Page 1 of 31

B.Sc. 1st year (Semester-II)

Subject: Physics

Lecturer Notes for Chapter I

Prepared by:
Department of Physics, Govt. Degree College Boys Pulwama

Note: For numericals and more details on the topics, students are advised to consult the
prescribed text book, Introduction to Electrodynamics by David J. Griffiths, Printice-Hall,
India.
 Page 2 of 31

Lecture No.1
Concepts of field, Scalar field, Vector field and Differential Calculus

Field:
The field of a physical quantity is a region in space which has been modified by the presence
of the physical quantity. In this region of space (field), the physical quantity is continuous
and single valued at every point.

Scalar Field
The field is said to be scalar field, if the quantity involved is a scalar one. Each point of a scalar
field represents a scalar value, i.e. the value of the quantity at a point P(x, y, z) is same
regardless of the direction I approach to the point. Temperature of a place, electric potential,
and gravitational potential are all examples of scalar fields.

Vector Field
If the quantity involved is a vector quantity, the field is said to be vector field. A vector field
is a construction, which associates each point (x, y, z) in a space to a vector. Since a vector has
no position, we typically indicate a vector field in graphical form by placing the vector

V(x, y, z) with its tail at (x, y, z).Gravitational, electric and magnetic fields are all examples of
vector fields.

Ordinary Derivatives
The ordinary derivative of a function of single variable: f (x) is represented as df/dx. It gives us
df, i.e. variation in f(x) as we change the argument x by a tiny amount, dx.
If the function varies slowly with x, the derivative is correspondingly small. If it changes
rapidly with x, the derivative is large.
Geometrical Interpretation: The derivative df/dx is the slope of the graph of f versus x.

Three Dimensional Derivatives

Above case is one dimension situation, where we have one direction only. In case of three
dimensions, we have infinite number of directions. So in 3D, we have to take care of direction
 Page 3 of 31

also which can be represented by just three variables: (x, y, z) in Cartesian system, (r, , )in

spherical system and (r, , z) in cylindrical system.

In 3-D, the derivative of a function f(x, y, z) is represented as f, where  (pronounced as

„Nabla‟) is given by:
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
 = i 𝜕𝑥 + j 𝜕𝑦 + k 𝜕𝑧 (1)

Operations with:
I. T (T is a scalar function)

II. V (V is a vector quantity)

III. V (V is a vector quantity)

 Page 4 of 31

Lecture No.2
Gradient of a scalar function:

Definition
Consider a scalar function T(x, y, z), the total change in T is given by
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
= i 𝜕𝑥 + j 𝜕𝑦 + k 𝜕𝑧 . i𝑑𝑥 + j𝑑𝑦 + kdz (2)

= ∇T. dr (3)
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
where dr = i𝑑𝑥 + j𝑑𝑦 + kdz is the displacement in 3D and T = i 𝜕𝑥 + j 𝜕𝑦 + k 𝜕𝑧 is known as

gradient of the scalar function T. This tells us how T changes when we alter all the three
variables x, y and z by the tiny amount dx, dy and dz respectively.

Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient

From eqn. (3), we have

dT = ∇T. dr = ∇T |dr|cosθ (4)

where θ is the angle between ∇T and dr . Now, if we fix the magnitude of dr and search
around in various directions (that is, vary θ), the maximum change in T evidentally occurs

when θ = 0. That is, for a fixed distance|dr|, dT is greatest when one moves in the same
direction as ∇T. Thus:
dT
= ∇T (5)
dr max

Thus, gradient of a scalar function is vector quantity that points in the direction of maximum
increase of the function and its magnitude gives the slope (rate of increase) along this
maximal direction.

Numericals
If 𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 (the magnitude of the position vector), prove that
(i) 𝛻𝑟 = 𝑟
(ii) 𝛻𝑟 2 = 2𝑟𝑟
1 𝑟
(iii) 𝛻 𝑟 = −2 𝑟 2
 Page 5 of 31

Lecture No.3
Divergence of a vector function

Definition
The divergence of a vector function A x, y, z = i𝐴𝑥 + j𝐴𝑦 + k𝐴𝑧 is defined as:
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∙A= i +j +k ∙ i𝐴𝑥 + j𝐴𝑦 + k𝐴𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
is a scalar quantity.

Divergence of a vector quantity A is a measure of how much the vector A spreads out
(diverges) from the point of observation. The divergence of a vector function may be
positive, negative or zero. Imagine standing at the edge of a swimming pool which has many
holes at the bottom. Sprinkle some sawdust on the surface. The point where the dust spreads
out is a point of positive divergence; if it collects together, it is point of negative divergence;
if it neither converges nor diverges, it is a point of zero divergence. A point of positive
divergence is a source, or "faucet"; a point of negative divergence is a sink, or “drain”.

Geometrical Interpretation/physical significance of the Divergence

Consider an infinitesimal small parallelepiped ABCDEFGH with edges dx, dy, dz in a vector

field A x, y, z as shown in figure.

Let the value of x-, y- and z-components of the vector field at the centre of the
parallelepiped P(x, y, z) be Ax, Ay and Az respectively. Then,
 Page 6 of 31

At centre of the face ABCD, where the x-coordinate will be (x-dx/2), the value of x-

component of A is
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑥 −
𝜕𝑥 2
Similarly, at centre of the face EFGH, where the x-coordinate will be (x+dx/2), the value of

x-component of A is
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑥 +
𝜕𝑥 2
Therefore, the flux entering per second through face ABCD is
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑥 − 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2
Similarly, the flux leaving per second through face EFGH is
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2
Hence, the excess flux along the x-direction is
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − 𝐴𝑥 − 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝐴𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 (1)
𝜕𝑥
Similarily, the excess fluxes along the y and z directions are respectively:
𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 and 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

The total flux diverging from or leaving the entire surface of the closed element is

𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧

A ∙ ds = + + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 =  ∙ A dτ (2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝒮′

Therefore, the divergence of a vector quantity,  ∙ V at a point inside a fluid (field) is the net
outflow or flux leaving per unit volume per second.

Numericals
Find the divergence of following functions:

(i) A1 = r = i𝑥 + j𝑦 + kz

(ii) A2 = i𝑥𝑦 + j𝑦𝑧 + kzx

 Page 7 of 31

Lecture No.4
Curl of a vector field:

Definition
The curl of a vector function A x, y, z = i𝐴𝑥 + j𝐴𝑦 + k𝐴𝑧 is defined as:
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
×A= i +j +k × i𝐴𝑥 + j𝐴𝑦 + k𝐴𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
i j k
= ∂ ∂x ∂
∂y
∂
∂z
Ax Ay Az
is a vector quantity.

Physical significance of the Divergence

Like divergence, curl is also a measurement of vector fields that is very useful in a many
applications. Roughly speaking, divergence measures the tendency of the fluid to collect or
disperse at a point, and curl measures the tendency of the fluid to swirl around the point. The
magnitude of the curl measures how much the fluid is swirling, the direction indicates the
axis around which it tends to swirl. Imagine standing at the edge of a pond. Float a small
paddlewheel (say a cork with toothpicks pointing out radially); if it starts to rotate, then you
placed it at a point of nonzero curl. A whirlpool would be a region of large curl.

Numericals
Find the curl of following functions:

(i) A1 = r = i𝑥 + j𝑦 + kz

(ii) A2 = i𝑥𝑦 + j𝑦𝑧 + kzx

(iii) A2 = i(−𝑦) + j𝑥

(iv) A2 = i(𝑧) + j𝑥
 Page 8 of 31

Lecture No.5
Second Derivatives
The gradient, the divergence, and the curl are the only first derivatives we can construct with
nabla operator : by applying  we can construct five species of second derivatives:

(I) Divergence of gradient:

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 ∂2 T ∂2 T ∂2 T
 ∙ T = i 𝜕𝑥 + j 𝜕𝑦 + k 𝜕𝑧 ∙ i 𝜕𝑥 + j 𝜕𝑦 + k 𝜕𝑧 = + ∂y 2 + ∂z 2 = 2 T
∂x 2

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
where 2 = ∂x 2 + ∂y 2 + ∂z 2 is called the Laplacian. Notice that the Laplacian of a scalar T is a

scalar. But, we can the Laplacian of a vector also, as:

2 A = i2 A𝑥 + j2 A𝑦 + k2 A𝑧

(2) Curl of gradient:  × T = 0

(3) Gradient of divergence: (∇ ∙ A)

(4) Divergence of curl:  ∙ ∇ × A = 0

(5) Curl of curl:  × ∇ × A =  ∇ ∙ A − 2 A

Numericals
Calculate the Laplacian of the following functions:
(i) T = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + z
(ii) T = 𝑥𝑦z
(iii) T = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
 Page 9 of 31

Lecture No.6
Integral Calculus

Line (path) Integrals

A line integral of a vector function A is defined as
𝑏

A ∙ dl
𝑎

where dl = i𝑑𝑥 + j𝑑𝑦 + kdz is the infinitesimal displacement vector and the integral is to be
carried out along a prescribed path P from point a to point b as shown in figure below.

If the path in question forms a closed loop (that is, if b = a), then it is represented as:

A ∙ dl

Ordinarily, the value of a line integral depends critically on the path taken from a to b, but
there is a special class of vector functions for which the line integral is independent of path
and is determined entirely by the end points. Such vector fields are called conservative fields,
e.g. electric field.

Surface Integrals
A surface integral of a vector function A is defined as

A ∙ ds
𝒮
 Page 10 of 31

where the integral is over a specified surface 𝒮. Here ds is an infinitesimal patch of area, with
direction perpendicular to the surface as shown in figure. There are, of course, two directions
perpendicular to any surface, so the sign of a surface integral is intrinsically ambiguous.

If the surface is closed, then it is represented as

A ∙ ds

For a closed surface, "outward" is positive and inward is "negative", but for open surfaces it's

arbitrary. If A describes the flow of a fluid (mass per unit area per unit time), then 𝒮
A∙

ds represents the total mass per unit time passing through the surface hence the alternative
name, "flux." Ordinarily, the value of a surface integral depends on the particular surface
chosen, but there is a special class of vector functions for which it is independent of the
surface and is determined entirely by the boundary line.

Volume Integrals
A surface integral of a scalar function T over a specified volume 𝒱 is defined as

T 𝑑𝜏
𝒱

where 𝑑𝜏 is an infinitesimal volume element and is, In Cartesian coordinates, given by

𝑑𝜏 = dxdydz
For example, if T is the density of a substance (which might vary from point to point), then
the volume integral would give the total mass. We can have volume integrals of vector
functions also:
 Page 11 of 31

A 𝑑𝜏 = i𝐴𝑥 + j𝐴𝑦 + k𝐴𝑧 𝑑𝜏

𝒱 𝒱

Numericals
(I) Calculate the line integral of the function A = y2 i + 2x(y + 1)j from the point a = (1, I,
0) to the point b = (2, 2, 0), along the paths (I) and (2), figure given below. What is A ∙ dl
for the loop that goes from a to b along (1) and returns to a along (2)?

(II) Calculate the surface integral of A = 2xzi + x + 2 j + y(z2 − 3)k over five sides
(excluding the bottom) of the cubical box , shown in figure below.

(III) Calculate the volume integral of T = xyz2 over the prism as shown in figure below.
 Page 12 of 31

Lecture No.7
Fundamental theorem on gradients

Statement
Mathematically, the fundamental theorem on gradient states that
b

∇T. dr = 𝑇 𝑏 − 𝑇(𝑎)
a

i.e., the line integral of the gradient of a scalar function T is given by the value of the
function at the boundaries of the line or path (here the boundary of the path is its end points
„a‟ and „b‟).

Proof:
We know that the total change in T is given by

dT = ∇T. dr
Applying integration from points from a to b on both sides,
b 𝑏

∇T. dr = 𝑑𝑇
a 𝑎

or
b

∇T. dr = 𝑇 𝑏 − 𝑇(𝑎)
a

Hence, the theorem. This theorem actually highlights a special property of gradients, that
their line integrals are path independent.
b
Corollary 1: a
∇T. dr is independent of the path taken from a to b.

Corollary 2: ∇T. dr = 0, since the beginning and end points are identical, and hence T(b) -
T(a) = O.
 Page 13 of 31

Lecture No.8
Gauss Divergence Theorem or
The Fundamental Theorem for Divergences

Statement
The fundamental theorem for divergences states that:

∇ ∙ A 𝑑𝜏 = A ∙ ds (1)
𝒱 𝒮

i.e., the volume integral of the divergence of a vector function A over a volume 𝒱 is equal to
the value of the function at the boundary of the volume (here the boundary of the volume
is the surface 𝒮 enclosing the volume𝒱).

Proof:
Consider a surface 𝒮 encloses a volume 𝒱 in a vector field A. Let the volume 𝒱 be divided
into large number of infinitesimal small parallelepiped.

Consider one such infinitesimal small parallelepiped, say ABCDEFGH with edges dx, dy, dz as
shown in figure below.
 Page 14 of 31

Let the value of x-, y- and z-components of the vector field at the centre of the
parallelepiped P(x, y, z) be Ax, Ay and Az respectively. Then,
At centre of the face ABCD, where the x-coordinate will be (x-dx/2), the value of x-

component of A is
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑥 −
𝜕𝑥 2
Similarly, at centre of the face EFGH, where the x-coordinate will be (x+dx/2), the value of

x-component of A is
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑥 +
𝜕𝑥 2
Therefore, the flux entering per second through face ABCD is
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑥 − 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2
Similarly, the flux leaving per second through face EFGH is
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2
Hence, the excess flux along the x-direction is
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − 𝐴𝑥 − 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝐴𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥
Similarily, the excess fluxes along the y and z directions are respectively:
𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 and 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

The total flux diverging from or leaving the entire surface of the closed element is
 Page 15 of 31

𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧

A ∙ ds = + + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 =  ∙ A dτ (2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝒮′

Where 𝒮′ is the total surface of the infinitesimal element.

The total outflow of the vector through the whole surface can be calculated by adding up the
contribution from all the elements. But, for each internal surface between two adjacent
infinitesimal volume elements, the flux leaving and entering will be same, so will cancel. Only
the surfaces at the outer boundary will survive when everything is added up. So, for the
volume𝒱 enclosed by the surface 𝒮, we have

A ∙ ds = ∇ ∙ A 𝑑𝜏 (3)
𝒮 𝒱

which the divergence theorem.

 Page 16 of 31

Lecture No.9
The Fundamental Theorem for Curls or Stoke's Theorem

Statement
The fundamental theorem for curls states that:

∇ × A ∙ ds = A ∙ dr
𝒮 𝒫

i.e., the surface integral of the curl of a vector function A over an open surface 𝒮 is equal to
the value of the function at the boundary of the surface (here the boundary of the surface is
the perimeter 𝒫 enclosing the open surface 𝒮).
This theorem actually highlights a special property of curls. Ordinarily, a surface integral or
flux integral depends critically on what surface you integrate over, but this is not the case
with curls. It only depends on the boundary enclosing the surface.

Corollary 1: 𝒮
∇ × A ∙ ds depends only on the boundary line, not on the particular surface

used.

Corollary 2: ∇ × A ∙ ds = 0 for any closed surface, since the boundary line, like the

mouth of a balloon, shrinks down to a point, and hence vanishes.

 Page 17 of 31

Lecture No.10
Divergence of r/r2 and Dirac-delta function

Divergence of r/r2
Consider the vector function
𝑟
𝑣= (1)
𝑟2
as the function is directed radially outward, so should have a large positive divergence. But,
𝑟 1 𝜕 2 1
∇∙𝑣 = ∇∙ = 𝑟 2 =0 (2)
𝑟 2 𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟
Take the integral of eqn. (2)for the volume 𝒱 of a sphere of radius R, centered at the origin

∇ ∙ v 𝑑𝜏 = 0 (3)
𝒱

Now integrate the function 𝑣 over the sphere, the surface integral is

𝑟
v ∙ ds = ∙ 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑟
𝑟2
𝒮
𝜋 2𝜋

= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 = 4𝜋 (4)
0 0

From eqns. (3) and (4), we have

∇ ∙ v 𝑑𝜏 ≠ v ∙ ds
𝒱 𝒮

The result is in contradiction to the divergence theorem 𝒱

∇ ∙ v 𝑑𝜏 = 𝒮
v ∙ ds, i.e. there is

problem somewhere.
The source of the problem is the point r = 0, where 𝑣 blows up. It is quite true that ∇ ∙ v = 0

everywhere except at the origin. In order to get rid of contradiction, we must have 𝒱
∇∙

v 𝑑𝜏 = 4𝜋 for all any sphere centered at the origin, no matter how small. Evidently the
entire contribution must be coming from the point r = O! Thus, ∇ ∙ v has the bizarre property
that it vanishes everywhere except at one point, and yet its integral (over any volume
containing that point) is 4π. The mathematical object that behaves in a similar fashion is
known as the Dirac delta function.
 Page 18 of 31

One dimensional Dirac delta function

The one-dimensional Dirac delta function, (x), is defined as:
0, if x ≠ 0
 x = (1)
∞, if x = 0
and
∞

 x dx = 1 (2)
−∞

It can be viewed as an infinitely high, infinitesimally narrow “spike," with area 1 as shown in
figure below.

If f(x) is some (other than delta function), then the product f(x)(x) is zero everywhere
except at x = O. It follows that
f x  x =f 0  x (3)
So, we can have
∞ ∞

f(x) x dx = f 0  x dx = f 0 (4)
−∞ −∞

we can also shift the spike from x = 0 to some other point., x = a as shown in figure below.

Then, the delta function is defined as:

0, if x ≠ a
 x−a = (5)
∞, if x = a
and
 Page 19 of 31

 x − a dx = 1 (6)
−∞

Note to Remember: Instead of -∞ to +∞, we can have other limits say -l to +l but, the result
(6) is true iff the point x=a lies within the limits. If it is outside the limits, then
l

 x − a dx = 0
−l

Also, equations (3) and (4) becomes

f x  x−a = f a  x−a (7)
and
∞

f(x) x − a dx = f a (8)
−∞

The Three-Dimensional Delta Function

The delta function can be easily generalized to three dimensions:

3 r =  x  y  z (9)
where r = i𝑥 + j𝑦 + kz is the position vector, extending from the origin to the point (x, y,
z). This three-dimensional delta function is zero everywhere except at (0, 0, 0), where it
blows up. Its volume integral is 1:
∞ ∞ ∞
3
 r dτ =  x  y  z =1 (10)
all space −∞ −∞ −∞

And eqn. (8) can be generalized as:

f(r)3 (r − a) dτ = f(a) (10)

all space

As in the one-dimensional case, the integration picks out the value of the function at the
location of the spike.
 Page 20 of 31

Lecture No.11
The Helmholtz theorem
Helmholtz theorem states that any vector field, say F that disappears at infinity (go to zero
far away from all charges) can be expressed in terms of an irrotational and a solenoidal field
or the field is uniquely determined by its divergence and curl,

𝐹 = 𝐹𝐼 + 𝐹𝑆 = −∇𝑉 + ∇ × 𝐴
For curl-less (irrotational) fields, the following conditions are equivalent:

(i) ∇ × 𝐹 = 0 ⟺ 𝐹 = −∇𝑉, where V is a scalar potential.

𝑏
(ii) 𝑎
𝐹 . 𝑑𝑙 is independent of path" for any given end points.

(iii) 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑙 = 0 for any closed path.

For divergence-less (solenoidal) fields, the following conditions are equivalent:

(i) ∇. 𝐹 = 0 ⟺ 𝐹 = ∇ × 𝐴, where 𝐴 is a vector potential.

(ii) 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑠 is independent of surface, for any given boundary line.

(iii) 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑠 = 0 for any closed surface.

 Page 21 of 31

Lecture No.12
Gauss Law in differential form
We know that the Gauss‟s Law in integral form for an electrostatic field E is written as:

1
E ∙ ds = 𝑄 (1)
𝜀° 𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝒮

where Qenc is the charge within the volume 𝒱 enclosed by the surface 𝒮. If ρ is the volume
charge density, then

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌 𝑑𝜏 (2)
𝒱

Therefore, from eqns. (1) and (2), we have

1
E ∙ ds = 𝜌 𝑑𝜏 (3)
𝜀°
𝒮 𝒱

Applying divergence theorem, we can write

E ∙ ds = ∇ ∙ E 𝑑𝜏 (4)
𝒮 𝒱

From eqns. (3) and (4), we get

1
∇ ∙ E 𝑑𝜏 = 𝜌 𝑑𝜏 (5)
𝜀°
𝒱 𝒱

It implies,
1
∇∙E= 𝜌 (6)
𝜀°
which is Gauss's law in differential form.
 Page 22 of 31

Lecture No.13
Potential and Field due to an insulating charged Solid sphere
Consider a non-conducting charged solid sphere of radius R carrying a total charge Q with
uniform charge density ρ.
Q Q
ρ= = (1)
V 4 πR3
3
where V is the volume of the sphere. Since the charge is uniformly distributed on the surface
of the non-conducting sphere, the electric field must point radially outwards.
Let P be the point of observation, three cases arise:
(I) P is outside the sphere. Let P be at a distance r, such that r>R. Consider the Gaussian
surface as a sphere of radius r concentric with the charged sphere, as shown in figure below.

Total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,

4 3
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌 𝜋𝑅 = 𝑄 (2)
3
𝑉 𝑉

The total flux through the Gaussian sphere is

𝜑𝐸 = E ∙ dA = 𝐸𝑑𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 𝐸𝑑𝐴
𝒮 𝒮 𝒮

Since E is uniform on the surface of the sphere, we have

𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 dA = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 (3)
𝒮

According to Gauss‟s theorem

 Page 23 of 31

1
𝜑𝐸 = E ∙ dA = 𝑄
𝜀° 𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝒮

Using eqns. (2) and (3), we get

1
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑄
𝜀°
1 𝑄
𝐸 = (4)
4𝜋𝜀° 𝑟 2
Thus for a point outside the uniformly charged sphere, the electric field acts in the radially
outwards direction. The value of E is the same as if the whole charge were concentrated at the
centre.
(II) P is on the surface of the sphere. If point P is on the surface of the sphere, then r=R.
1 𝑄
𝐸 = (5)
4𝜋𝜀° 𝑅2
(III) P is inside the sphere. If point P lies inside the charged sphere, r<R.

Total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,

4 3 𝑟3
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌 𝜋𝑟 = 𝑄 3 (6)
3 𝑅
𝑉 𝑉

The total flux through the Gaussian sphere is

𝜑𝐸 = E ∙ dA = 𝐸𝑑𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0
𝒮 𝒮

Since E is uniform on the surface of the sphere, we have

𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸 dA = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 (7)
𝒮

According to Gauss‟s theorem

 Page 24 of 31

1
𝜑𝐸 = E ∙ dA = 𝑄
𝜀° 𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝒮

Using eqns. (6) and (7), we get

1 4
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜌 𝜋𝑟 3
𝜀° 3
1 1 𝑄𝑟
𝐸 = 𝜌𝑟 = (8)
3𝜀° 4𝜋𝜀° 𝑅3
Thus for a point inside the uniformly charged sphere, the electric field acts in the radially
outwards direction and varies directly with the distance from the centre.
Graphically,

Electric Potential:
The electric potential can be easily calculated from the electric field as:

𝑉=− 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
∞
 Page 25 of 31

Lecture No.14
Potential and Field due to an infinite sheet of charge
An infinitely large plane possesses a planar symmetry.
Since the charge is uniformly distributed on the surface of the non-conducting infinite sheet

of charge, the electric field must point perpendicularly away from the plane, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑘 , as
shown in figure below.

The Gaussian surface can be considered as a cylinder piercing through the charged sheet as
shown in figure below.

The magnitude of the electric field is constant on planes parallel to the non-conducting
plane.
In this case,
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ςA (1)
Where A = A1 = A2 is the area of the end caps.
 Page 26 of 31

The total flux through the Gaussian cylinder is

𝜑𝐸 = E ∙ dA = E ∙ dA1 + E ∙ dA2 + E ∙ dA3

𝒮 𝒮1 𝒮2 𝒮3

= 𝐸1 𝐴1 + 𝐸2 𝐴2 + 0
= 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 𝐴 (2)
Because the two ends are at the same distance from the plane, E 1 = E2 = E.
Hence, the total flux can be rewritten as
𝜑𝐸 = 2𝐸𝐴 (3)
By Gauss‟s law,

1
𝜑𝐸 = E ∙ dA = 𝑄
𝜀° 𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝒮

Using eqns. (1) and (3), we get

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝜍𝐴
2𝐸𝐴 = =
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝜍
𝐸=
2𝜀0
Therefore the magnitude of the electric field is
𝜍
𝐸=
2𝜀0
In vector notation,
𝜍
𝑘, 𝑧>0
2𝜀0
𝐸= 𝜍
− 𝑘, 𝑧<0
2𝜀0
Thus, we see that the electric field due to an infinite large non-conducting plane is uniform
in space, shown graphically below.
 Page 27 of 31

Note the discontinuity in electric field as we cross the plane:

𝜍 𝜍 𝜍
∆𝐸𝑧 = 𝐸𝑧+ − 𝐸𝑧− = − − =
2𝜀0 2𝜀0 𝜀0

Electric Potential:
The electric potential can be easily calculated from the electric field as:

𝑉=− 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
∞
 Page 28 of 31

Lecture No.15
Potential and Field due a charged plane disc
By treating the disk as a set of concentric uniformly charged rings, the problem could be
solved. Consider one such ring of radius r′ and thickness dr′, as shown in figure below.

By symmetry arguments, the electric field at P points in the z+-direction.

The ring has a charge 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜍 2𝜋r ′ dr ′ (1)
Therefore the field due to the ring in the z-direction is
1 𝑑𝑞 𝑧
𝑑𝐸𝑧 = 𝑑𝐸 cos 𝜃 =
4𝜋𝜀° 𝑟 2 𝑟
1 𝑧𝑑𝑞
= 3
4𝜋𝜀°
𝑟 ′2 + 𝑧 2 2

Using eqn. (1), we get

1 𝑧𝜍(2𝜋r′dr′)
𝑑𝐸𝑧 = (2)
4𝜋𝜀° 𝑟 ′2 + 𝑧 2 3/2
Integrating from to r′ = 0 to r′ = R, the electric field due to the whole disc at P will be

𝑅
1 𝑧𝜍 2𝜋r ′ dr ′
𝐸𝑧 = 𝑑𝐸𝑧 = 3 (3)
4𝜋𝜀° ′2
0 𝑟 + 𝑧2 2
Substituting𝑟 ′2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑢, we get
𝑅 2 +𝑧 2
𝑧𝜍 𝑑𝑢
𝐸𝑧 =
4𝜀° 𝑢 3/2
𝑧2

on solving, we get
𝑧𝜍 1 1 𝜍 𝑧 𝑧
𝐸𝑧 = − − = − (4)
2𝜀° 𝑅2 + 𝑧2 𝑧2 2𝜀° 𝑧 𝑅 + 𝑧2
2
 Page 29 of 31

The eqn. may be rewritten as:

𝜍 𝑧
1− , 𝑧>0
2𝜀° 𝑅2 + 𝑧 2
𝐸𝑧 = 𝜍 𝑧 (5)
−1 − , 𝑧<0
2𝜀° 𝑅2 + 𝑧 2
This is the required result. The plot of the electric field, Ez/E0 (where E0= σ/2ε0) as a function
of z/R is shown in Figure below.

Special cases:
In the limit Z >> R,
−1/2
𝑧 𝑅2 1 𝑅2 1 𝑅2
1− = 1− 1+ 2 = 1− 1− +⋯ ≈
𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 𝑧 2 𝑧2 2 𝑧2
This gives:
𝜍 1 𝑅2 1 𝜍𝜋𝑅2 1 𝑄
𝐸𝑧 = = =
2𝜀° 2 𝑧 2 4𝜋𝜀° 𝑧 2 4𝜋𝜀° 𝑧 2
This is indeed the expected “point-charge” result. Thus, if the point of observation is at a large
distance compared to the radius of the disc, it behaves like a point charge.
𝑧
In the limit Z << R, 𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 ≈ 𝑅2 and 𝑧/𝑅 ≈ 0, therefore 1 − ≈ 1, we get
𝑅 2 +𝑧 2
𝜍
, 𝑧>0
2𝜀°
𝐸𝑧 = 𝜍
− , 𝑧<0
2𝜀°
This is the field due to an infinite sheet of charge. Thus, if the point of observation is very
much close to the disc, then the disc behaves like an infinite sheet of charge.

Electric Potential:
The electric potential can be easily calculated from the electric field as:
𝑧

𝑉=− 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
∞
 Page 30 of 31

Lecture No.16
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
Consider a tiny Gaussian pillbox extending just slightly into the material on either side of the
boundary as shown in figure below.

In electrostatics, we know that

1 1
E ∙ ds = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ςA (Gauss, s Law) (1)
𝜀° 𝜀°
𝒮

where A is the area of the pillbox lid. (If ς varies from point to point or the surface is curved,
we must pick A to be extremely small.) Now, the sides of the pillbox contribute nothing to
the flux, in the limit as the thickness f goes to zero. So we are left with the top and bottom
lids of the box. Therefore, eqn. (1) for the box can be written as

⊥ ⊥
1
𝐸𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 − 𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜍 (2)
𝜀°
⊥
where 𝐸𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 denotes the component of E that is perpendicular to the surface immediately
⊥
above, and 𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 is the same, only just below the surface.
𝜍
Conclusion: The normal component of 𝐸 is discontinuous by an amount 𝜀 at any boundary.
°

In particular, where there is no surface charge, the normal component is continuous.

Consider a very thin Amperian loop straddling the surface as shown in figure below.

We know that,

𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙 = 0 (E is conservative) (3)

Apply it to the thin rectangular loop, the ends give nothing (as 𝜖 → 0) and the sides give
 Page 31 of 31

∥ ∥
𝐸𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑙 − 𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑙=0
∥ ∥
𝐸𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 = 𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 (4)

where 𝐸 ∥ stands for the components of 𝐸 parallel to the surface.

Conclusion: The tangential component of 𝐸 , by contrast, is always continuous.

The boundary conditions on 𝐸 (Eqs. 2 and 4) can be combined into a single formula:

⊥ ⊥
1
𝐸𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 − 𝐸𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝜍𝑛 (5)
𝜀°