfaces that connect two or more levels in a building, providing a

gradual and accessible route for users. They are an essential feature in many buildings,

particularly those that require accessibility for people with disabilities.

Types of Ramps:

Permanent Ramps: Installed during the initial construction of a building, these

ramps are designed to be a permanent feature.

Temporary Ramps: Installed for a specific period, these ramps are often used

during construction or renovation projects.

Modular Ramps: Pre-fabricated ramps that can be easily installed and removed.

Portable Ramps: Lightweight and compact ramps that can be easily transported

and installed.

Design Considerations:

Slope: The angle of the ramp, which should be between 1:12 and 1:20 to ensure

accessibility.

Width: The minimum width of the ramp, which should be at least 36 inches (914

mm) to accommodate wheelchairs.

Landings: Level areas at the top and bottom of the ramp, which provide a resting

place for users.

Handrails: Grab bars that provide support and balance for users.

Surface: The material used for the ramp surface, which should be slip-resistant

and durable.

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 Clearance: The minimum clearance between the ramp and any overhead

obstacles.

Benefits of Ramps:

Accessibility: Ramps provide equal access to buildings for people with

disabilities.

Safety: Ramps reduce the risk of accidents and injuries associated with stairs.

Convenience: Ramps provide an easy and convenient way to move between

levels.

Compliance: Ramps help buildings comply with accessibility regulations and

standards.

Common Applications:

Commercial Buildings: Ramps are often used in office buildings, shopping

centres, and restaurants.

Residential Buildings: Ramps are used in homes, apartments, and

condominiums.

Public Buildings: Ramps are used in schools, hospitals, and government

buildings.

Industrial Settings: Ramps are used in warehouses, factories, and construction

sites.

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In summary, ramps are an essential feature in many buildings, providing a safe and

accessible route for users. Their design and installation require careful consideration of

various factors to ensure compliance with accessibility regulations and standards.

Figure 4.5 Pictures of Ramps

Chapter 5: REINFORCEMENTS

Reinforcements are materials or elements added to a structure to increase its strength,

stability, and durability. In the context of building construction, reinforcements are

typically used to enhance the performance of concrete, masonry, or other building

materials.

Types of Reinforcements:

Rebar (Reinforcing Bars): Steel bars with a rough surface, used to reinforce

concrete.

Fibers: Short, thin fibers made of steel, glass, or synthetic materials, used to

reinforce concrete.

Mesh: A grid of wires or fibers, used to reinforce concrete or masonry.

Cables: Steel cables or tendons, used to reinforce concrete or masonry.

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 FRP (Fiber-Reinforced Polymer): A composite material made of fibers and a

polymer matrix, used to reinforce concrete or masonry.

Functions of Reinforcements:

Tensile Strength: Reinforcements provide tensile strength to concrete, which is

weak in tension.

Compressive Strength: Reinforcements can also enhance the compressive

strength of concrete.

Shear Strength: Reinforcements can improve the shear strength of concrete,

particularly in beams and slabs.

Ductility: Reinforcements can enhance the ductility of concrete, allowing it to

deform without failing.

Crack Control: Reinforcements can help control cracking in concrete,

particularly in slabs and walls.

Benefits of Reinforcements:

Increased Strength: Reinforcements can significantly increase the strength of a

structure.

Improved Durability: Reinforcements can enhance the durability of a structure,

reducing the risk of cracking and degradation.

Reduced Maintenance: Reinforcements can reduce the need for maintenance and

repairs.

Enhanced Safety: Reinforcements can improve the safety of a structure,

particularly in seismic or high-wind areas.

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 Cost Savings: Reinforcements can provide cost savings by reducing the amount

of concrete or other materials needed.

Figure 5.1 Picture of Reinforcement bars

For this project, steel with varying characteristic strengths will be utilized:

High yield steel: 460 N/mm2

Mild steel: 250 N/mm2

5.1 LOADING AND LOAD COMBINATION

DATA

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 Slab thickness = 165 mm
Imposed load for Shop spaces = 4.0 KN/m2
Slab finishes = 1.5 KN/m2
BS6399 Slab Service loads = 1.0 KN/m2
Density of concrete = 24 KN/m2
Partition =1.5 KN/m2
Slab self-weight = Thickness x Density of
concrete = 0.165 m x 24 KN/m2
= 3.96 KN/m2
BS6399 Total Imposed dead load = 3.96 + 1.0 + 1.5 +1.5 Gk=7.96 KN/m2

Design load(N) = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

= 1.4(7.96) + 1.6(4.0) N= 17.54 KN/m2

Imposed load for corridor spaces = 3.0 KN/m2

Slab finishes = 1.5 KN/m2
Slab Service loads = 1.0 KN/m2
Density of concrete = 24 KN/m2
Partition =1.5 KN/m2
Slab self-weight = Thickness x Density of
concrete = 0.165 m x 24 KN/m2
= 3.96 KN/m2
Total Imposed dead load = 3.96 + 1.0 + 1.5 +1.5 Gk=7.96 KN/m2

Design load(N) = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

= 1.4(7.96) + 1.6(3.0) N=15.94 KN/m2

Imposed load for staircase spaces = 4.0 KN/m2

Slab finishes = 1.5 KN/m2
Slab Service loads = 1.0 KN/m2

27
 Density of concrete = 24 KN/m2
Partition =1.5 KN/m2
Slab self-weight = Thickness x Density of
concrete = 0.165 m x 24 KN/m2
= 3.96 KN/m2
Total Imposed dead load = 3.96 + 1.0 + 1.5 +1.5 Gk=7.96 KN/m2

Design load(N) = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

= 1.4(7.96) + 1.6(4.0) N=17.54 KN/m2

BS6399 Imposed load for office spaces = 2.5 KN/m2

Slab finishes = 1.5 KN/m2
Slab Service loads = 1.0 KN/m2
Density of concrete = 24 KN/m2
Partition =1.5 KN/m2
Slab self-weight = Thickness x Density of
concrete = 0.165 m x 24 KN/m2
= 3.96 KN/m2
Total Imposed dead load = 3.96 + 1.0 + 1.5 +1.5 Gk=7.96 KN/m2

Design load(N) = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

= 1.4(7.96) + 1.6(2.5) N=15.14 KN/m2

Imposed load for ramp = 5.0 KN/m2

Slab finishes = 1.5 KN/m2
Slab Service loads = 1.0 KN/m2
Density of concrete = 24 KN/m2
Partition =1.5 KN/m2
Slab self-weight = Thickness x Density of
concrete = 0.165 m x 24 KN/m2

28
 = 3.96 KN/m2
Total Imposed dead load = 3.96 + 1.0 + 1.5 +1.5 Gk=7.96 KN/m2

Design load(N) = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

= 1.4(7.96) + 1.6(5.0) N=19.14 KN/m2

Imposed load for toilet = 2.0 KN/m2

Slab finishes = 1.5 KN/m2
Slab Service loads = 1.0 KN/m2
Density of concrete = 24 KN/m2
Partition =1.5 KN/m2
Slab self-weight = Thickness x Density of
concrete = 0.165 m x 24 KN/m2
BS6399 = 3.96 KN/m2
Total Imposed dead load = 3.96 + 1.0 + 1.5 +1.5 Gk=7.96 KN/m2

Design load(N) = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

= 1.4(7.96) + 1.6(2.0) N=14.34 KN/m2

Imposed load for roof = 1.5 KN/m2

Slab finishes = 1.5 KN/m2
Slab Service loads = 1.0 KN/m2
Density of concrete = 24 KN/m2
Partition =1.5 KN/m2
Slab self-weight = Thickness x Density of
concrete = 0.165 m x 24 KN/m2
= 3.96 KN/m2
Total Imposed dead load = 3.96 + 1.0 + 1.5 +1.5 Gk=7.96 KN/m2

Design load(N) = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

= 1.4(7.96) + 1.6(1.5) N=13.54 KN/m2

29
Table 5.1 Calculations

5.2 PRELIMINARY SIZING OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

ASSUMPTIONS:

SLAB,

For the calculation of the slab certain assumptions were taken into consideration.
Grade (Fcu) = 30 N/mm2
Mild steel (Fy) = 250 N/mm2
Concrete cover = 25 mm
Diameter of the rebar = 12 mm
12
Effective depth = 165-25- 2 = 134 mm

30
BEAMS,

The dimension for the beams is 300 x 150mm and a variation of 300 x 200mm for the
ground floor.
The dimension for the beams is 450 x 200mm for the first floor.
For the roof beams, a variation of 500 x 200.

Fcu = 30 N/mm2

Fy = 460 N/mm2 and 250 N/mm2

Concrete Cover = 25mm

Diameter of the rebar =12mm, 16mm and 20mm
Links diameter = 8mm
Therefore, effective depth = beam depth – links – bar diameter - cover =300 – 25

– 8 – 16/2 = 259mm

COLUMNS,

Dimension of columns = 250 x 250mm, 300 x 300mm, 300 x 200mm and 400 x

200mm.

Fcu = 30N/mm2

Fy = 460N/mm2 and 250N/mm2

Concrete cover = 40mm
Diameter of rebar = 12mm and 16mm

Links of diameter = 8mm

Effective depth = 250-40-8-12/2 = 196mm

STAIRCASE,

Waist of Staircase = 150mm

Dimension of steps = 145 x 300mm
Fcu = 30N/mm2
Fy = 250N/mm2

31
 Concrete cover = 20mm
Diameter of the rebar = 10mm and 16mm
Effective depth = 150-20-10/2 = 125mm

Chapter 6: BILL OF QUANTITIES (BOQ)

PROJECT NAME: INTEGRATED DESIGN

PROJECT LOCATION: MIOTSO, AFLAO.

CLIENT: CENTRAL UNIVERSITY

CONSULTANT: TOPCLASS CONSULTANCY LTD.

DATE: FEBRUARY 2025.

ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT QUANTITY UNIT TOTAL

NO RATE AMOUNT
GHC GHC
Ground Floor Substructure
and Superstructure
Concrete Works
1 Plain in-situ concrete (Grade M2 178 255.00 45,390.00
10/20) in 50mm blinding.
2 (Grade 30/40) in strip foundation M3 35 260.00 9,100.00
150mm thick
3 In floor bed 10mm thick. M3 135 160.00 21,600.00
4 Ditto:20mm thick on concrete M2 980 35.00 34,300.00
surfaces in beams columns
Reinforced vibrated in-situ
concrete (Grade 30/20) as
described

32
5 Slabs M3 15 730.00 10,950.00
6 Columns M3 25 730.00 18,250.00
7 Beams M3 70 730.00 51,100.00
8 Suspended beams M3 65 730.00 47,450.00
9 Suspended Floor slabs M3 15 730.00 10,950.00
10 Staircases and landing slabs M3 10 730.00 7,300.00
11 Ramps M3 10 730.00 7,300.00
Reinforcement
Mild and high yield steel
reinforcement bars in
cuts,bends,hooks and fixed in
position in accordance with
specifications in:
12 20mm diameter in beams and KG 6,830 135.00 922,050.00
suspended beams
13 Ditto: In columns KG 4,555 135.00 614,925.00
14 Ditto: Rectangular support KG 1,055 130.00 137,150.00
column for staircases and ramps
15 16mm diameter in staircases KG 560 100.00 56,000.00
16 Ditto: in Balustrade KG 985 100.00 98,500.00
17 Ditto in staircase KG 240 100.00 24,000.00
18 Ditto in inclined escalating slabs KG 615 100.00 61,500.00
19 Ditto: Slopping handrail on KG 700 100.00 70,000.00
staircases and landing
20 8mm diameter as stirrups in KG 985 25.00 24,625.00
columns
21 Ditto: In suspended beams KG 3,550 25.00 88,750.00
22 Ditto: In staircase and escalating KG 195 25.00 4,875.00
beams

33
 23 12mm diameter in suspended KG 1,865 70.00 130,550.00
floor slabs on stairs and ramps
24 Ditto as stirrups in support for KG 955 70.00 66,850.00
stairs
TOTAL 2,563,465.00
Table 6.1 Bill of Quantities

Chapter 7: CONCLUSION

The structural design of the Central University Commercial Area Facilities has been

meticulously developed to ensure functionality, safety, and sustainability. Through a

detailed assessment of site conditions, material selection, and adherence to national and

international design codes, the proposed structures will meet the highest standards of

engineering excellence. The incorporation of modern structural systems and sustainable

practices ensures long-term durability while optimizing cost efficiency.

TopClass Consultancy Ltd. has provided a comprehensive approach that integrates

multiple engineering disciplines to create a well-coordinated and resilient design. With

careful planning, thorough load assessments, and the application of innovative

construction techniques, this project is set to enhance the university’s commercial and

institutional capabilities, ultimately benefiting students, faculty, and the wider

community.

As the project transitions from the design phase to implementation, strict adherence to

quality assurance protocols and continuous collaboration between stakeholders will be

essential for its successful completion. This structural report serves as a foundation for

executing a well-structured, robust, and sustainable commercial hub that aligns with

Central University's long-term development goals.

34
35
References

…..

36
Appendices

….

Appendix A

Appendix B

37