CHAPTER 12

The Lymphatic
System and Body
Defenses
Part 1 : The Lymphatic System
one

• Consists of two parts:

1. Lymphatic vessels
2. Lymphoid tissues and organs

• Lymphatic system functions

– Transports escaped fluids from the
cardiovascular system back to the blood
– Plays essential roles in body defense and
resistance to disease
 Lymphatic Vessels (1 of 5)
• Lymph consists of excess tissue fluid and plasma
proteins carried by lymphatic vessels

• If fluids are not picked up, edema occurs as fluid

accumulates in tissues

• Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics) pick up excess

fluid (lymph) and return it to the blood
Figure 12.1 Relationship of Lymphatic
Vessels to Blood Vessels
Lymphatic Vessels (2 of 5)
• Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)

– Form a one-way system

– Lymph flows only toward the heart

 Lymphatic Vessels (3 of 5)
• Lymph capillaries
– Weave between tissue cells and blood capillaries
– Walls overlap to form flaplike minivalves
– Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
– Capillaries are anchored to connective tissue by
filaments
– Higher pressure on the inside closes minivalves
– Fluid is forced along the vessel
Figure 12.2a Special Structural Features
of Lymphatic Capillaries
Figure 12.2b Special Structural Features of
Lymphatic Capillaries
 Lymphatic Vessels (4 of 5)
• Lymphatic collecting vessels
–Collect lymph from lymph capillaries
–Return fluid to circulatory veins near
the heart
• Right lymphatic duct drains the
lymph from the right arm and the
right side of the head and thorax
• Thoracic duct drains lymph from rest
of body
Figure 12.3 Distribution of Lymphatic Vessels
and Lymph Nodes
 Lymphatic Vessels (5 of 5)
• Lymphatic vessels are similar to veins of the
cardiovascular system
– Thin-walled
– Larger vessels have valves
– Low-pressure, pumpless system
• Lymph transport is aided by:
– Milking action of skeletal muscles
– Pressure changes in thorax during
breathing
– Smooth muscle in walls of lymphatics
Lymph Nodes (1 of 4)
• Lymph nodes filter lymph before it is
returned to the blood
• Harmful materials that are filtered include
– Bacteria
– Viruses
– Cancer cells
– Foreign substances
 Lymph Nodes (2 of 4)
• Defense cells within lymph nodes

–Macrophages—engulf and destroy

bacteria, viruses, and other foreign
substances in lymph

–Lymphocytes—respond to foreign
substances in lymph
 Lymph Nodes (3 of 4)
• Most lymph nodes are kidney-shaped, less than
1 inch long, and buried in connective tissue
– Surrounded by a capsule
– Divided into compartments by trabeculae
• Cortex (outer part)
– Contains follicles—collections of lymphocytes
– Germinal centers enlarge when antibodies are
released by plasma cells
• Medulla (inner part)
– Contains phagocytic macrophages
Figure 12.4 Structure of a Lymph Node
 Lymph Nodes (4 of 4)
• Flow of lymph through nodes
– Lymph enters the convex side through
afferent lymphatic vessels
– Lymph flows through a number of sinuses
inside the node
– Lymph exits through efferent lymphatic
vessels
– Because there are fewer efferent than
afferent vessels, flow is slowed
Other Lymphoid Organs (1 of 6)
• Several other lymphoid organs
contribute to lymphatic function (in
addition to the lymph nodes)
–Spleen
–Thymus
–Tonsils
–Peyer’s patches
–Appendix
Figure 12.5 Lymphoid Organs
Other Lymphoid Organs (2 of 6)
• Spleen
– Located on the left side of the abdomen
– Filters and cleans blood of bacteria,
viruses, debris
– Provides a site for lymphocyte
proliferation and immune surveillance
– Destroys worn-out red blood cells
– Stores platelets and acts as a blood
reservoir
Other Lymphoid Organs (3 of 6)

• Thymus
– Found overlying the
heart

– Functions at peak
levels only during
youth
 Other Lymphoid Organs (4 of 6)
• Tonsils
–Small masses of lymphoid tissue deep
to the mucosa surrounding the
pharynx (throat)
–Trap and remove bacteria and other
foreign pathogens entering the throat
–Tonsillitis results when the tonsils
become congested with bacteria
 Other Lymphoid Organs (5 of 6)
• Peyer’s patches
– Found in the wall of the small intestine

– Similar lymphoid follicles are found in the

appendix

– Macrophages capture and destroy bacteria

in the intestine
 Other Lymphoid Organs (6 of 6)
• Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (M AL T)
– Includes:
• Peyer’s patches
• Tonsils
• Appendix
– Acts as a sentinel to protect respiratory
and digestive tracts from foreign matter
Part 2: Body Defenses
• Two mechanisms that make up the immune
system defend us from foreign materials
1. Innate (nonspecific) defense system
2. Adaptive (specific) defense system
• Immunity—specific resistance to disease
• Immune system is a functional system
rather than an organ system in an
anatomical sense
Figure 12.6 An Overview of the Body’s Defenses
The Immune System
Innate (nonspecific) Innate (nonspecific) Adaptive (specific)
defense mechanisms defense mechanisms defense mechanisms

First line of defense Second line of Third line of defense

defense
• Skin • Phagocytic cells • Lymphocytes
• Mucous membranes • Natural killer cells • Antibodies
• Secretions of skin • Antimicrobial • Macrophages and
and mucous proteins other antigen-
membranes • The inflammatory presenting cells
response
• Fever
Body Defenses
• Innate (nonspecific) defense system

–Responds immediately to protect body

from all foreign materials

–Includes intact skin, mucous

membranes, inflammatory response,
various proteins
 Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses
• Adaptive (specific) defense system
– Fights invaders that get past the innate
system
– Specific defense is required for each type
of invader
– The highly specific resistance to disease is
immunity

• Table 12.1 provides a more detailed summary

Table 12.1 Summary of Innate (Nonspecific)
Body Defenses (1 of 3)
Surface membrane barriers—first line of defense
Category and associated Protective mechanism
elements

Intact skin (epidermis) Forms mechanical barrier that prevents entry of pathogens and other harmful substances
into body.

• Acid mantle Skin secretions make epidermal surface acidic, which inhibits bacterial growth; sebum also
contains bacteria-killing chemicals.

• Keratin Provides resistance against acids, alkalis, and bacterial enzymes.

Intact mucous membranes Form mechanical barrier that prevents entry of pathogens.

• Mucus Traps microorganisms in respiratory and digestive tracts.

• Nasal hairs Filter and trap microorganisms and other airborne particles in nasal passages.

• Cilia Propel debris-laden mucus away from lower respiratory passages.

• Gastric juice Contains concentrated hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes that destroy
pathogens in stomach.

• Acid mantle of vagina Inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi in female reproductive tract.

• Lacrimal secretion (tears); Continuously lubricate and cleanse eyes (tears) and oral cavity (saliva); contain lysozyme, an
saliva enzyme that destroys microorganisms.
Table 12.1 Summary of Innate (Nonspecific)
Body Defenses (2 of 3)
Cellular and chemical defenses—second line of defense
Category and associated elements Protective mechanism

Phagocytes Engulf and destroy pathogens that breach surface membrane

barriers; macrophages also contribute to immune response.

Natural killer cells Promote cell lysis by direct cell attack against virus-infected or
cancerous body cells; do not depend on specific antigen
recognition.

Inflammatory response Prevents spread of injurious agents to adjacent tissues, disposes

of pathogens and dead tissue cells, and promotes tissue repair;
releases chemical mediators that attract phagocytes (and
immune cells) to the area.
Table 12.1 Summary of Innate (Nonspecific)
Body Defenses (3 of 3)
Cellular and chemical defenses—second line of
defense
Category and associated elements Protective mechanism

Antimicrobial chemicals
Blank

• Complement Group of plasma proteins that lyses microorganisms, enhances

phagocytosis by opsonization, and intensifies inflammatory
response.

• Interferons Proteins released by virus-infected cells that protect uninfected

tissue cells from viral takeover; mobilize immune system.

• Fluids with acid p H Normally acid pH inhibits bacterial growth; urine cleanses the lower
urinary tract as it flushes from the body.

Fever
Systemic response triggered by pyrogens; high body temperature
inhibits multiplication of bacteria and enhances body repair
processes.
Surface Membrane Barriers: First Line of
Defense
• Surface membrane barriers, such as the skin and
mucous membranes, provide the first line of
defense against the invasion of microorganisms
– Protective secretions produced by these
membranes
• Acidic skin secretions inhibit bacterial growth
• Mucus traps microorganisms
• Gastric juices are acidic and kill pathogens
• Saliva and tears contain lysozyme (enzyme
that destroys bacteria)
Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (1 of 12)
• Cells and chemicals provide a second
line of defense
–Natural killer cells and phagocytes
–Inflammatory response
–Chemicals that kill pathogens
–Fever
Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (2 of 12)
• Natural killer (N K) cells
– Roam the body in blood and lymph
– Lyse (burst) and kill cancer cells, virus-
infected cells, and some other non-specific
targets
– Release chemicals called perforin and
granzymes to degrade target cell contents
– Release powerful inflammatory chemicals
Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (3 of 12)
• Inflammatory response
– Triggered when body tissues are injured
– Four most common indicators (cardinal
signs) of acute inflammation
1. Redness
2. Heat
3. Pain
4. Swelling (edema)
Figure 12.7 Flowchart of Inflammatory Events
Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (4 of 12)
• Inflammatory response
– Damaged cells release inflammatory chemicals
• Histamine
• Kinin
– These chemicals cause:
• Blood vessels to dilate
• Capillaries to become leaky
• Phagocytes and white blood cells to move
into the area (called positive chemotaxis)
Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (5 of
12)

• Functions of the inflammatory response

– Prevents spread of damaging agents to
nearby areas
– Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
– Sets the stage for repair
Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (6 of
12)

• Process of the inflammatory response

1. Neutrophils migrate to the area of inflammation
by rolling along the vessel wall (following the
scent of chemicals from inflammation)
2. Neutrophils squeeze through the capillary walls
by diapedesis to sites of inflammation
3. Neutrophils gather in the precise site of tissue
injury (positive chemotaxis) and consume any
foreign material present
Figure 12.8 Phagocyte Mobilization During
Inflammation
Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (7 of
12)

• Clotting proteins wall off damaged area with

fibrin
• Local heat speeds metabolism and repair
• Phagocytes
– Cells such as neutrophils and macrophages
engulf foreign material by phagocytosis
– The phagocytic vesicle is fused with a
lysosome, and enzymes digest the cell’s
contents
Figure 12.9a Phagocytosis by a Macrophage
Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a Macrophage
(1 of 6)
Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a Macrophage
(2 of 6)
Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a Macrophage
(3 of 6)
Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a Macrophage
(4 of 6)
Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a Macrophage
(5 of 6)
Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a Macrophage
(6 of 6)
Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (8 of
12)

• Antimicrobial proteins
– Enhance innate defenses by:
• Attacking microorganisms directly
• Hindering reproduction of microorganisms
– Most important types
• Complement proteins
• Interferon
 Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (9
of 12)

• Antimicrobial proteins: complement proteins

– Complement refers to a group of at least 20
plasma proteins that circulate in the plasma
– Complement is activated when these
plasma proteins encounter and attach to
cells (known as complement fixation)
Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (10 of 12)
• Antimicrobial proteins: complement
proteins
– Membrane attack complexes (MACs), one
result of complement fixation, produce
holes or pores in cells
• Pores allow water to rush into the cell
• Cell bursts (lyses)
– Activated complement enhances the
inflammatory response
Figure 12.10 Activation of Complement,
Resulting in Lysis of a Target Cell
Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (11 of
12)

• Antimicrobial proteins: interferons

– Small proteins secreted by virus-infected
cells
– Bind to membrane receptors on healthy
cell surfaces to interfere with the ability of
viruses to multiply
– Do not help fight bacterial or fungal
infections
Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of Defense (12 of
12)

• Fever
– Abnormally high body temperature is a systemic
response to invasion by microorganisms
– Hypothalamus regulates body temperature at 37°C elsius

(98.6°F )
ahrenheit

– The hypothalamus thermostat can be reset higher by

pyrogens (secreted by white blood cells)
– High temperatures inhibit the release of iron and zinc
(needed by bacteria) from the liver and spleen
– Fever also increases the speed of repair processes
Adaptive Body Defenses (1 of 3)
• Adaptive body defenses are the body’s
specific defense system, or the third line of
defense
– Immune response is the immune system’s
response to a threat
– Antigens are targeted and destroyed by
antibodies
Adaptive Body Defenses (2 of 3)
• Three aspects of adaptive defense
–Antigen specific—the adaptive defense
system recognizes and acts against
particular foreign substances
–Systemic—immunity is not restricted to
the initial infection site
–Memory—the adaptive defense system
recognizes and mounts a stronger attack
on previously encountered pathogens
Adaptive Body Defenses (3 of 3)
• Two arms of the adaptive defense system
–Humoral immunity = antibody-mediated
immunity
• Provided by antibodies present in body
fluids
–Cellular immunity = cell-mediated
immunity
• Targets virus-infected cells, cancer cells,
and cells of foreign grafts
Antigens (1 of 3)
• Antigens (Ag) are any substance capable of exciting
the immune system and provoking an immune response
– Nonself antigens are foreign intruders
– Examples of common nonself antigens
• Foreign proteins provoke the strongest response
• Nucleic acids
• Large carbohydrates
• Some lipids
• Pollen grains
• Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses)
Antigens (2 of 3)
• Self-antigens
– Human cells have many protein and
carbohydrate molecules which are recognized as
self
– Self-antigens do not trigger an immune
response in us but can be strongly antigenic to
other people
– The presence of our cells in another person’s
body can trigger an immune response because
they are foreign
• Restricts donors for transplants
Antigens (3 of 3)
• Haptens, or incomplete antigens, are
not antigenic by themselves
– When they link up with our own proteins,
the immune system may recognize the
combination as foreign and respond with
an attack
– Found in poison ivy, animal dander,
detergents, hair dyes, cosmetics
Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An Overview (1
of 5)

• Crucial cells of the adaptive system

1.Lymphocytes—respond to specific antigens

• B lymphocytes (B cells) produce antibodies and
oversee humoral immunity
• T lymphocytes (T cells) constitute the cell-
mediated arm of the adaptive defenses; do not
make antibodies

2.Antigen-presenting cells (A P C s)—

help the lymphocytes but do not respond to specific
antigens
Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An
Overview (2 of 5)
• Lymphocytes
– Arise from hemocytoblasts of bone marrow
– Whether a lymphocyte matures into a B cell or T
cell depends on where it becomes
immunocompetent
• Immunocompetence
– The capability to respond to a specific antigen
by binding to it with antigen-specific receptors
that appear on the lymphocyte’s surface
Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An
Overview (3 of 5)
• Lymphocytes
–T cells develop immunocompetence in the
thymus and oversee cell-mediated immunity
• Identify foreign antigens
• Those that bind self-antigens are destroyed
• Self-tolerance is important part of lymphocyte
―education‖
–B cells develop immunocompetence in bone
marrow and provide humoral immunity
Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An
Overview (4 of 5)
• Lymphocytes are immunocompetent for specific antigens
• Genes determine what foreign substances immune system
recognizes and resists
• Immunocompetent T and B lymphocytes migrate to the
lymph nodes and spleen, where encounters with antigens
occur
• Differentiation from naïve cells into mature lymphocytes
is complete when they bind with recognized antigens
• Mature lymphocytes (especially T cells) circulate
continuously throughout the body
Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An
Overview (5 of 5)
• Antigen-presenting cells (A P C s)
– Engulf antigens and then present fragments of them on
their own surfaces to be recognized by T cells
– Major types of cells behaving as APCs
• Dendritic cells
• Macrophages
• B lymphocytes
– Dendritic cells and macrophages present antigens to
activate T cells that release chemicals to activate
macrophages
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (1 of 11)
• B lymphocytes with specific receptors bind to
a specific antigen and are stimulated to
continue their development
• The binding event sensitizes, or activates, the
lymphocyte to undergo clonal selection
• A large number of clones is produced
(primary humoral response)
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (2 of 11)
• Most of the B cell clone members (descendants)
become plasma cells
– Produce antibodies to destroy antigens
– Activity only lasts for 4 or 5 days
– Peak antibody levels occur about 10 days after
the response begins
• Some B cells become long-lived memory cells
– Secondary humoral response
– Provide immunological memory
Figure 12.12 Clonal Selection of a B Cell
Figure 12.13 Primary and Secondary Humoral
Responses to an Antigen
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (3 of 11)
• Active immunity
–Occurs when B cells encounter
antigens and produce antibodies
–Active immunity can be:
• Naturally acquired during bacterial
and viral infections
• Artificially acquired from vaccines
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (4 of 11)
• Active immunity
–Benefits of vaccines
• Spare the signs and symptoms of the
disease that would otherwise occur
during the primary response
• Weakened antigens still stimulate
antibody production and promote
immunological memory
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (5 of 11)
• Passive immunity
– Occurs when antibodies are obtained from
serum of an immune human or animal donor
• Naturally acquired from a mother to her fetus
or in the breast milk
• Artificially acquired from immune serum or
gamma globulin (donated antibodies)
–Antivenom, antitoxin
– Immunological memory does not occur
– Protection is short-lived (2–3 weeks)
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (6 of 11)
• Passive immunity
–Monoclonal antibodies
• Antibodies prepared for clinical testing for
diagnostic services
• Produced from descendants of a single cell line
• Exhibit specificity for only one antigen
• Examples of uses for monoclonal antibodies
– Cancer treatment
– Diagnosis of pregnancy
– Treatment after exposure to hepatitis and rabies
Figure 12.14 Types of humoral immunity
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (7 of 11)
• Antibodies (immunoglobulins, I g s)
– Constitute gamma globulin part of blood
proteins
– Soluble proteins secreted by activated B
cells (plasma cells)
– Formed in response to a huge number of
different antigens
Figure 12.15 Basic Antibody Structure
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (8 of 11)
• Antibody structure
– Four polypeptide chains linked by disulfide bonds to
form a T- or Y-shaped molecule
– Each polypeptide chain has:
• Variable regions (V) form antigen-binding sites, one
on each arm of the T or Y
• Constant regions (C) determine the type of antibody
formed (antibody class)
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (9 of 11)
• Antibody classes
– Antibodies of each class have slightly different roles
and differ structurally and functionally
– Five major immunoglobulin classes (MADGE)
1. IgM—can fix complement
2. IgA—found mainly in secretions, such as mucus or
tears
3. IgD—important in activation of B cell
4. IgG—can cross the placental barrier and fix
complement; most abundant antibody in plasma
5. I g E—involved in allergies
Table 12.2 Immunoglobulin Classes (1 of 2)
Table 12.2 Immunoglobulin Classes (2 of 2)
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (10 of 11)
• Antibody function
– Antibodies inactivate antigens in a number of
ways
• Complement fixation: complement is fixed
when it binds to antibodies attached to cell
targets
• Opsonization: antibody binding tags antigens
for phagocytosis
• Neutralization: antibodies bind to specific sites
on bacterial exotoxins or on viruses that can
cause cell injury
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (11 of 11)
• Antibody function
– Antibodies inactivate antigens in a number
of ways
• Agglutination: antibody-antigen reaction
that causes clumping of cells
• Precipitation: cross-linking reaction in
which antigen-antibody complex settles
out of solution
Figure 12.16 Mechanisms of Antibody Action
Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response (1
of 6)
• Main difference between two arms of the
adaptive response
– B cells secrete antibodies
– T cells fight antigens directly
Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response (2 of
6)

• Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are

activated to form a clone by binding with a
recognized antigen
• Unlike B cells, T cells are unable to bind to free
antigens
– Antigens must be presented by a macrophage,
and double recognition must occur
– APC engulfs and presents the processed antigen
in combination with a protein from the APC
Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune
Response (3 of 6)
• Different classes of effector T cells
– Helper T cells
– Cytotoxic T cells
• T cells must recognize nonself and self through the
process of antigen presentation
– Nonself—the antigen fragment presented by APC
– Self—coupling with a specific glycoprotein on the APC’s
surface at the same time
• Cytokine chemicals also play a role in immune response
Figure 12.17 T Cell Activation and Interactions
With Other Cells of the Immune Response
Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response (4 of
6)

• Cytotoxic (killer) T cells

– Specialize in killing virus-infected, cancer, or
foreign graft cells
– Bind and release toxic chemicals (perforin or
granzyme) from its granules
• Perforin enters the foreign cell’s plasma
membrane creating pores
• Granzymes (protein-digesting enzymes) enter
and kill the foreign cell
– Cytotoxic T cell detaches and seeks other targets
Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which
Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (1 of 6)
Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which
Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (2 of 6)
Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which
Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (3 of 6)
Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which
Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (4 of 6)
Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which
Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (5 of 6)
Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which
Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (6 of 6)
 Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response (5
of 6)

• Helper T cells
– Recruit other cells to fight invaders
– Interact directly with B cells bound to an
antigen, prodding the B cells into clone
production
– Release cytokines, chemicals that act directly to
rid the body of antigens by:
• Stimulating cytotoxic T cells and B cells to
grow and divide
• Attracting other white blood cells to the area
• Enhancing macrophage activity
Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response
(6 of 6)

• Regulatory T cells
– Release chemicals to suppress the activity of T
and B cells
– Stop the immune response to prevent
uncontrolled activity
• Memory cells
– Long-lived
– Help with subsequent invasions
• A summary of cells and molecules follows (Figure
12.19)
Figure 12.19 A Summary of the Adaptive
Immune Responses
 Table 12.3 Functions of Cells and Molecules
Involved in Immunity (1 of 4)
Cells
Element Function in the immune response

B cell Lymphocyte that resides in the lymph nodes, spleen, or other lymphoid tissues,
where it is induced to replicate by antigen-binding and helper T cell interactions;
its progeny (clone members) form plasma cells and memory cells.

Plasma cell Antibody-producing ―machine‖; produces huge numbers of the same antibody
(immunoglobulin); specialized B cell clone descendant.

Helper T cell A T cell that binds with a specific antigen presented by an APC; it stimulates the
production of other immune cells (cytotoxic T cells and B cells) to help fight the
invader; acts both directly and indirectly by releasing cytokines.
Table 12.3 Functions of Cells and Molecules
Involved in Immunity (2 of 4)
Cells
Element Function in the immune response
Cytotoxic T cell Activity enhanced by helper T cells; its specialty is killing virus-invaded
body cells, as well as body cells that have become cancerous; involved in
graft rejection.
Regulatory T cell Slows or stops the activity of B and T cells once the infection (or attack by
foreign cells) has been conquered. Thought to be important in preventing
autoimmune diseases.
Memory cell Descendant of an activated B cell or T cell; generated during both primary
and secondary immune responses; may exist in the body for years
thereafter, enabling it to respond quickly and efficiently to subsequent
infections or meetings with the same antigen.
Antigen-presenting cell Any of several cell types (macrophage, dendritic cell, B cell) that engulfs
(APC) and digests antigens that it encounters and presents parts of them on its
plasma membrane for recognition by T cells bearing receptors for the
same antigen; this function, antigen presentation, is essential for normal
cell-mediated responses. Macrophages and dendritic cells also release
chemicals (cytokines) that activate many other immune cells.
Table 12.3 Functions of Cells and Molecules
Involved in Immunity (3 of 4)
Molecules
Element Function in the immune response

Antibody Protein produced by a B cell or its plasma-cell offspring and released into body
(immunoglobulin) fluids (blood, lymph, saliva, mucus, etc.), where it attaches to antigens, causing
neutralization, opsonization, precipitation, or agglutination, which ―marks‖ the
antigens for destruction by phagocytes or complement.

Cytokines Chemicals released by sensitized T cells, macrophages, and certain other cells:
• Migration inhibiting factor (MIF)—‖inhibits‖ macrophage migration and
keeps them in the local area.
• Interleukin 2—stimulates T cells and B cells to proliferate; activates N K cells.
• Helper factors—enhance antibody formation by plasma cells.
• Suppressor factors—suppress antibody formation or T cell–mediated
immune responses (interleukin-10 transforming growth factor and others).
• Chemotactic factors—attract leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and
basophils) into inflamed area.
• Gamma interferon—secreted by lymphocytes; helps make tissue cells
resistant to viral infection; activates macrophages and N K cells; enhances
maturation of cytotoxic T cells.
Table 12.3 Functions of Cells and Molecules
Involved in Immunity (4 of 4)
Molecules

Element Function in the immune response

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) Like perforin, causes cell killing; attracts granulocytes; activates T
cells and macrophages.
Complement Group of bloodborne proteins activated after binding to antibody-
covered antigens; when activated, complement causes lysis of the
microorganism and enhances inflammatory response.

Antigen Substance capable of provoking an immune response; typically a

large, complex molecule not normally present in the body.

Cytotoxins Perforin, granzymes—cell toxins released by cytotoxic T cells and

NK cells.
 Organ Transplants and Rejection (1 of 2)
• Major types of transplants, or grafts
–Autografts—tissue transplanted from one
site to another on the same person
–Isografts—tissue grafts from a genetically
identical person (identical twin)
–Allografts—tissue taken from a person
other than an identical twin (most common
type of graft)
–Xenografts—tissue taken from a different
animal species (never successful)
 Organ Transplants and Rejection (2 of 2)
• Blood group and tissue matching is done to
ensure the best match possible
– 75% match is needed to attempt a graft
• Organ transplant is followed by
immunosuppressive therapy to prevent
rejection
 Disorders of Immunity (1 of 8)
• The most important disorders of the immune
system
– Allergies
– Autoimmune diseases
– Immunodeficiencies
 Disorders of Immunity (2 of 8)
• Allergies
–Allergies, or hypersensitives, are
abnormal, vigorous immune responses
– The immune system overreacts to an
otherwise harmless antigen, and tissue
damage occurs
 Disorders of Immunity (3 of 8)
• Types of allergies
– Immediate (acute) hypersensitivity
• Seen in hives and anaphylaxis
• Due to I g E antibodies and histamine
• Anaphylactic shock is systemic, acute and rare
– Delayed hypersensitivity
• Reflects activity of T cells, macrophages, and
cytokines
• Symptoms usually appear 1–3 days after contact
with antigen
• Allergic contact dermatitis (poison ivy, cosmetics)
Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (1 of 7)
Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (2 of 7)
Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (3 of 7)
Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (4 of 7)
Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (5 of 7)
Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (6 of 7)
Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (7 of 7)
Disorders of Immunity (4 of 8)
• Autoimmune diseases
– Self-tolerance breaks down
– Auto-antibodies and sensitized T lymphocytes
attack the body’s own tissues
 Disorders of Immunity (5 of 8)
• Examples of autoimmune diseases
– Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)—destroys joints
– Myasthenia gravis—impairs
communication between nerves and
skeletal muscles
– Multiple sclerosis (MS)—white matter of
brain and spinal cord is destroyed
– Graves’ disease—thyroid gland produces
excess thyroxine
Disorders of Immunity (6 of 8)

• Examples of autoimmune diseases

– Type 1 diabetes mellitus—destroys pancreatic beta
cells, resulting in deficient insulin production
– Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)—affects
kidney, heart, lung, and skin
– Glomerulonephritis—severe impairment of kidney
function due to acute inflammation
 Disorders of Immunity (7 of 8)
• Autoimmune diseases
– How does self-tolerance break down?
• New self-antigens appear
• Foreign antigens resemble self-antigens
 Disorders of Immunity (8 of 8)
• Immunodeficiencies
– Congenital or acquired
• Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (S
CID) is a congenital disease
• AIDS (acquired immune deficiency
syndrome) is caused by a virus that attacks
and cripples the helper T cells
– Result from abnormalities in any immune
element
– Production or function of immune cells or
complement is abnormal
Part 3 : Developmental Aspects of the
Lymphatic System and Body Defenses (1 of 2)
• Lymphatic vessels form by budding off from veins
• Lymph nodes present by fifth week of
development
• The thymus and the spleen are the first lymphoid
organs to appear in the embryo
• Other lymphoid organs are poorly developed
before birth
• The immune response develops around the time
aof birth
Part III
3 : Developmental Aspects of the
Lymphatic System and Body Defenses (2 of 2)

• The ability of immunocompetent cells to

recognize foreign antigens is genetically
determined
• Stress appears to interfere with normal
immune response
• Efficiency of immune response wanes in old
age, and infections, cancer,
immunodeficiencies, and autoimmune
diseases become more prevalent