LECTURE OUTLINE

The Integumentary System

The Integumentary System and Homeostasis
- The integumentary system contributes to homeostasis by protecting the body and
helping regulate body temperature.
-The integumentary system helps maintain a constant body temperature, protects the
body, and provides sensory information about the surrounding environment
Structure of the Skin
The integumentary System- is composed of the skin, hair, oil and sweat glands,
nails, and sensory receptors
Dermatology- is the medical specialty that deals with the structure, function, and
disorders of the integumentary system.
Skin- also known as the cutaneous membrane, covers the external surface of the body
and is the largest organ of the body in weight.
Epidermis - The superficial, thinner portion, which is composed of epithelial tissue.
Dermis- deeper, thicker connective tissue portion. While the epidermis is avascular,
the dermis is vascular.
subcutaneous (subQ) layer
- Deep to the dermis, but not part of the skin.
- Also called the hypodermis, this layer consists of areolar and adipose tissues.
-The subcutaneous layer serves as a storage depot for fat and contains large blood
vessels that supply the skin
lamellated corpuscles or pacinian corpuscles - also contains nerve endings and are
sensitive to pressure.
Epidermis- The epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.
-It contains four principal types of cells: keratinocytes, melanocytes, intraepidermal
macrophages, and tactile epithelial cells.
.-About 90% of epidermal cells are keratinocytes which are arranged in four or five
layers and produce the protein keratin.
Melanocytes- About 8% of the epidermal cells.
-develop from the ectoderm of a developing embryo and produce the pigment
melanin.
Melanin is a yellowred or brown-black pigment that contributes to skin color and
absorbs damaging ultraviolet (UV) light.
Intraepidermal macrophages or Langerhans cells arise from red bone marrow and
migrate to the epidermis, where they constitute a small fraction of the epidermal cells.
Tactile epithelial cells, or Merkel cells, are the least numerous of the epidermal
cells. They are located in the deepest layer of the epidermis.
tactile disc or Merkel disc- flattened process of a sensory neuron (nerve cell), a
structure.
 the epidermis has four strata or layers—stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum
granulosum, and a thin stratum corneum. This is called thin skin.
Where exposure to friction is greatest, such as in the fingertips, palms, and soles, the
epidermis has five layers—stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum,
stratum lucidum, and a thick stratum corneum. This is called thick skin
Stratum Basale- The deepest layer of the epidermis is the stratum basale, composed
of a single row of cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes.
The cytoskeleton within keratinocytes of the stratum basale includes scattered
intermediate filaments, called keratin intermediate filaments (tonofilaments).
A skin graf is the transfer of a patch of healthy skin taken from a donor site to cover
a wound. A skin graf is performed to protect against fluid loss and infection, to
promote tissue healing, to reduce scar formation, to prevent loss of function, and for
cosmetic reasons.
Stratum Spinosum- Superficial to the stratum basale is the stratum spinosum. This
stratum mainly consists of numerous keratinocytes arranged in 8–10 layers.
-The keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum, which are produced by the stem cells in
the basal layer, have the same organelles as cells of the stratum basale, and some
retain their ability to divide.
Stratum Granulosum At about the middle of the epidermis, the stratum granulosum
consists of three to five layers of flattened keratinocytes that are undergoing
apoptosis.
A distinctive feature of cells in this layer is the presence of darkly staining granules of
a protein called keratohyalin, which assembles keratin intermediate filaments into
keratin.
Also present in the keratinocytes are membrane-enclosed lamellar granules (la-
MEL-ar), which fuse with the plasma membrane and release a lipid-rich secretion.
Stratum Lucidum
-The stratum lucidum is present only in the thick skin of areas such as the fingertips,
palms, and soles.
-It consists of four to six layers of flattened clear, dead keratinocytes that contain
large amounts of keratin and thickened plasma membranes.
-This probably provides an additional level of toughness in this region of thick skin
Stratum Corneum -The stratum corneum consists on average of 25 to 30 layers of
flattened dead keratinocytes, but can range in thickness from a few cells in thin skin
to 50 or more cell layers in thick skin.
Constant exposure of skin to friction stimulates increased cell production and keratin
production that results in the formation of a callus, an abnormal thickening of the
stratum corneum.
Keratinization and Growth of the Epidermis
As the cells move from one epidermal layer to the next, they accumulate more and
more keratin, a process called keratinization. Then they undergo apoptosis.
The mechanisms that regulate this remarkable growth are not well understood, but
hormonelike proteins such as epidermal growth factor (EGF) play a role.
Dandruff-.An excessive amount of keratinized cells shed from the skin of the scalp.
 Psoriasis Psoriasis is a common and chronic skin disorder in which keratinocytes
divide and move more quickly than normal from the stratum basale to the stratum
corneum.
Dermis -The second, deeper part of the skin, the dermis, is composed of dense
irregular connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibers. This woven network
of fibers has great tensile strength (resists pulling or stretching forces)
The papillary region makes up about one-fif h of the thickness of the total layer. It
contains thin collagen and fine elastic fibers
Its surface area is greatly increased by dermal papillae, small, nipple-shaped
structures that project into the undersurface of the epidermis
All dermal papillae contain capillary loops (blood vessels). Some also contain tactile
receptors called corpuscles of touch or Meissner corpuscles , nerve endings that are
sensitive to touch. Still other dermal papillae also contain free nerve endings
The reticular region, which is attached to the subcutaneous layer, contains bundles
of thick collagen fibers, scattered fibroblasts, and various wandering cells (such as
macrophages).
extensibility,- the ability to stretch
elasticity , the ability to return to original shape af er stretching.
Stretch Marks- Because of the collagenous, vascular structure of the dermis, striae
or stretch marks, a form of internal scarring, can result from the internal damage to
this layer that occurs when the skin is stretched too much.
epidermal ridges are produced during the third month of fetal development as
downward projections of the epidermis into the dermis between the dermal papillae of
the papillary region
Because the ducts of sweat glands open on the tops of the epidermal ridges as sweat
pores, the sweat and ridges form fingerprints (or footprints) on touching a smooth
object.
The study of the pattern of epidermal ridges is called dermatoglyphics (
 . Tension lines (lines of cleavage) in the skin indicate the predominant
direction of underlying collagen fibers. Knowledge of tension lines is
especially important to plastic surgeons.
The Structural Basis of Skin Color -Melanin, hemoglobin, and carotene are three pigments that
impart a wide variety of colors to skin.
-The amount of melanin causes the skin’s color to vary from pale yellow to reddish-brown to
black. The difference between the two forms of melanin, pheomelanin (fē-oˉ-MEL-anin)
(yellow to red) and eumelanin (ū-MEL-a-nin) (brown to black), is most apparent in the hair.
In some people who are genetically predisposed, melanin accumulates in patches called freckles.
Freckles typically are reddish or brown and tend to be more visible in the summer than the
winter
As a person ages, age (liver) spots may develop. These flat blemishes have nothing to do with
the liver. They look like freckles and range in color from light brown to black. Like freckles, age
spots are accumulations of melanin.
Age spots are darker than freckles and build up over time due to exposure to sunlight.
A round, flat, or raised area that represents a benign localized overgrowth of melanocytes and
usually develops in childhood or adolescence is called a nevus (NE- -vus), or a mole.
Melanocytes synthesize melanin from the amino acid tyrosine in the presence of an enzyme
called tyrosinase. Synthesis occurs in an organelle called a melanosome
Albinism and Vitiligo
Albinism (AL-bin-izm; albin- = white) is the inherited inability of an individual to produce
melanin. Most albinos (al-BI- -noˉ s), people af ected by albinism, have melanocytes that are
unable to synthesize tyrosinase.
vitiligo (vit-i-LI- -goˉ), the partial or complete loss of melanocytes from patches of skin
produces irregular white spots.

Dark-skinned individuals have large amounts of melanin in the epidermis, so their skin color
ranges from yellow to reddish-brown to black. Light-skinned individuals have little melanin in
the epidermis. Thus, the epidermis appears translucent, and skin color ranges from pink to red
depending on the oxygen content of the blood moving through capillaries in the dermis.
The red color is due to hemoglobin (hē-moˉ-GLO- -bin), the oxygen-carrying pigment in red
blood cells.
Carotene (KAR-oˉ-tēn; carot = carrot) is a yellow-orange pigment that gives egg yolks and
carrots their color. This precursor of vitamin A, which is used to synthesize pigments neTSeded
for vision.
Skin Color as a Diagnostic Clue
The color of skin and mucous membranes can provide clues for diagnosing certain conditions.
When blood is not picking up an adequate amount of oxygen from the lungs
in someone who has stopped breathing, the mucous membranes, nail beds, and skin appear
bluish or cyanotic.
Jaundice is due to a buildup of the yellow pigment bilirubin in the skin. This condition gives a
yellowish appearance to the skin and the whites of the eyes, and usually indicates liver disease.
Erythema redness of the skin, is caused by engorgement of capillaries in the dermis with blood
due to skin injury, exposure to heat, infection, inflammation, or allergic reactions.
Pallor, or paleness of the skin, may occur in conditions such as shock and anemia. All skin color
changes are observed most readily in people with light-colored skin and may be more dif icult to
discern in people with darker skin
Tattooing and Body Piercing Tattooing is a permanent coloration of the skin in which a
foreign pigment is deposited with a needle into macrophages in the dermis.
- It is believed that the practice originated in ancient Egypt between 4000 and 2000 B.C. Today.
-They are created by injecting ink with a needle that punctures the epidermis, moves between 50
and 3000 times per minute, and deposits the ink in the dermis
Body piercing, the insertion of jewelry through an artificial opening, is also an ancient practice
employed by Egyptian pharaohs and Roman soldiers and is a current tradition among many
Americans.
-Then the jewelry is connected to the needle and pushed through the skin. Total healing can take
up to a year. Among the sites that are pierced are the ears, nose, eyebrows, lips, tongue, nipples,
navel, and genitals.
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN
-It includes the hair, nails, sweat glands and sebaceous glands. Originate from the epidermis and
can extend down through the dermis into the hypodermis
HAIR
Hairs, or (Pi-li) is a keratinous filament growing out of the epidermis. It is primarily made of
dead, keratanized cells bonded by extracellular proteins.
▪︎Present on most skin surfaces except the palms, palmar surfaces of the fingers, the soles, and
the plantar surfaces of the feet.
ANATOMY OF A SKIN
Hair Shaft- is the superficial portion of the hair, which projects above the surface of the skin.
Hair Root- is the portion of the hair deep to the shaft that penetrates into dermis and sometimes
into the subcutaneous layer.
▪︎Both consist of three consecutive layers of cell: medulla, cortex, and cuticle of the hair.
▪︎The medulla forms the central core of the hair which is surrounded by the cortex, a layer of
compressed, keratanized cells that is covered by an outer layer of very hard, keratanized cells
known as the cuticle.
▪︎Surrounding the root of the hair is the hair follicle (FOL-i-kul),which is made up of an external
root sheath and an internal root sheath.
▪︎Together, the external and internal root sheath are referred to as the epithelial root sheath. The
dense dermis surrounding the hair follicle is called the dermal root sheath.
▪︎The base of each hair follicle and its surrounding dermal root sheath is an onion-shaped
structure, the hair bulb.
▪︎This structure houses a nipple-shaped indentation, the papilla of the hair, The bulb also
contains a germinal layer of cells called the hair matrix.
▪︎Sebaceous (oil) glands and a bundle of smooth muscle cells are also associated with hairs. The
smooth muscle is the arrector pili (a-REK-tor PI--lī; arrect- = to raise). It extends from the
superficial dermis of the skin to the dermal root sheath around the side of the hair follicle.
▪︎Surrounding each hair follicle are dendrites of neurons that form a hair root plexus (PLEK-sus),
which is sensitive to touch.
Hair Growth
▪︎Each hair follicle goes through a growth cycle, which consists of a growth stage, a regression
stage, and a resting stage.
▪︎During the growth stage, cells of the hair matrix divide. Regression stage, when the cells of the
hair matrix stop dividing, the hair follicle atrophies (shrinks), and the hair stops growing. After
the regression stage, the hair follicle enters a resting stage. Following
the resting stage, a new growth cycle begins.
□ Alopecia, the partial or complete lack of hair, may result from genetic
factors, aging, endocrine disorders, chemotherapy, or skin disease.
Types of Hairs
Hair follicles develop at about 12 weeks after fertilization. Usually by the fifth month of
development, the follicles produce very fine, nonpigmented, downy hairs called lanugo that
cover the body of the fetus. Prior to birth, the lanugo of the eyebrows, eyelashes, and scalp are
shed and replaced by long, coarse, heavily pigmented hairs called terminal hairs. The lanugo of
the rest of the body are replaced by vellus hairs, commonly called “peach fuzz,” which are
short, fine, pale hairs that are barely visible to the naked eye.
Hair Color
The color of hair is due primarily to the amount and type of melanin in its keratinized cells.
▪︎Melanin is synthesized by melanocytes scattered in the matrix of the bulb and passes into
cells of the cortex and medulla of the hair.
▪︎Hair coloring is a process that adds or removes pigment. Sebaceous Glands Sebaceous glands
( or oil glands are simple, branched acinar (rounded) glands. With few exceptions, they are
connected to hair follicles
▪︎Sebaceous glands secrete an oily substance called sebum, a mixture of triglycerides,
cholesterol, proteins, and inorganic salts.
▪︎There are three million to four million sudoriferous glands or sweat glands in the body. The
cells of these glands release sweat, or perspiration, into hair follicles or onto the skin surface
through pores. Sweat glands are divided into two main types, eccrine and apocrine, based on
their structure and type of secretion.
● Eccrine sweat glands are simple, coiled tubular glands that are much more common than apo-
crine sweat glands.
▪︎The homeostatic regulation of body temperature is known as thermoregulation. This role of
eccrine sweat glands in helping the body to achieve thermoregulation is known as
thermoregulatory sweating.
▪︎Sweat that evaporates from the skin before it is perceived as moisture is termed insensible
perspiration (in- = not). Sweat that is excreted in larger amounts and is seen as moisture on the
skin is called sensible perspiration.
▪︎Eccrine sweat glands also release sweat in response to an emotional stress such as fear or
embarrassment. This type of sweating is referred to as emotional sweating or a cold sweat
▪︎Apocrine sweat glands are also simple, coiled tubular glands but have larger ducts and lumens
than eccrine glands.
▪︎ Modified sweat glands in the external ear, called ceruminous glands, produce a waxy
lubricating secretion.
▪︎The combined secretion of the ceruminous and sebaceous glands is a yellowish material called
cerumen, or earwax.
▪︎Nails are plates of tightly packed, hard, dead, keratinized epidermal cells that form a clear,
solid covering over the dorsal surfaces of the distal portions of the digits.
The nail body (plate) is the visible portion of the nail. Most of the nail body appears pink
because of blood flowing through the capillaries in the underlying dermis.
▪︎The free edge is the part of the nail body that may extend past the distal end of the digit. The
free edge is white because there are no underlying capillaries.
▪︎The nail root is the portion of the nail that is buried in a fold of skin.
▪︎The whit-ish, crescent-shaped area of the proximal end of the nail body is called the lunula.
▪︎Beneath the free edge is a thickened region of stratum corneum called the hyponychium
▪︎The nail bed is the skin below the nail plate that extends from the
lunula to the hyponychium.
▪︎The eponychium or cuticle is a narrow band of epidermis that extends from and adheres to the
margin (lateral border) of the nail wall.
▪︎The portion of the epithelium proximal to the nail root is the nail matrix.
Nails have a variety of functions:
1. They protect the distal end of the digits.
2. They provide support and counterpressure to the palmar surface of the fingers to enhance
touch perception and manipulation.
3. They allow us to grasp and manipulate small objects, and they can be used to scratch and
groom the body in various ways.
TYPES OF SKIN
■ Although the skin over the entire body is similar in structure, there are quite a few local
variations related to thickness of the epidermis, strength, flexibility, degree of keratinization,
distribution and type of hair, density and types of glands, pigmentation, vascularity (blood
supply), and innervation (nerve supply).
■ Two major types of skin are recognized on the basis of certain structural and functional
properties:
thin (hairy) skin and thick (hairless) skin.
-Thin skin covers all parts of the body except for the palms, palmar surfaces
of the digits, and the soles.
-Thick skin covers the palms, palmar surfaces of the digits, and soles.
Functions of the Skin
1. Skin functions include body temperature regulation, blood storage, protection, sensation,
excretion and absorption, and synthesis of vitamin D.
2. The skin participates in thermoregulation by liberating sweat at its surface
and by adjusting the flow of blood in the dermis.
3. The skin provides physical, chemical, and biological barriers that help protect the body.
4. Cutaneous sensations include tactile sensations, thermal sensations,
and pain.
Maintaining Homeostasis: Skin Wound Healing
1. In an epidermal wound, the central portion of the wound usually extends
down to the dermis; the wound edges involve only superficial damage to the
epidermal cells.
2. Epidermal wounds are repaired by enlargement and migration of basal
cells, contact inhibition, and division of migrating and stationary basal cells.
3. During the inflammatory phase of deep wound healing, a blood clot unites
the wound edges, epithelial cells migrate across the wound, vasodilation and
increased permeability of blood vessels enhance delivery of phagocytes, and
mesenchymal cells develop into fibroblasts.
4. During the migratory phase, fibroblasts migrate along fibrin threads and
begin synthesizing collagen fibers and glycoproteins.
5. During the proliferative phase, epithelial cells grow extensively.
6. During the maturation phase, the scab sloughs of , the epidermis is restored
to normal thickness, collagen fibers become more organized, fibroblasts
begin to disappear, and blood vessels are restored to normal.
DEVELOPMENT OF INTEGUMENTARY
Ectoderm – covers the surface of the embryo.
Epidermis developed from ectoderm, dermis develops from mesoderm
 4th Week - epidermis consists of only a single layer of ectodermal cell after fertilization.
 7th Week - a single layer, called basal layer, divides and form periderm.
 11th Week - the basal layer forms an intermediate layer of cells. Cells from the ectoderm
migrate into the dermis and differentiate into melanoblasts.
 12th Week – hair follicles develop as down growths of the basal layer of the epidermis
into the deeper dermis. The hair growths are called hair buds.
 14th Week – hair buds penetrate deeper into the dermis, their distal ends and become
club-shaped and are called hair bulbs.
 16th Week – invaginations of the hair bulbs called papillae of the hair, fill mesoderm in
which blood vessels and nerve endings develop.
 18th Week – cells in the center of hair bulb develop into matrix which forms the hair.
 At Birth – proliferation of the basal cells eventually forms all layers of the epidermis,
which are present at birth.

AGING AND THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

A. Age related changes begin at about age 40 and occur in proteins in the dermis.
B. The pronounced effect or skin aging does not become noticeable until people reach their late
40s.
C. With aging, the outer skin layer (epidermis) thins, even though the number of cell layers
remains unchanged.
 The number of pigments – containing cells (melanocytes) decreases.
 The remaining melanocytes increase in size.
 Changes in the connective tissue reduce the skin’s strength and elasticity.
 Aged skin (especially the dermis) is thinner than the young skin.
 Decreased size of sebaceous glands leads to broken skin that is mor susceptible to
infection.
 Hair loss increases as hair follicles stop producing hairs.
D. With the onset of old age, skin heals poorly and become more susceptible to pathological
conditions such as skin cancer and pressure sore.
 Rosacea- a skin condition that affects most lightly skinned adults between age 30-60.
E. There are several anti-aging treatments that are available to diminish the effects of aging or
sun-damaged skin.
 Tropical Products – bleach the skin to tone down blotches and blemishes
 Microdermabrasion – the use of tiny crystals under pressure to remove and vacuum the
skin’s surface.
 Chemical Peel – application of a mild acid (such as glycolic acid) to the skin to remove
surface cells.
 Laser Resurfacing – use of laser to clear up blood vessels near skin surface.
 Dermal Fillers – injection of human collagen and etc that plumps up the skin to smooth
out wrinkles.
 Fat Transplantation – the fat from one part of the body is injected into another location.
  Botulinum or Botox – a diluted version of toxin that is injected to the skin to paralyze
skeletal muscles that cause the skin to wrinkle.
 Radio Frequency Nonsurgical Facelift – use of radio frequency emission to tighten the
deeper layer of the skin.
 Facelift, Browlift or Neck lift – invasive surgery in which fat are removed surgically
and the underlying connective tissue and muscle are tightened.

Group 1, Members:
 Kathlyn Pactoranan
 John Paul Arcilla
 Thalia Maye Capistrano
 Princess Mae Israel