NOTES

ANNA MONTINI
1.1 Characteristics of living organisms

5 kingdoms:
Animals, Plants, Fungi, Protoctists, Prokaryotes

7 characteristics of living organisms:

Movement
Definition: cause an organism to change its position or place

Respiration
Definition: chemical reactions that occur in cells to break down
nutrients molecules to release energy for metabolism
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy released

Nutrition
Definition: obtaining of food to provide energy and substances
needed for growth
Plants:
Photosynthesise, using the energy from sunlight to turn raw
materials into glucose
Glucose is converted into cellulose and proteins
Require light, carbon dioxide, water and ions (for making
proteins)

Animals:
Eat plants or animals to obtain nutrients
Require organic compounds, ions and water
Excretion
Definition: the removal of waste chemicals (toxic materials,
substances in excess of requirement) made in cells during
metabolism
Metabolism is chemical reactions in cells

Reproduction
Definition: the formation of new individuals

Growth
Definition: a permanent increase in size or dry mass by an increase
in cell number or cell size or both

Sensitivity
Definition: the ability to detect or sense stimuli (change) in the
internal or external and to make appropriate responses

1.2 Classification

Classification: the sorting out of the vast array of living organisms

into groups

Order of classification:
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
The organisms in a kingdom share some similar features, e.g.
within the plant kingdom all plants are green and carry out
photosynthesis

The binomial system: naming species as an internationally agreed

system in which the scientific name of an organisms is made up of
two parts showing the genus and species
Species: a group of closely related organisms that can reproduce
to produce fertile (ability to reproduce) offspring

The importance of classification:

Similarities between organisms may occur because they have
evolved along the same lines, classification system aim to reflect
evolutionary relationships

Traditional methods for classification:

Anatomy: internal structure
Morphology: outward appearance

More accurate methods for classification:

Studying the sequences of amino acids in proteins
Studying the sequences of bases in DNA
The more similarities there are between the sequences of any two
animals the more closely related they are

1.3 Features of organisms

Cells of all living organisms:

A cell membrane, cytoplasm, DNA (genetic material), ribosomes
(for protein synthesis) and enzymes (involved in respiration

Prokaryotic cells:
Cells without a nucleus (bacteria)
Eukaryotic cells:
Cells with a nucleus

Plant kingdom:
Multicellular
Have chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis
Plant cells have chloroplasts full of chlorophyll, cellulose cell
walls and a large sap-filled vacuole

Animal kingdom:
Multicellular
Do not photosynthesise and obtain their food by eating other
animals and/or plants
Animal cells do not have cell walls, chloroplast or large vacuoles
Nervous system which coordinate their responses to stimuli and
their movements

Prokaryote kingdom:
Bacteria
No nucleus
A loop of DNA within the cytoplasm
Usually have additional loops of DNA inside their cytoplasm
called plasmids
No mitochondria
Have extensions called flagella

Protoctisits:
Classified in this kingdom as they do not belong in any of the
other four kingdoms
Cells with nucleus
Many are unicellular and some are multicellular
Algae, Plasmodium (cause malaria)

Fungi kingdom:
Most are multicellular
Yeast are single-celled
Has a nucleus and a cell wall which is made out of chitin
Do not have chlorophyll and cannot carry out photosynthesis
Most are saprotrophs, which means they feed on dead or decaying
matter
Some are parasites, that enter the cells of another organisms in
order to multiply

Viruses:
Not cells
Particles made up of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat
Parasites
Are not classified in any of the five kingdoms

1.4 Vertebrates

Vertebrates: animals that have a vertebral column or backbone

Five main group of vertebrates: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds

and mammals

Fish:
Live in water permanently
Streamlined
Fins for swimming and for balance
Breath using their gills
Skin covered with scales
Eyes and a lateral line for detecting pressure change in water
Lay eggs with jelly coating

Amphibians:
Smooth, moist skin
Most live on land
Return to water to breed
Lay eggs with jelly coating
Breathing using their lungs and skin

Reptiles:
Dry, scaly skin (cut down water loss)
Can live in dry regions
Lay leathery eggs
Breathe using their lungs

Birds:
Have feather and wings
Most are able to fly (except penguins)
Lay eggs with hard shells
Homeothermic (they are able to regulate
their body temperature)

Mammals:
Have hair or fur
Breathe using lungs
Homeothermic
Mammary glands
Give birth to babies
Feed babies with milk from mothers
1.5 Invertebrates

Invertebrates: animals that do not have a vertebral column or

backbone

Arthropods: a group of invertebrates that have segmented body,

an external skeleton (exoskeleton) and jointed legs

Four different groups of invertebrates:

Crustaceans, myriapods, insects and arachnids

Crustaceans:
Body divided into cephalothorax (head-
thorax) and abdomen
2 pairs of antennae
Compound eyes
Between five and twenty pairs of legs
Breathe using gills
Crabs, shrimps, crayfish

Myriapods:
Centipedes and millipedes
Long body divided into many segments
Centipedes have 1 pair of legs on each
segment
Centipedes are fast-moving carnivores
Millipedes have 2 pairs of legs on each body
segments
Millipedes are slow-moving herbivores
Insects:
Body divided in head, thorax and abdomen
3 pairs of legs on the thorax
Many have 2 pairs of wings
1 pair of antennae
Compound eyes
Breathe through spiracles (holes on the sides
of the thorax and abdomen)
Can fly
e.g. Bees, flies, beetles, butterflies

Arachnids:
Body divided into cephalothorax (head-
thorax) and abdomen
4 pairs of legs
No wings, antennae, not compound eyes (but
simple)
Weave silken webs with their spinnerets
Spiders, scorpions, ticks
1.6 Ferns and flowering plants

Ferns:
Strong stems, roots and leaves
Reproduce by spores, which are carried by the ind to form new
plants

Features of flowering plants:

True stem, roots and leaves
Reproduce by means of flowers which make seeds
The shoot is the part of the plant above ground
The shoot is made up of a stem bearing leaves, buds (apical bud)
and flowers

Flowering plants can be divided into 2 groups: dicotyledons and

monocotyledons

Dicotyledons:
Leaves are often broad with network of branching veins
2 cotyledons (seed leaves) in a seed
Magnolia
The parts of flowers are in multiple of 4 or 5

Monocotyledons:
Leaves with parallel veins
Long and narrow leaves
1 cotyledons in a seed
The parts of the flowers are in multiple of 3
Grass, cereals

Dichotomous key: used to identify living things

2.1 Structure of cells

Cells: the smallest building blocks that make up all living

organisms

Cell membrane:
Partially permeable
Allow simple substances to enter and leave the cells, e.g. carbon
dioxide, water and oxygen
Form a barrier between the cell and its surroundings
Keep contents inside
Controls movement of other substances into and out of the cell,
e.g. glucose

Nucleus:
Controls all activities in the cell
Controls how cells develop
Contains DNA

Cytoplasm:
Place where many chemical reactions take place, e.g. respiration
and protein synthesis
Jelly-like

Chloroplast:
Plant cells only
Photosynthesis
Store starch

Cell wall:
Plant cells only
Fully permeable
Allows water and dissolved substances to pass through freely
Gives shape to cells
Stops cells from bursting when they fill with water

Sap vacuole:
Full of water to maintain shape and ‘firmness’ of cell
Stores salts and sugars, amino acid and wastes
Only plant cells have large permanent vacuole in cytoplasm
containing cell sap
Animal cells have small vacuole in cytoplasm which do not
contain cell sap

2.2 Cell organelles

Cell organelles: small structures present in the cytoplasm of the

cell include mitochondria, vesicles and ribosomes on rough
endoplasmic reticulum

Mitochondria:
Relatively large organelles
Found in all eukaryotic cells
Double membrane
The outer membrane controls the entry and exit of materials
The inner membrane forms many folds on which are the sites of
aerobic respiration
Cells with high rates of respiration have many mitochondria to
provide sufficient energy, e.g. liver cells
Ribosomes:
Small organelles
Found in huge numbers in a cells
Found in both eukaryotic (attached to rough ER) and prokaryotic
cells
Synthesise proteins, e.g. enzymes involved in respiration

Rough endoplasmic reticulum:

Complex organelles
Double membrane
Contain fluid-filled spaces between the membranes which allow
materials to be transported throughout the cell
Where ribosomes are present on their outer surface, the
membranes are called rough ER
The main function of rough ER is to package and transport
proteins made by the ribosomes
Cells that produce a lot of protein have a large amount of rough
ER

Vesicles:
Small pieces of rough ER may be pinched off at the ends to form
small vesicles
In this way proteins can be made and stored in the rough ER and
transported around the cell
Used to transport materials in the cell
Size of cells and specimens:
Actual size = image size ÷ magnification
Magnification = image size ÷ actual size
Actual size is bigger than the image size of a cell

Units:
There are 1000 micrometres (um) in a millimetre (mm)
2.3 Different types of cell

Specialised cells: cells that carry out certain functions

Ciliated cells:
Found in the air passages in the lungs
(trachea and bronchi) and in oviducts in
the female reproductive system
These cells have cilia on their surfaces
In the airways, cilia move the mucus (a
slimy protection) that traps dust and
pathogen up to the nose and throat
In the oviducts, cilia move the eggs
from the ovary to the uterus

Root hair cells:

Long extension
Large surface area
Adapted for taking up water and
mineral ions

Xylem vessels:
Cylindrical and empty
Arrange into columns like pipes made from hollowed-out dead
cells which allows water to pass through
Allow water and ions to move from the roots to the rest of the
plants
Thick wall to provide support to the stems and leaves
Nerve cells:
Highly specialised cells
Thin extensions of the cytoplasm
like vires
Able to transmit information in
the form of nerve impulses around
the body
Contain lots of mitochondria to
provide energy

Red blood cells:

Contain haemoglobin which allows
them to carry oxygen around the body
Shaped like flattened discs, this shapes
provides a large surface area compared
with their volume allowing for rapid
diffusion
Thin cell membranes to decrease the
diffusion distance

Palisade mesophyll cells:

Hava numerous of chloroplasts in the
cytoplasm which trap light energy for
photosynthesis
Site of photosynthesis
They are placed at the top of the leaf
where most of the light hits enabling
them to absorb much light energy as
possible
Sperm cells:
Have a tail and are adapted for
swimming
Contains lots of mitochondria so
the cells has enough energy to
reach the egg cells
The head of the sperm carries
genetic information from the
male parent to the female parent
Genes from the father are present inside the nucleus of the egg

Egg cells:
Genes of the mother are found in the sperm nucleus

2.4 Levels of organisation

Cells: the building blocks, e.g. palisade cells

Tissues: similar cells working together in the same way; all the
cells in a tissue look the same and they work together to carry out
a shared function; e.g. muscle tissue and mesophyll

Organ: groups of different tissues working together; e.g. the heat

is an organ and it is made up of different tissues, such as cardiac
muscle and nervous tissue, leaf

Organ system: a group of organs working together, e.g. heart and

blood vessels make up circulatory system
3.1 Diffusion

Molecules in gases:
Move about in a random way, collide with one another and bounce
of into new directions to fill up the space available

Diffusion:
The net movement of particles (molecules or ions) from an area of
high concentration to an area of low concentration down the
concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement
Passive movement as cells do not need to use energy to move the
molecules
Molecules have kinetic energy which comes from the random
movements

Result of diffusion: molecules spread out evenly, equilibrium

Cells and diffusion:

Gain some of the substances they need by diffusion from their
surroundings
Lose some of their waste substances to their surroundings by
diffusion
Substances (CO2 and O2)have to cross cell membrane that are
partially permeable, this is important as these substances are
crucial to metabolic reactions (e.g. photosynthesis and respiration)
which occur within the cell

Factors that affect the rate of diffusion:

The distance molecules have to travel
Cell membrane are very thin
A greater diffusion distance slows the rate of diffusion as
molecules must travel further

The concentration gradient

As the concentration gradient increase (greater difference in
concentration), rate of diffusion increases
Cells keep a low concentration inside the cytoplasm
Molecules keep diffusing into the cell because the cell is
maintaining a steep concentration gradient

The temperature
Molecules move faster and collide more often as they gained
kinetic energy

The surface area

As the surface area increases, the rate of diffusion increase as
there is more space available for the substances to diffuse through

3.2 Osmosis

Osmosis:
The net movement of water molecules from an area of higher
water potential to an area of lower water potential through a
partially permeable membrane
Water molecules are free to move through the membrane in both
directions by kinetic energy
The cell membrane has tiny holes in it which allows small
molecules to pass through

Solutions:
Dilute solution: high concentration of water/ high water potential
Concentrated solution: low concentration of water/ low water
potential

A model cell:
Dialysis tubing is partially permeable
Dialysis tubing can be used to represent the cell membrane

Isotonic solution: the water potentials outside and inside of the

cell are the same

Hypertonic solution: the water potential outside the cell is greater

than the water potential inside the cell

Hypotonic solution: the water potential inside the cell is greater

than the water potential outside the cell
3.3 Osmosis in plant and animal cells

Turgidity:
When a plant cell is placed in the water and water enters the cells
as the cell sap lowered the water potential inside the cell as it
contains a solution of salts and sugars
Turgid: when cells are swollen due to high-water content (balloon)
Cell walls prevent cells from bursting
Turgor pressure: the pressure on the inelastic cell wall from the
cell membrane pushing upon it
Turgid cells five the plant support, they keep the stems of many
plants upright

Flaccid:
When plant cells are placed in a concentrated sugar or salt solution
water passes out of the cell by osmosis as there is a higher water
potential inside the cell
Flaccid: when water moves out of the cell, cells are no longer firm
and become limp

Plasmolysis:
As more water leaves the cells the cytoplasm starts to move away
Plasmolysis: the shrinking of the cytoplasm away from the wall
when there is too little water in the cell

Osmosis in animal cells:

Animal cells have no cell wall to them swelling so they burst
Animal cells shrink as water passes out ot the cell by osmosis
3.4 Active transport

Active transport:
The movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region
of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration using
energy from respiration
E.g. the concentration of magnesium ions is far greater inside the
vacuole of the root hair cell than it is in the water in the soil (the
uptake of ions from root hair cells)
The movement of ions or molecules in or out of a cell through the
cell membrane against a concentration gradient using energy
released during respiration
Cells take up molecules and ions and keep them in high
concentrations
Glucose is take up in the small intestine and kidney tubules,
glucose moves against the concentration gradient through carrier
proteins

Carrier proteins:
Carrier proteins facilitate active transport
They are embedded in the cell membrane and allow passage
through it
Molecules from the side with lower concentration bind to the
carrier protein
The carrier protein then changes shape using energy from
respiration, this forces the molecule to move through the
membrane to the side with high concentration, where it is released
4.1 Biological molecules

Biological molecules: complex chemicals that are need by living

organisms for metabolism, e.g. the release of energy in respiration,
protein synthesis, growth and repair of cells

Carbohydrates:
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms
Made up of many sugar molecules
Include sugars and starches
When many glucose molecules bind together in a chain cellulose
(cell walls of plants), starch (stored in plants) and glycogen (stored
in animals) can be made
Starch and glucose are stored in cells and used in respiration to
provide energy for the organism

Fats:
Fats and oils are made up of glycerol and fatty acids
Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Used for energy storage and thermal insulation in the body
A fat molecule: 1 glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid molecule

Proteins:
Made up of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur
Long-chain molecules made up of smaller molecules called amino
acids (about 20 different types)
Different arrangements of amino acids make up different proteins
and form different shapes
Antibodies also have a specific shape, formed by a specific
sequence of amino acids, this allows them to bind to antigens on
foreign pathogens to kill them
Enzymes are proteins which each active site has a specific shape,
allowing it to bind to a specific substrate molecule to catalyze
metabolic reactions

4.2 Chemical tests for biological molecules

Testing for starch:

Name of the solution
Iodine solution
Colour
Yellow or light brown
Positive
Turns blue-black
Negative
Remains yellow or light brown

Testing for reducing sugars (e.g. glucose):

Name of the solution
Benedict’s solution
Colour
Bright blue
Positive
Green (only little), yellow, orange (a lot)
Negative
Remains blue

Testing for protein:

Name of the solution
Biuret solution (copper sulfate and sodium hydroxide)
Colour
Blue
Positive
Turns purple, violet or lilac
Negative
Remains blue

Testing for fats: (fat will dissolve in ethanol)

Name of the solution
Ethanol
Colour
Colourless
Positive
Cloudy white emulsion
Negative
Remains colourless

Testing for Vitamin C:

Name of the solution
DCPIP
Colour
Blue
Positive
Decolourises
Negative
Remains blue
4.3 DNA

DNA:
Each chromosome is made of thousands of genes, genes is made
up of a short length of DNA

Structure of DNA:
Each DNA molecule is made up of thousands of units called a
nucleotide
A single unit molecule is made up of: a phosphate, a sugar, a bas
DNA is made up of 2 strands of nucleotides like a ladder
The 2 strands of DNA coiled together to form a double helix
Base pairing:
4 different bases in DNA
T with A
C and G

Extended content: water as an important solvent

Water is an important molecule that is a major component of cells
A solvent in which chemical reactions occur
Helps to maintain a constant temperature in the body
A metabolite: a substance needed for metabolism
Needed for digestion to provide a medium for enzymes to act in
and to allow free passage of digestive products so they can be
absorbed into the blood
It allows soluble molecules, such as the products of digestion, to
be transported around the body and through cell membranes
Transports waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide to be
excreted
5.1 Structure and action enzymes

Catalyst and enzymes:

Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts
A catalyst is a substance which speeds up the rate of reaction in
chemical reactions, without being used up

Why are enzymes important:

Enzymes are important to living organisms as they speed up
metabolic reactions which would take too long to keep organisms
alive

Functions of enzymes:
Breaking large molecules into small ones
When large food molecules are broken down into small ones so
that they can be absorbed and then used

Building up large molecules from small ones

Small molecules, such as glucose, are joined together to make
large molecules e.g. starch and cellulose

Converting one small molecule into another

Many of the chemical reactions that occur inside cells involve
small changes to molecules, e.g. adding or removing atoms or
groups of atoms
There are enzymes that remove hydrogen from compounds during
respiration

Enzymes:
All enzymes contain an active site, which is a sequence of amino
acid with a specific shape
The shape of the active site is complementary to the substrate
When the enzyme breaks the substrate down, the substrate enters
the active site to form an enzyme-substrate complex
The substrate is broken down and the product is released, the
enzyme continues to work
Each enzyme is complementary to only one type of substrate, each
enzyme catalyses one reaction

5.2 Factors affecting enzyme action: temperature

How to measure the rate:

Measure how much product is formed
How much substrate is used
Temperature:
As the temperature increases up to the enzyme’s optimum (best
temperature for enzyme action), the rate of reaction increases as
the molecules have more kinetic energy and they move faster
Consequently, more successful collision occur (more chance of
collision) and more enzyme-substrate complexes can form
At very high temperatures above the optimum, the enzyme
becomes denatured and the active site changes shape, the substrate
no longer fits
Y-axis: rate of reaction

5.3 Enzymes and pH

pH:
Enzymes have an optimum pH that they work best at
As the pH moves away from the optimum pH of the enzyme, the
shape of the active site change, the enzyme becomes denatured
The substrate can no longer fit in the active site and no enzyme-
substrate complexes can form
6.1 Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis:
A metabolic reaction occuring in plants which light energy
converts raw materials into carbohydrates such as glucose, which
can be stored in cells as starch and used as an energy source via
respiration
The raw materials: carbon dioxide and water
The products: glucose and oxygen
The concentration of gases in the atmosphere are kept constant by
photosynthesis

Chloroplast:
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells
Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll that transfers light energy into
chemical energy for the synthesis of carbohydrates/glucose

6.2 What is needed for photosynthesis

The requirement for photosynthesis:

Chlorophyll
A green pigment that absorbs the energy from light
Carbon dioxide
Diffuses into the leaves from the air

Water
Absorbed by the plant’s roots
Difficult to show that water is needed as it is extremely difficult to
take water completely away

Light
Provides energy for the process

Before those experiment before:

To be certain that the investigation is valid, there must be no
starch present in the leaf at the starch
De-starching: a plant is left in the dark for at least 48 hours

Showing that carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis:

Take a de-
starched plant
and enclose it
in a plastic bag
with a chemical
that absorb
carbon dioxide,
e.g. soda lime
Leave the plant
in the light for a
few hour and test a leaf for starch using the iodine solution
Set-up B is a control experiment to prove that absence of carbon
dioxide that caused the lack of starch and not other factors

Showing that light is needed for photosynthesis:

Take a de-starched plant and cover part of the leaf

with some aluminium foil to prevent light getting
through
Leave the plant in the light for a few hours and test
a leaf for starch using the iodine solution

Showing that chlorophyll is needed for

photosynthesis:

Take a de-starched, variegated plant (variegated means some parts

of the leaves are white because there is no chlorophyll there)
Leave the plant in the light for a few hours and test a leaf for
starch using the iodine solution

6.3 Products of photosynthesis

Glucose:
Some of the glucose is used for respiration
Some glucose is converted to satch and stored in the leaves for
future usage
Some glucose is converted to cellulose
Some glucose is converted to sucrose and transported to other
parts of the plant in phloem
Glucose and nitrate are used to form amino acids, which are built
up to proteins

Oxygen:
By-product (a secondary product)
Some is used by the plant’s respiration
Most diffuses out of the leaves into the atmosphere

6.4 Rate of photosynthesis

How to measure the rate:

How much starch is produced (change in dry mass, difficult)
How much oxygen is produced

Limiting factor:
Limiting factor as something present in the environment in such
short supply that it restricts life processes
At night, the light intensity is very low hence the rate of
photosynthesis is also very low

Carbon dioxide concentration:

A limiting factor
As CO2 concentration increases, rate of
photosynthesis also increases
Above a certain concentration the rate
remains constant, there is another
limiting factor
Temperature:
A limiting factor
Photosynthesis requires enzymes to carry out the reaction
As these enzymes have an optimum temperature, photosynthesis
also has an optimum temperature
At low temperatures, for example in the winter, plants
photosynthesize slowly as the enzymes have little kinetic energy,
thus few enzyme-substrate complexes are made
At very high temperatures, these enzymes denature, also slowing
the rate of photosynthesis

Light intensity:
A limiting factor
As light intensity increases, rate of photosynthesis increases
This is because increase the light intensity increases the energy
available to the plant for photosynthesis
Above a certain light intensity the rate remains constant, there is
another limiting factor

6.5 Glasshouse production

Knowledge of limiting factors:

Useful for farmers as they can reduce the limitation on the rate of
photosynthesis due to these factors
The plants have more energy use for growth, thus the yield is
higher and growth time is shorter
Farmers can reduce the effects of these limiting factors by placing
plants in a greenhouse

Greenhouse production control:

Temperature
Sunlight heats up the inside of the glasshouse
The glass stops a lot of this heat from escaping
Electric heaters are used in cold weather
Ventilator flaps are opened to cool the glasshouse on hot days

Light
The glass lets in sunlight
Artificial lighting can be used when light intensity gets too low
Blinds keep out very strong light

Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide can be pumped into the greenhouse
Burn butane or natural gas which provides carbon dioxide (+ heat
will rise the temperature)

Water
Automatic watering systems using sprinklers and humidifiers

6.6 Leaves

Leaves is adapted for photosynthesis:

A large surface area
To absorb light rays

A thin shape
Gas can diffuse in and out easily
Reduce diffusing distance

Many chloroplast
To absorb light for the reaction as much as possible

Veins
To support the leaf surface and to carry water and ions to the leaf
cells, and to take sucrose and amino acids away from the leaf to all
other parts of the plant

Inside a leaf and how it is adapted:

Palisade mesophyll cells:
Packed tightly together near the upper surface to the leaf to
maximise absorption of light where its intensity is highest
Contain many chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis
Gaps between cells to allow for efficient gas exchange

Chloroplast:
Where photosynthesis occurs
Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll which allows light energy to be
absorbed and converted to chemical energy

Cuticle:
Waxy layer that is waterproof and reduce water loss from the leaf
without reducing light absorption

Upper and lower epidermis:

A protective barrier around the leaf to prevent pathogens entering
and causing harm to the organism
Light goes straight through

Spongy mesophyll:
The lower layer of the leaf
Cells are loosely spaced and have a large surface area to allow
rapid diffusion of CO2, water and oxygen when the stomata are
open

Vascular bundles:
Xylem (bring water and ions to the mesophyll cells) and phloem
(transport sugar and nutrients)

Guard cells:
Open and closed the stomata

Stomata:
Allows gases to diffuse into
and out of the leaf
Close in hot weather and
night
Carbon dioxide diffuses in
for photosynthesis
Oxygen made in
photosynthesis diffuses out
Water vapour diffuses out

6.7 Mineral requirement

Mineral
Function
Deficiency
Nitrate ions
Used to built amino acid, and thus proteins and enzymes
Poor growth
Magnesium ions
Used to make chlorophyll
Leaves look yellow

Gas exchange in plants:

Plants carry out respiration and they need a supply of oxygen and
they produce carbon dioxide as a waste during the day
simultaneously with photosynthesis
At night plants exchange these gases with their surroundings
Some of the oxygen produced during photosynthesis is used by
the mitochondria for aerobic respiration
The rest of the of the oxygen diffuses out into the environment
The carbon dioxide produced in respiration is used by the
chloroplasts for photosynthesis, however there isn’t enough
photosynthesis so more diffuses in

Hydrogencarbonate indicator solution

Used to detect changes in carbon dioxide concentrations as a result
of gas exchange
If carbon dioxide is added to the water by the plant, the
hydrogencarbonate solution will turn from red to yellow
If carbon dioxide is taken up from the water by the plant, the
hydrogencarbonate solution will turn from red to purple