Continuation from animal nutrition

ANIMAL HEALTH
Health is a situation in which all body organs and systems are normal
and functioning normally or it’s a state of well being where by all the
vital processes of life related activities are functioning satisfactorily.
Disease is any deviation from normal health or it’s a structural disorder
and physiological abnormality which is harmful to the animal.
Signs of good health in animals
1. The skin of the animal is clean, smooth and shinny
2. The animal is alert and easily responds to stimuli like touch.
3. The animal has a normal appetite i.e. feeds greedily leaving no food
in the trough.
4. Body temperatures should be normal i.e. 38.60 in cattle, 39.10C in
goats, 39.2 in pigs and 38.9 in sheep.
5. The dung should be soft, neither excessively hard nor watery.
6. The urine should be clear pale yellow with no blood stains or bad
smell.
7. The mucus membrane in the nose, mouth, eyes, and reproductive tract
should be moist and pink in colour.
8. Animal production, in terms of eggs, meat and milk should be normal
and consistent with the stage of production.
9. Lameness or abnormal movement is an indicator of disease.

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 10. Continuous coughing and sneezing is an indication of disease.
Causes of ill health in animals
1. Heredity; Some diseases are transmitted through genes e.g. curved
limbs in cattle.
2. Microorganisms; These invade the body’s animals and cause various
diseases e.g. T.B. East coast fever, New castle, etc
3. Mechanical injuries These can be caused by sharp objects and
sometimes rough handling of the animal like beating.
4. Nutritional imbalances Lack of certain nutrients in the animal’s diet
may cause disease e.g. lack of iron, causes anaemia.
5. Poisoning Some pastures contain chemicals which can poison the
animals e.g. hydrocyanic acid (HCN) found in cassava blocks
respiration once taken in large amounts.
6. StarvatioUnder fed animals in relation to their production are likely to
suffer from a disease like Ketosis more especially lactating animals.
7. Exposure to extreme conditions of the environment like high
temperature or very low temperatures can cause stress.
Factors that Predispose (expose animals to disease)
• Age; Young animals have un developed immunity while the old ones
have a worn out immune system which exposes both more to disease
easily.

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• Climate; Very cold weather and humid conditions would expose the
animals to respiratory infections like pneumonia. • Pollution;
Air and water pollution exposes the animals to many infections and may
also cause poisoning.
• Hereditary; Inheritance of large and pendulous udders in dairy animals
predisposes such animals to disease like mastitis. • Breed; exotic breeds
of cattle are more prone to tick borne diseases than indigenous cattle
• Communal grazing; this brings herds of cattle together with those that
are diseased hence predisposing the health animals
Mechanical injuries; these may act as entry points for the pathogens
• Poor hygiene; this encourages pathogens to contaminate feeds and
water hence easy spread of disease
• Improper disposal of dead animals; animals that have died due to
disease once disposed poorly may lead to easy disease outbreaks
Classification of disease
Infectious disease .This is a disease caused by living organisms like
bacteria, protozoa, fungi and virus.
Non-infectious disease .This is a disease caused by something else other
than living organisms’ e.g. blot, milk fever, goiter, grass Tetany, e.t.c.
Contagious disease. This is a disease transmitted by contact between
infected animals and healthy ones e.g brucellosis.

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Communicable disease. This is a disease that is transmitted from one
animal to the other by both direct and indirect contact e.g. T.B, foot and
mouth disease.
Notifiable or reportable disease,
This is a very contagious disease, which spreads fast in herds or flocks
and usually affects humans e.g. tuberculosis and anthrax.
HOW DISEASES CAN BE SPREAD ON THE FARM
• Introduction of sick animals to the farm, which can transmit disease to
the healthy ones by contact.
• Introduction of healthy animals that are carriers of certain diseases.
• Diseases can also spread through contaminated water and feeds.
• Vectors like tsetse flies and ticks can also transmit disease.
• Wild birds and rodents may carry disease to the domestic animals
through contaminating feeds and water.
• Contaminated equipment like vaccination equipment, drenching guns,
insemination syringe may spread disease.
• Shoes and clothing of any one who moves from flock to flock or in
animal quarters can spread disease.
• Airborne organisms like bacteria spores may be spread through air and
cause disease.
• Soil can Harbour resting stages for anthrax spores which can survive
for up to 40 years.

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• Diseases can also be spread through infected animal products like eggs
in birds can spread new castle to chicks
• Improper disposal of dead animals that have died due to a certain
disease
• Dung or excreta incase of cows and other young stock can also spread
disease. General Control of diseases on the farm
• Farmers should make sure animal quarters are clean to keep off
pathogens.
• There should be adequate ventilation in the houses to control
respiratory infections like pneumonia.
• Ensure adequate spaces for each animal hence discourage over
crowding.
• Animals to be bought should be selected from reliable source with less
risk of disease.
• Institute quarantine measures incase of a disease outbreak in an area.
• Practicing rotation grazing in cattle in order to control vectors like
ticks.
• The farmer should follow vaccination programmes for livestock in
order to control disease.
• Visitors to the farm should be restricted and those allowed in should be
disinfected.

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• Sick animals should be isolated from the general herd or flock to
reduce disease spread.
• Dead animals should be properly disposed by either burning the
carcass completely or burying it 3m deep in the soil.
• Animals with highly infectious disease should be culled by
slaughtering and burning the carcasses completely
• Newly bought in animals should be isolated from the general herd for
At least 14 days to ensure that they are healthy.
symptoms, mode of transmission, animal attacked and control of the
following diseases.
▪ Anthrax (splenic fever )
This is a disease caused by bacteria called Bacillus anthracis. It attacks
cattles ,sheep,goats ,man and other wild animals .infected animal
becomes sick between 12-24 hours after the infection and dies
immediately .
Symptoms of anthrax
1.dropping head and hears as well as muscle tremor
2.swelling of neck, thorax and flanks of the animal
3. milk secretion stops in lactating animals
4.sudden death of the animal within three days andafter death the animal
body decomposes rapidly
5.grinding of teeth by the animal

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6.blood oozing out from the nose, anus and other body opening
7.blood stained in the feaces of the animals
8.stiffness of the body in the carcass of dead animal
Control of anthrax
 Do not open dead carcasses
 Proper disposal of carcass by burying it deep atleast 6fts or burning
 disinfecting premises and animal houses using formalin solution
 report any suspected case of antrax to veterinary authourity as soon as
possible
 vaccinating animals incase of outbreak of the disease in the region
 follow quarantine measures and avoid taking animals to places where
there may be cases of anthraxs .
 never eat meat from animal that dies of anthrax,dispose off by
burning it

Mastitis
 This is a disease caused by bacteria species streptococcus and
staphylococcus .it affects goat, cattles , sheep
Conditions that predisposes the animal to mastitis
 Injury to the udder
 Poor milk hygiene
 Incomplete milking

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  Genetics factors and old age
 Symptoms of mastitis
 Blood or pus in the milk
 Pain in the udder or teeth during milking
 Blood clots /blood stain milk
 Drop in milk yields
 Swollen or inflamed udder and the affected udder may not produce
milk
 In severe case the animal may die
Control of mastitis
 Observe good hygiene in animal houses
 Use a strip cup to detect the presence of blood spot in the milk and
treat disease immediately
 Healthy animals should be milk first , animal that is infected should
be milk last
 milk from any animal suffering from mastitis should be discarded
 Wash all the milking utensils clean and allow them to dry before
starting to milk
 Culling susceptible cows and that of non-responsive cases as well
 Wash the udder with warm water and detergent before milking the
animal
 Treat sores and open wounds around the teeth immediately

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 Tuberculosis
Is a chronic infectious zoonotic disease of many farm animals’
species and poultry caused by bacteria of genus mycobacterium. it
affects human, cattle, goats and sheep.it can be acquired through
contacts and inhalation of the bacteria
Symptoms of tuberculosis
Loss of appetite
Excessive coughing
Loss of weigth
Decreased milk yields
Rise in body temperature
In pigs there is swelling of the throat which is painful
Pale colored coms and wattles in birds
Control of tuberculosis
Observe good hygiene on the farm
Isolate infected animals for treatment
Infected pastures should be avoided for at least 6 months
Other bacterial diseases includes Bacterial diseases ▪ Contagious
abortion or brucellosis. Black quarter ▪ Foot rat ▪ Calf pneumonia ▪ Fowl
typhoid.
Viral diseases
Newcastle disease

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Newcastle disease is caused by virus paramyxovirus.it is a highly
contagious disease and mainly affects poultry Bacterial diseases ▪
Contagious abortion or brucellosis. The incubation period for the disease
is five to seven days
Predisposing factors includes
 Contaminated air and pathogens
 Contaminated feeds and water exposed to the birds may spread the
disease, meat from dead birds may contain the virus
 Presences of droppings and infected dishes
 Sympthoms of newcatle disease .
 Nasal discharge
 Watery greenish diarrhea
 Coughing and sneezing
 Birds walk with staggering and motion
 Drooping wings
 Birds stands with eyes closed at all times
 Difficulties in breathing
 Loss of appetite
 High mortality rates in birds
 Control of Newcastle disease
 Regular vaccination of birds using Newcastle vaccine
 Kiling all the infected birds

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 Following quarantine measures
 Clean and disinfect animal houses
 Avoid introduction of new stocks into old birds
Foot and mouth disease
It affects all the bovine species of animals like cattle, pigs ,goats and
sheep,
Symptoms of foot and mouth disease.
 Sharp rise in the body temperature
 Dullness
 Loss of appetite
 Continuous salivation from the mouth
 Wounds on the mouth and feet
 Inflamed tongue, limbs and gum
 Reduced milk production
 Blisters in the teeth or udder
 Death may result in severe case
Control of foot and mouth disease
Vaccinate every six months with recommended vaccines
Observe quarantine measures
Killing infected animal
Nurse animals with disinfectant on the wounds

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Other viral disease includes the following Foot and Mouth Disease ▪
Rinder Pest ▪ New Castle ▪ Swine Fever (Hog Cholera) ▪ Fowl Pox ▪
Rabies.
Protozoan diseases
▪ Nagana (Trypanosomiasis)
This this disease is caused by trypanosoma speciecies and it affects the
following categories of animals cattle, dogs, sheep, goat, pigs etc
Symptoms of nagana
 The animal develops high temperature or fever
 The animal develops aneamic conditions
 Animal becomes very weak and dull
 Loss of appetite
 The lymph nodes become swollen
 There is swelling in the belly regions of the cattle
 Decrease in milk production
 Abortion which may occur in pregnant animals
 Death within several weeks
 Loss of hair at the end tail of the animal .
Control of nagana
 Observe effective control of tsetse flies
 Confine game animals in game parks
 Treat with appropriate drugs like berenil.

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Breeding trypano resistant
East coast fever
This caused by a protozoa called Thileria parva and is transmitted by
brown ear ticks
Symptoms of east coast fever
 High body fever about 41 0c
 Swollen lymph nodes
 Nasal discharge
 Lacrimation of the eyes
 Difficulties in breathing
 Loss of appetite
 Constipation at the beginning and later diarrhea
 The animal separates itself from the rest
 Dullness or loss of conditions
 The animal lies down and is unable to rise up again
Control of E.C.F
 Tick control by spraying
 Fencing to keep out the animal from other farms
 Treat with appropriate medicine

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Coccidiosis ▪ Anaplasmosis ▪ East coast fever ▪ Red water ▪ Heart water
PARASITISM
PARASITES This is an organism that derives benefit from another
(host) while inflicting pain on it.
TYPES OF PARASITES
Obligate parasites. These live their entire life as parasites and cannot
survive without a host e.g. the tape worms.
Facultative parasite. These can live freely in the absence of a host and
as a parasite in presence of the host i.e. fleas.
Endo parasites .They live in the bodies of the host and get their
nourishment from there e.g. Liver Flukes, tapeworms, round worms,
gape worms etc.
Ecto parasites / External These live on the outer surface of the host and
derive their nourishment from there e.g. ticks pig lice, mites.
Ecto-endo parasites These live in the outer skin surface of the host e.g.
jiggers and menge in pigs.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PARASITES
1. They increase cost of production since money must be spent in trying
to control parasites.

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2. They make keeping of highly susceptible exotic stock very difficult
e.g. ticks.
3. Some parasites are vectors of important diseases like East coast fever,
Nagana red water etc
4. Some may suck a lot of blood from the animal leading to anaemia.
5. They can cause retarded growth in the host after extracting a lot of
nutrients.
6. They reduce the quality of animal’s products like meat, hides and
skins.
7. They can cause loss of weight / emaciation/ loss of condition in the
animals.
8. Some can cause open wounds to the host which may give way to
other pathogens.
9. They can cause irritation to the animal leading to low production
TICKS.
Classification of ticks
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda (jointed appendages)
Class Arachinida (4 pairs of legs) the body is divided into 2.
Order Acarina Super family Oxodoidae
Sub families 1: Oxodidae (hard ticks) Sub families
2: Argasidae (soft ticks) mainly in chicken

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Hard ticks. These include the following; a. Bont tick – ( Amblyomma
variegatum) b. Blue tick – ( Boophilus decoloratus ) c. Brown ear tick
( Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ) d. Red legged tick (Rhipecephalus
evertsi)
GENERAL LIFE CYCLE OF TICKS
After matting, the female sucks blood to full engorgement.
It later detaches off from the host and finds a suitable protected
environment on the ground where it lays the eggs. Depending on
temperature and humidity, the eggs would hatch into larvae at least after
two weeks. The larva climbs on top of grass to try and find a host. After
finding a host, the larva feeds for 3-4 weeks then moults into a nymph.
The nymph feeds for 4-6 days before moulting into an adult.
NB: The hard ticks are classified into three distinct types according to
their life cycle i.e. one host tick, 2 host tick and 3 host tick.
One host tick (blue tick) ▪ This type of tick utilizes one host for all the
three instars i.e. larva, nymph and adult lifecycle.
▪ The larva feeds on a host until it moults into a nymph.
▪ The nymph feeds on the same host until it moults into an adult.
▪The adults mate and take in blood up to full engorgement then drops off
to the ground to lay eggs.
▪ After two weeks, the eggs hatch into larva and climb grass to wait for
the host.

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▪ This is the shortest life cycle covering up to three weeks. An example
of such is the blue tick which transmits protozoa that causes
Anaplasmosis (Gall sickness). Two Host tick (red legged )
▪ In this life cycle, the larva feeds on a different host while the nymph
and adult feed on the same host or the larva and nymph feed on the same
host while the adult on another.
▪ Larva climbs to the host, feeds on blood and after engorgement drops
down to moult into a nymph.
▪ The nymph feeds on the same host until it moults into an adult while
still there e.g. red legged tick that transmits Red water (Babesiosis).
Three Host tick
▪ In this life cycle each istars feeds on a different host and all the
immature instars i.e. larva and nymph moult on the ground.
▪ It’s the longest life cycle taking a minimum of three months.
▪ The larva climbs on the first host where they feed on blood up to full
engorgement and later drop to the ground.
▪ While on the ground they moult into a nymph which climbs to another
host.
▪ The nymph feeds on blood up to full engorgement and drops to the
ground where it moults into an adult.
▪ The adult climbs another host and the cycle continues e.g. brown ear
tick and bont tick Tick vector Agent Disease caused.

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1 Brown ear tick ✓ Theileria parva ✓ East coast fever (E.C.F ) ✓
(Theileriosis) ✓ Anaplasma marginale ✓ Anaplasmosis.
2 Blue tick ✓ Anaplasma marginale ✓ Anaplasmosis
3 Bont tick ✓ Rickettisia ruminatium ✓ Heart water ✓ Theileria mutans
✓ East coast fever
4 Red legged tick ✓ . Babesia bigemina ✓ Red water
CONTROL OF TICKS:
1. Dipping and spraying animals with acaricide e.g. Dicatix, spona extra,
and cooperthion. Order of
spraying: Back, Brisket, Belly, rear and head.
2. Hand dressing of the animals using pye grease (yellowish jelly) on the
most important parts like udder, ear, vulva, underneath the tail, in
between the hooves, and around the horns.
3. Practicing rotational grazing in order to avoid areas infected with
ticks.
4. Raising a perimeter fence around the farm to reduce entry of ticks
into the farm
5. Old pastures in the farm should be burnt during the dry season to kill
ticks.
6. A farmer can hand pick ticks from the animal more especially from
small herds.

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7. Pastures should be ploughed on a routine basis to burry eggs, larva
and nymph.
LIVER FLUKE (Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica)
This parasite is found in sheep, goats, cattle and occasionally in man.
The liver fluke mainly attacks the
liver and sometimes the spleen of domestic animals. It’s a
hermaphrodite though cross fertilization has also been observed.
The life cycle of a liver fluke
✓ Eggs are laid in the liver and carried to the alimentary canal
✓ Eggs come out with the feaces and are deposited in water
✓ The eggs develop into larva called miracidium.
✓ The miracidium swims in water to find the intermediate host which is
the water snail (Liminaea trancatula)
✓ While in the water snail, it moults into a sporocyst.
✓ The sporocyst raptures to release a new type of larva called redia
while in the snail.
✓ The redia migrates into digestive gland of the snail where it grows
and produces the cercaria.
✓ The cercaria leaves the snail and enters water where it can swim until
it’s taken by the animal while drinking water.
✓ The cercaria while in the body of the animal can develop into adult
flukes and the cycle continues.

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Damages caused by the liver fluke in the liver and spleen.
1. It can make tunnels in the liver and spleen hindering their functions.
2. They can block the bile duct hence affecting digestion of fats in the
animal.
3. It makes the liver unsuitable for human consumption.
4. It causes death of tissue in the liver and spleen. Characteristics of
animals having liver fluke
(symptoms)
1. Swellings under the jaw
2. Death of the animals without prior signs.
3. Emaciation / loss of weight / loss of condition.
4. The mucus membrane turns yellow.
5. Passing out of watery feaces / diarrhea.
6. General weakness of the animal.
7. Coughing and sneezing.
8. Reduction in milk production for lactating animals.
9. Reduced growth rate in young animals.
Control of liver flukes
1. Practice rotation grazing by keeping animals away from swamps
more especially on rainy seasons.
2. Remove the grass and any vegetation from water points where the
cercaria can attach itself.

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3. Animals should be given water from bore holes or fast moving water
from rivers with no snails.
4. Spray copper Sulphate in the grazing area to kill the water snail.
5. Pastures in swampy places should be burnt during the dry season to
kill the snails.
6. Animals should never be grazed in flooded areas that are likely to
have snails.
7. Swampy places should be drained so that excess water is removed to
discouraged water snails.
8. Routine deworming of the animals using drug
like levafas, endospec 10% every after two months. 9. As a biological
control, farmers can rare ducks which feed on the snails.
WORMS:
Livestock is attacked by internal worms, tape worm, gape worms. The
most common are the round worms and tapeworms which attack cattle,
sheep, goats, pigs and man.
Signs and symptoms of internal worm attack in livestock
1. Rough hair coat/ standing hair.
2. Stunted growth in young animals.
3. Emaciation / loss of weight / loss of condition.
4. Diarrhea.
5. Loss of appetite.

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6. Pot belly / extended belly.
7. Worms or segments of the worms or eggs can be seen in feaces.
8. Coughing by the animal which can be occasional.
Adaptations of gut worms to their mode of life
1. Degeneration or loss of unwanted organs and structures like eyes, legs
and ears.
2. They have penetrative devices for gaining entrance into the host and
attaching themselves in the gut walls so that they cannot be dislodged
3.Presence of sacking devices like in the tape worm which helps in
sucking nutrients.
4. Possession of hard cuticle which can resist the host’s digestive
enzymes.
5.Production of large quantities of mucus against the host’s digestive
enzymes.
6. They have more than one host which increases their chance of
survival.
7.Production of a large number of eggs to increase their survival
chances.
8. Possession of muscular pharynx in round worms for sucking nutrients
from the host.
9. Most gut parasites are able to tolerate low levels of oxygen common
in their environment.

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10. Some are hermaphrodites like the tape warm which increases the
chance of survival by ensuring fertilization and reproduction.
11.A large surface area has been observed in the tape worm and liver
flukes which increases diffusion of oxygen and nutrients.
12. The eggs of most of these worms are covered by a thick cuticle
which helps them to resist harsh conditions of the environment before
hatching. Round worm Tape worm • Scolex absent • Scolex present •
Short in length and small • Long and big • Round • flat • No segments •
Segmented
MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE
This is the care given to cattle to improve and maintain a high
production.
A stockman is the person entrusted with the work of caring for
livestock on a farm
Qualities of a good stock man
Should be kind to the animals by avoiding rough treatment that can
cause injury and death to animals
b) Should know well the monthly or routine operations on the farm like
drenching, vaccination to reduce risks of disease and death of animals
c) Should have a high ability of identifying sick animals and those on
heat for prompt action.

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d) Should be able to identify and remove dangerous objects from the
farm to reduce injury to livestock
e) Must be able to keep good up to date records for reference purposes
f) Should be able to take correct decisions as and when required to
reduce losses on the farm
g) Should be honest to reduce losses to the farm
h) Should be healthy and energetic so as to carry out work as and when
required
i) Should be highly knowledgeable in livestock management to ensure
high animal production
j) Should be able to do work on the farm under minimum supervision
from the high officers
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN CATTLE
These are operations done on cattle to ensure high production.
They include the following:
1. DEHORNING: This is the removal or suppression of horns on
animals. Suppressing horn growth at an early stage is called
Disbudding Importance
2. • To make t handling of the animal more easily especially during
drenching, castrating, ploughing e.t.c.
3. • To allow more animals to fit in space during transportation of the
animals and even in kraals.

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4. • To reduce injury this may be caused by horned cattle to others. • To
prevent the destruction of farm structure like fences by animals those
that are horned.
5. • To beautify animals hence making them more appealing.
6. • It introduces uniformity in a herd
7. • Makes animals to grow faster as nutrients meant for horn
development are used in growth
METHODS OF DEHORNING
The method used will depend on the age of the animal, farmer’s skill
and to some extent capital.
Methods used in dehorning are;
➢ Use of caustic pencils or chemical dehorning ➢ Use of hot iron ➢
Use of dehorning saw ➢ Use of a rubber ring ➢ Use of dehorning wire
➢ Use of dehorning clippers
Chemical Method: This is where caustic pencils or sticks are used in
suppressing horns by rubbing it against the horn buds. It’s done to
young animals between 3-14 days of age.
Procedures
• Restrain the calf using ropes and cast it down
• Clip the hair around the horn bud to expose it
• Rub the caustic sticks or pencils are against the
horn bud until bleeding occurs

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• Apply fly repellants and antibiotics on the wound created
• Release the calf after the operation
• Do not allow the calf into rain for a few days for faster healing of the
wounds. Hot iron method: This is where a hot iron is applied on the horn
bud to burn and kill the growing cells. Procedure
• Restrain the calf using ropes and cast it down
• Heat the iron in fire or gas until it’s red hot.
• Apply the hot iron around the horn bud for about 10 seconds to burn
the growing cells • Care should be taken not to go deep as it can damage
the brain
• Apply fly repellants on the wound created to keep away flies and stop
the wound from becoming septic respectively

• The animal should be released after the operation

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• Place the rubber ring at the base of the horn and remove the elastrator
to release the rubber ring
• Release the animal after the operation Use of dehorning saws: This is
used where the horns have grown up and is long enough. The horns are
cut off near the base after restraining the animal.
Procedure
• Restrain the animal using ropes and cast it down
• Administer a localized pain killer in the skin surrounding the horn
• Tie a piece of thin rope around the base of the two horns to control
bleeding
• Cut off the horn at the base using a dehorning saw
• Repeat the same procedure to remove the second horn
• Use a hot iron to seal the wound to stop bleeding.
• Apply insect repellants and antibiotics on the wound
• Release the animal after the operation and closely monitor it to assess
the healing process
• Remove the ropes around the base after two days Use of Dehorning
wire .
This where a brittle wire is stretched and rubbed against a horn until it is
cut off. The animal is restrained and the operation carried out Use of
dehorning clippers Dehorning clippers are tools with open blades that
remove horns by cutting. They are used in the removal of large horns

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2. CASTRATION:
It’s the practice of rendering male animals sexually un functional or is
the removal of testacles of male animals to make them un able to
fertilizing the female animals, Is the making of the testis of male farm
animals functionless
AIMS OF CASTRATION
• To prevent the bad smell especially in the Billy goats, he goats. • To
prevent undesirable males from breeding.
• To make the animal docile and easy to handle.
• Castrated animals grow faster and produce quality meat
. • Castration increases the quality of wool in ram as more nutrients are
channeled to the development of the wool.
• It helps in the control of venereal diseases like contagious abortion.
• It controls in breeding on the farm when males born on the farm are
castrated.
• It makes the animal suitable to perform in the farm e.g oxen
• It enables the animal to grow faster.
• It enables the animal to put on weight. Methods of Castration There are
two main methods of castration namely:
• Open operation/ castration.
• Closed castration A.

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Open castration: This is where the scrotum is opened to remove the
testicles. It can also be referred to as surgical operation. This requires a
sharp knife or blade to split the scrotum vertically up to the bottom for
better bleeding.
Advantages of open castration
1. Ensures complete castration of the animal/ the method is perfect and
failure rate is zero
2. It’s a cheaper method of castration since can be done using local
implements like the knife
Disadvantages 1. It requires a lot of skill to be carried out .
2 There is a high risk of infection due to the wound created
3. It is slow to be carried out
4. There is risk of over bleeding more especially in mature bulls
Procedure of carrying out open castration:
• The animal should be restrained first using ropes.
• Wash your hands using clean water and soap or wear clean gloves.
• The scrotum of the animals should be washed and disinfected using
clean warm water and soap • Dry the scrotum using a clean hand towel
• Apply a localized anesthesia around the scrotum to reduce pain
• Pull and squeeze the scrotum to locate the testes
• Use a clean blade or knife to cut the scrotum vertically in order to
remove the testes.

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• Pull the spermatic cords out and tie it using a clean string
• Cut the spermatic cord just below the knot to release the testis
• Repeat the same procedure to remove the second testis
• Seal the wound to stop bleeding by using a hot iron
• Apply fly repellants on the wound to keep a way flies
• Apply antibiotic cream to stop the wound from becoming septic
• Release the animal and keep it in reach for easy supervision N.B For
some animals stitching can be done e.g. calves.
B. Closed castration;
This is a type of castration which is done without opening the scrotum.
It can be done using the burdizzo/burdizzo method or using a rubber
ring/ rubber ring method
A burdizzo is an instrument with handles which exerts pressure on
closing its jaws while a rubber ring is a thick round rubber which is
stretched using an elastrator before being placed on the “neck” of the
scrotum.
In this method, the testis is not removed. A burdizzo is a blood less tool
used in castration
Advantages of closed castration
1. It’s a fast method of castration
2. Does not require a lot of skill
3. No bleeding experienced

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4. Less risk of infection since no open wound is created
Disadvantages
1. It is not totally perfect method because blood vessels and sperm duct
may not be crushed. Chances of a failed castration are common
2. It is expensive to buy a burdizzo
3. Castration using a rubber ring is very painful Castration using a
burdizzo
• Restrain the animal using ropes and cast it down
• Pull the scrotum down wards to locate the spermatic cords, ducts and
nerves • Open the jaws of the burdizzo by pressing the handles out
wards • Place the burdizzo at the “neck” of the scrotum • Press the
handles of the burdizzo in wards to lock the jaws and crush the
spermatic cords, ducts and nerves • Open the jaws of the burdizzo and
remove it from the crushed area • Release the animal after the operation
• Keep the animal within reach for easy supervision Castration using a
Rubber ring and elastrator.
Here a strong rubber band is straightened using an elastrator and fixed
around the “neck” of the scrotum. This cuts off blood supply to the
scrotum and the testes which eventually degenerate and fall off after
sometime. It’s the most painful method of castration though very
effective. The farmer doesn’t expect any development of the scrotum for
a life time.

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Procedure
The animal is confined or restrained
A rubber ring is stretched by use of an elastrator.
Pass the scrotum through the stretched rubber ring.
The stretched rubber ring is then put at the neck of the scrotum.
The stretched rubber ring stops the circulation of blood to the testes.
The rubber ring falls after some time.
Release the animals.
Advantages
The method is blood less or no wound is formed.
It is easy The risk of infection is reduced. Note. A castrated bull is called
a steer and they are used in ploughing (oxen).
Coponisation
This is the method of castration carried out in poultry (male birds). A
chemical hormone in form of pellets is injected under the skin at the
back of the neck. The effect of the hormone lasts for six weeks. The
castrated cock is called capon.
3. IDENTIFICATION:
This is the practice of putting marks, labels or numbers on farm animals.
It involves branding, ear notching, ear tagging and tattoing.
Importances of animal identification.
It helps farmers to carry out proper record keeping.

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It prevents disputes among neighbours in case of lost animals. Enables
farmers to claim or track for the lost animals.
Methods of identification:
The main methods of identification are:
• Branding • Ear tagging • Tattooing • Ear notching • Naming A.
BRANDING
This involves sealing numbers, letters, designs or a combination of this
on the skin of the animal. Methods of branding These include: • Hot iron
branding • Chemical branding
• Freeze branding
I. Hot Iron branding
This is done using a branding iron which is heated and stamped on the
animal skin to leave marks for identification. Branding is done on the
less valuable part of a hide like lower part of the thigh, jaw and hump
Procedure of hot iron branding
• Restrain the animal in a crush
• Heat the branding iron in fire or gas until red hot
• Stamp the hot iron on a less valuable part of the animal for a very short
time.
• The hot iron destroys the air follicles and a scar remains at the branded
part.
• Some oil is smeared over the parts to increase healing.

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• Release the animal from the crush Note. Hot iron branding should be
done on areas low economic values as at the base of the tail, fore head,
the jaw etc.
II. Chemical branding
In this method, corrosive chemicals are applied on the skin causing
leaving marks on the skin.
• Restrain the animal in a crush
• Clean the area to be banded
• Dip the branding equipment in the branding chemical
• Apply the chemical to the less valuable parts of the hide.
• Release the animal fro the crush
III. Freeze Branding
This involves applying liquid nitrogen to the skin which freezes the hair
follicles so that they die and stop hair growth in that area. A branding
iron can be dipped in liquid nitrogen and then applied on the skin. The
method is good since the skin / hide is not damaged and hence can be
applied to any part of the animal. The coldness destroys the hair
follicles.
B. EAR TAGS
They are made of light metals or strong plastics written on with
different numbers, letters or designs. Ear tagging is a practice of putting
tags with numbers or letters on the ear of animal. The ear tags are of two

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types. • piercing (self – piercing tags) • non-piercing .The self fixing tags
will be fixed on to the ear with force while a non – piercing ear tag; a
hole must be made where it is fixed. An ear tag applicator can be used in
stapling piercing ear tags on the ear
C. EAR NOTCHING
This involves cutting V – shaped notches on the edge of the ear using
sharp scissors or pincers. This method is popular in pigs because of their
soft skin. The number and location of notches on the ear can be used for
identification
D. TATTOOING
special ink is used to inflict marks on the skin of the animal more
especially inside the ear. The hair must be removed from that place
before tattooing.
E. NAMING
Animal are given specific names for identification depending on a
number of things like origin, coat colour, e.t.c.
4. RESTRAINING
This is the hindering of movements of animals by physical force. It’s
done so as to perform operations on the animals like: dehorning,
castration, de-worming, identification, vaccination and drenching with
minimum disturbance. The amount of force applied during restraining

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depends on the temper, size and type of the animals. Cattle are not
restrained in the same way as goats.
5. CASTING
This is a practice of putting animals down and it’s done when animals
are to be controlled for a long time during operations like castration,
dehorning and identification.
6. GROOMING
This involves brushing off loose hair, dung, dirt and lice from the skin of
an animal Reasons for grooming
• To stimulate blood and lymph circulation in the body of the animal
• To remove loose hair, lice and other external parasites
• To facilitate mating in animals
• For cleanliness and good appearance for the animals
• For production of clean milk in lactating animals
7.FOOT TRIMMING
This involves removing overgrown parts of the foot which impairs
movement of the animal. It controls lameness in animals
8. CULLING
This involves removing un-productive and sick animals from the herd
for slaughtering / selling. It controls disease spread and wastage of feeds
on the farm
9. VACCINATION

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This is done in order to control highly infectious diseases in livestock
e.g. Swine fever, foot and mouth disease, Newcastle, rabies etc.
10. DRENCHING
This involves administering oral treatment as supposed to animals. It’s
done using a drenching gun/bottle to control internal parasites like liver
flukes, round worms, tape worms, and hook worms.
11. ROUNDING UP
This is done in beef animals and it involves bringing all animals on
ranch in the centre of the kraal for the following reasons:
• Castrate and vaccinate animals
• Physical assessment of the animals
• To separate animals according to age, sex, type etc.
• To cull and market un productive animals
• To wean calves of at the right age
• To carry out pregnancy diagnosis
12. HOUSING
The main reasons why animals are housed are
• To protect animals from bad weather condition mostly young ones
• To provide animals with a good opportunity of being fed well
• To provide an area for special handling of the animals e.g. Crushes,
dips, spray etc.

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• To provide a conducive environment for production and temporary
storage for milk (quality milk)
• To provide conducive working conditions for the farmer Qualities of a
good animal house
1. Should be large enough to avoid overcrowding of the animals
2. Should be water proof to avoid damp conditions that breed pathogens
3. Should have a concrete floor which is easy to clean
4. Should provide adequate light since it affects the productivity and
behavior of animals
5. Should have adequate ventilation to control respiratory infections
6. The floor surface should have a gentle slope to allow urine to drain
off easily
7. Should be built in such a way that animals can easily see each

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 THE END

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