Vector Calculus - Lecture - 1

Unit-2:Vector Calculus
Dr. Chandra Shekara G.
July 13, 2023
Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Scalar Field
Definition
The scalar field or scalar point function in a region D is a function
from the region D to the scalars (real numbers) R. Denoted as
ϕ = ϕ(x, y , z), ϕ is scalar point function takes some real number
at the point (x, y , z). i.e ϕ : D → R
Example:
Temperature field
Pressure
Potential
Distance
Mass
Speed
Note: If T (x, y , z) = x 2 yz is the temperature field on the surface
of the sphere then at the point (1, 1, 2), the temperature will be
T = 2 is a real number.
Graph Represents the Temperature Distribution

Vector field
Definition
The vector field or vector point function in a region Ω is a function
from the region Ω to set of vectors V . Denoted as
F⃗ = f1 (x, y , z)iˆ+ f2 (x, y , z)jˆ + f3 (x, y , z)k̂, where each f1 , f2 , f3 are
functions of points (x, y , z). i.e. F : Ω → V
Examples:
Velocity field
Acceleration
Weight
Force
momentum
Note: If F⃗ (x, y , z) = x 2 iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂ is the velocity field on the
surface sphere and at the point (1, 1, 2), F⃗ = iˆ + jˆ + 2k̂.

Graph Represents the Wind Flow

Graph Represents the ocean currents

Gradient of a Scalar Field
Definition
The gradient of a scalar field is defined as
∂ϕ ˆ ∂ϕ ˆ ∂ϕ
∇ϕ(x, y , z) = i+ j+ k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
How to visualize the Gradient of a scalar field?

Suppose a ball is released from a point on an uneven surface like a
hill. Of course, the ball will roll straight down the hill, but this
straight down keeps changing from point to point. Essentially, it
falls down in the direction in which height changes most rapidly.
This direction is what we call as gradient of the hill at that point.
There is nothing sacrosanct about height function. In general, let
ϕ(x, y , y , z) be a scalar field in some region. At a point P the
direction in which ϕ changes maximum and the magnitude of the
change represents gradient of ϕ(x, y , y , z) at that point.

Important Properties of Gradient
Gradient in the summation form is given by ∇ϕ = Σ ∂ϕ ˆ

∂x i.
Gradient of a scalar field is a vector,
Gradient measure the amount of physical quantity going out
of the given region.
Gradient also measures the outward flux.
Gradient of ϕ is also denoted as grad(ϕ).
Gradient of a scalar field is a vector field which denotes the
greatest change in scalar field.
From the definition of Gradient we can define a very
important vector operator called vector differential operator
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂
or ∇ operator given by ∇ = i+ j+ k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z

How to find the gradient of a scalar field
Example-1:Find the gradient of ϕ(x, y , z) = x 2 yz.

Solution:
Apply gradient to given scalar field, we get,
∂ϕ ˆ
∇ϕ = Σ i
∂x
∇ϕ(x, y , z) = i+ j+ k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂(x 2 yz) ˆ ∂(x 2 yz) ˆ ∂(x 2 yz)
∇ϕ(x, y , z) = i+ j+ k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
∇ϕ(x, y , z) = 2xyz iˆ + x 2 z jˆ + x 2 y k̂

Example-2
Find gradient of ϕ(x, y , z) = xy + yz + zx at the point (1, 2, 1).
Solution:
By definition ∇ϕ = ∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k̂
Using ϕ in this
∂(xy + yz + zx) ˆ ∂(xy + yz + zx) ˆ ∂(xy + yz + zx)

∇ϕ = i+ j+ k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
⇒ ∇ϕ = (y + z)iˆ + (x + z)jˆ + (x + y )k̂
Putting the point (1, 2, 1) in the above step, we get
⇒ ∇ϕ = (2 + 1)iˆ + (1 + 1)jˆ + (1 + 2)k̂

⇒ ∇ϕ = 3iˆ + 2jˆ + 3k̂

Unit Normal Vector
Definition:
∇ϕ
The unit normal vector is defined as n̂ = |∇ϕ| . This represents the
a unit vector in the direction of ∇ϕ. This vector is always normal
to the surface ϕ.
Example:
Find the unit normal vector to the surface ϕ(x, y , z) = e xyz at the
point (1, 1, 1).
Solution:
First Let us find the Gradient of ϕ, by definition
∇ϕ = ∂ϕ ˆ ∂ϕ ˆ ∂ϕ
∂x i + ∂y j + ∂z k̂
Using ϕ in this
∂(e xyz ) ˆ ∂(e xyz ) ˆ ∂(e xyz )
∇ϕ = i+ j+ k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
⇒ ∇ϕ = yze xyz iˆ + xze xyz jˆ + xye xyz k̂
Putting the point (1, 1, 1) in the above step, we get
⇒ ∇ϕ = e iˆ + e jˆ + e k̂
p √
⇒ |∇ϕ| = e 2 + e 2 + e 2 = 3e
Hence by the definition of unit normal vector,we get
∇ϕ
n̂ =
|∇ϕ|
e iˆ + e jˆ + e k̂
⇒ n̂ = √
3e
iˆ + jˆ + k̂
⇒ n̂ = √
3

Tangential Vector:
Let F⃗ = f1 iˆ + f2 jˆ + f3 k̂ be a vector point function and where each
component f1 , f2 , f3 are function of t then the derivative F⃗ given as
d F⃗ df1 ˆ df2 ˆ df3
= i+ j+ k̂ is called a tangential vector.
dt dt dt dt
Geometrical interpretation of Gradient:

Let ϕ(x, y , z) = c be a surface and P = (x, y , z) be any point on
it. Suppose on the surface ϕ, x = x(t), y = y (t), z = z(t) are
some parametric curves. Thus position of any point (x, y , z) on
the surface ϕ is function of t.
Then the tangential vector to the surface is given by
d⃗r dx ˆ dy ˆ dz
= i+ j + k̂............(1)
dt dt dt dt
From the definition of the gradient we have
∇ϕ = i+ j+ k̂..........(2)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Since equation (1) is the tangential vector and equation (2) an
outward normal to the surface ϕ. Taking dot product of
equation(1)
and (2), we get
d⃗r ∂ϕ ˆ ∂ϕ ˆ ∂ϕ dx ˆ dy ˆ dz
(∇ϕ) . = i+ j+ k̂ . i+ j + k̂
dt
∂x ∂y ∂z dt dt dt
d⃗r ∂ϕ dx ∂ϕ dy ∂ϕ dz
⇒ (∇ϕ) . = + + .....(3)
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt

Since ϕ ⇒ (x, y , z) ⇒ t, using total derivative definition of ϕ = c,

we get
dϕ ∂ϕ dx ∂ϕ dy ∂ϕ dz
= + + = 0........(4)
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
Using equation
(4) in (3), we get
d⃗r
(∇ϕ) . =0
dt
d⃗r
That is the dot product between ∇ϕ and is zero, hence these
dt
two are orthogonal to each other as shown in the above figure.
Thus we note that ∇ϕ is normal to the surface ϕ = c at the point
P. Further the magnitude of this gradient is the rate of change of
ϕ(x, y , z) in the direction normal to the surface at the point.

Directional Derivative(DD):
The directional derivative of ϕ(x, y , z) and point P in the direction
of some vector ⃗a is defined as
dϕ
DD = = ∇ϕ · â.
ds
⃗a
Here â =
|⃗a|
Significance of Directional derivatives:
Geometrically, DD measure the rate of change of ϕ at any

point P along the direction of vector ⃗a.
The maximum value of direction derivative will along the
gradient of the surface.
The directional derivative is also defined as
DD = |∇ϕ||â| cos θ, where θ is angle between ∇ϕ and ⃗a.

Note:The angle between two surfaces ϕ and ψ is equal to angle
between their outward normal to those surfaces and it is given by
(∇ϕ) · (∇ψ)
cos θ =
|∇ϕ||∇ψ|
Examples on Direction Derivatives
Example-1:
Find the directional derivative of ϕ(x, y , z) = 2xy + 3y 2 − z 3 at
the point P(1, 1, 2) in the direction of the vector ⃗v = iˆ − jˆ + k̂.
Solution:
We know that by definition: DD = ∇ϕ · v̂
First let us find ∇ϕ and it is given by
∇ϕ = i+ j+ k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
Differentiating ϕ partially w.r.t. x, y , z, we get
ϕx = 2y , ϕy = 2x + 6y , ϕz = −3z 2
Hence
∇ϕ = 2y iˆ + (2x + 6y )jˆ − 3z 2 k̂
Using the given point (x, y , z) = (1, 1, 2)
⇒ ∇ϕ = 2iˆ + 8jˆ − 12k̂
Example-1 continued....
⃗v
Next, let us find v̂ =
|⃗v |
iˆ − jˆ + k̂ 1
⇒ v̂ = p = √ iˆ − jˆ + k̂
12 + (−1)2 + 12 3
Then the Directional derivative is given by
1
ˆ ˆ
DD = ∇ϕ · v̂ = 2i + 8j − 12k̂ · √ ˆ ˆ
i − j + k̂
3
2 − 8 − 12 18
⇒ DD = √ = −√
3 3

Examples on Direction Derivatives
Example-2:
Find the directional derivative of x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4 at the point
P(2, 0, 0) in the direction of the toward the point Q(1, 2, −1).
Solution:
Let ϕ = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4 = 0
We know that by definition: DD = ∇ϕ · v̂
First let us find ∇ϕ and it is given by
∇ϕ = i+ j+ k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
Differentiating ϕ partially w.r.t. x, y , z, we get
ϕx = 2x, ϕy = 2y , ϕz = 2z
Hence
∇ϕ = 2x iˆ + 2y jˆ + 2z k̂
Using the given point (x, y , z) = (2, 0, 0)
⇒ ∇ϕ = 4iˆ + 0jˆ + 0k̂
Next, let us find ⃗v = PQ⃗ is the position vector of the line PQ and
it is given by
⃗v = OQ ⃗ − OP⃗ = (x1 − x0 )iˆ + (y1 − y0 )jˆ + (z1 − z0 )k̂
⇒ ⃗v = (1 − 2)iˆ + (2 − 0)jˆ + (−1 − 0)k̂ = −iˆ + 2jˆ − k̂
Hence
⃗v
v̂ =
|⃗v |
−iˆ + 2jˆ − k̂ 1
⇒ v̂ = p = √ −iˆ + 2jˆ − k̂
(−1)2 + (2)2 + (−1)2 6
Then the Directional derivative is given by
1
DD = ∇ϕ · v̂ = 4iˆ + 0jˆ + 0k̂ · √ −iˆ + 2jˆ − k̂
6
−4 + 0 + 0 4
⇒ DD = √ = −√
6 6

Example-3:
Find the constants a and b so that the surfaces
ax 2 − byz = (a + 2)x is orthogonal to the surface 4x 2 y + z 3 = 4
at the point (1, −1, 2).
Solution: We know that two surface are orthogonal if the angle

between the gradients at point intersection must be 90o . So Let us
find the gradient of each surface at (1, −1, 2)
Consider ϕ = ax 2 − byz − (a + 2)x = 0
⇒ ∇ϕ = ϕx iˆ + ϕy jˆ + ϕz k̂
⇒ ∇ϕ = (2ax − a − 2)iˆ − bz jˆ − by k̂
At (1, −1, 2)
⇒ ∇ϕ = (2a − a − 2)iˆ − 2b jˆ + b k̂ = (a − 2)iˆ − 2b jˆ + b k̂
Next take ψ = 4x 2 y + z 3 − 4 = 0
⇒ ∇ψ = ψx iˆ + ψy jˆ + ψz k̂
⇒ ∇ψ = 8xy iˆ + 4x 2 jˆ + 3z 2 k̂
At (1, −1, 2)
⇒ ∇ψ = −8iˆ + 4jˆ + 12k̂
Since given surfaces are orthogonal,we get

∇ϕ · ∇ψ = 0
⇒ ((a − 2)iˆ − 2b jˆ + b k̂) · (−8iˆ + 4jˆ + 12k̂) = 0
⇒ −8a + 16 − 8b + 12b = 0 ⇒ −8a + 4b = −16.............(1)
Further both surfaces passes through the given point hence ϕ at
this point is given by
⇒ a + 2b − a − 2 = 0 ⇒ 2b − 2 = 0 ⇒ b = 1.....(2)
Using b = 1 in (1), we get
−8a + 4 = −16 ⇒ −8a = −20 ⇒ a = 2.5
Hence required values of constants ⇒ a = 2.5 and b = 1.

Example-4:
Find the directional derivatives of f (x, y , z) = xy 2 + yz 3 at the
point (2, −1, 1) in the direction of the normal to the surface
x log z − y 2 = −4 at (−1, 2, 1).
Solution: First let us find the gradient to both surface at the

given points
Given f (x, y , z) = xy 2 + yz 3
⇒ ∇f = fx iˆ + fy jˆ + fz k̂
⇒ ∇f = y 2 iˆ + (2xy + z 3 )jˆ + 3yz 2 k̂
At (2, −1, 1)
⇒ ∇f = iˆ + (−4 + 1)jˆ − 3k̂ = iˆ − 3jˆ − 3k̂
Next let us take ϕ = x log z − y 2 + 4 = 0
x
⇒ ∇ϕ = log z iˆ − 2y jˆ + k̂
z
At (−1, 2, 1)
⇒ ∇ϕ = 0iˆ − 4jˆ − k̂
Example-4 continued.....
Let ⃗v = ∇ϕ
Then
∇ϕ 0iˆ − 4jˆ − k̂ 1 ˆ
v̂ = =√ =√ 0i − 4jˆ − k̂
|∇ϕ| 0 + 16 + 1 17
Hence the required directional derivative in the direction of normal
to second surface is give by
1
DD = ∇f · v̂ = iˆ − 3jˆ − 3k̂ · √ 0iˆ − 4jˆ − k̂
17
0 + 12 + 3 15
DD = √ =√
17 17

Example-5:
Find the directional derivative of x 2 y 2 z 2 at the point (1, 1, −1) in
the direction of the tangent to the curve x = e t ,y = 1 + 2 sin t and
z = t − cos t, where −1 ≤ t ≤ 1.
Solution: Let ϕ = x 2 y 2 z 2
⇒ ∇ϕ = 2xy 2 z 2 iˆ + 2x 2 yz 2 jˆ + 2x 2 y 2 z k̂
At (1, 1, −1)
⇒ ∇ϕ = 2iˆ + 2jˆ − 2k̂
Next let us find the tangential vector of given parametric curve
Taking position vector of any point (x, y , z)
⃗r = x iˆ + y jˆ + z jˆ
⇒ ⃗r = e t iˆ + (1 + 2 sin t)jˆ + (t − cos t)k̂
Tangential vector is given by
d⃗r dx ˆ dy ˆ dz
= i+ j + k̂ = e t iˆ + 2 cos t jˆ + (1 + sin t)k̂
dt dt dt dt
At the point (x, y , z) = (1, 1, −1) ⇒ t = 0
Example-5 continued.....
At t = 0
d⃗r
= iˆ + 2jˆ + k̂
dt
d⃗r ⃗v
Let ⃗v = and v̂ =
dt |⃗v |
iˆ + 2jˆ + k̂
⇒ v̂ = √
6
Hence the required directional derivative is !
iˆ + 2jˆ + k̂
DD = ∇ϕ · v̂ = 2iˆ + 2jˆ − 2k̂ · √
6
2+4−2 4
DD = √ =√
6 6

Example-6:
The temperature of points in space is given
T (x, y , z) = x 2 + y 2 − z . A mosquito located at (1, 1, 2) desires
to fly in such a direction it will get warm as soon as possible. In
what direction should it move?
Solution: Given T = x 2 + y 2 − z
⇒ ∇T = Tx iˆ + Ty jˆ + Tz k̂
⇒ ∇T = 2x iˆ + 2y jˆ − k̂
At (1, 1, 2)
⇒ ∇T = 2iˆ + 2jˆ − k̂
Since ∇T will be outward normal to the temperature field and it
give the direction of maximum variation the mosquito must move
along this direction to get warm as soon as possible.

Example-7:
In which direction from (3, 1, 2) is the directional derivative of
ϕ = x 2 y 2 z 4 maximum? Also find the magnitude of this maximum.
Answer:Direction= ∇ϕ√= 96iˆ + 288jˆ − 288k̂,

Magnitude= |∇ϕ| = 96 19

Example-8:
Find the values of the constants a, b and c so that the directional
derivative of f = axy 2 + byz + cz 2 x 3 at (1, 2, −1) has a maximum
of magnitude 64 in a direction parallel to the z -axis.
Solution: Given f = axy 2 + byz + cz 3 x 3

∇f = fx iˆ + fy jˆ + fz k̂
⇒ ∇f = (ay 2 + 3cx 2 z 2 )iˆ + (2axy + bz)jˆ + (by + 2cx 3 z)k̂
At (1, 2, −1), we get
⇒ ∇f = (4a + 3c)iˆ + (4a − b)jˆ + (2b − 2c)k̂
Directional derivative
in the direction along z-axis is
DD = ∇f ·k̂ = (4a + 3c)iˆ + (4a − b)jˆ + (2b − 2c)k̂ ·k̂ = 2b+3c
Given maximum value of directional derivative is 64
⇒ DD = 2b − 2c = 64
Further ∇f in the direction parallel to z-axis, we get
4a + 3c = 0 and 4a − b = 0

Example-8 continued......
Solving this equations, we get

⇒ b = 4a ⇒ b + 3c = 0 ⇒ b = −3c
⇒ 2b − 2c = 64 ⇒ −8c − 2c = 64 ⇒ c = −8
⇒ b = 24 and a = 6

Example-9:
If the directional derivative of ϕ = axy 2 + byz + cz 3 x 3 at (−1, 1, 2)
has maximum magnitude of 32 units in the direction parallel to
y -axis find a, b, c .
Solution: Given ϕ = axy 2 + byz + cz 3 x 3

∇ϕ = ϕx iˆ + ϕy jˆ + ϕz k̂
⇒ ∇ϕ = (ay 2 + 3cx 2 z 3 )iˆ + (2axy + bz)jˆ + (by + 3cx 3 z 2 )k̂
At (−1, 1, 2), we get
⇒ ∇ϕ = (a + 24c)iˆ + (−2a + 2b)jˆ + (b − 12c)k̂
Directional derivative in the direction along y -axis is
ˆ
DD = ∇ϕ · j
⇒= (a + 24c)iˆ + (−2a + 2b)jˆ + (b − 12c)k̂ · jˆ = −2a + 2b
Given maximum value of directional derivative is 32
⇒ DD = −2a + 2b = 32
Further ∇ϕ in the direction parallel to y -axis, we get
a + 24c = 0 and b − 12c = 0
Example-9 continued......
Solving this equations, we get

⇒ a = −24c and b = 12c
⇒ 48c + 24c = 32 ⇒ c = 32/72
⇒ b = 32/6 ⇒ a = −32/3

Divergence of a Vector field
Definition:
The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point
function F⃗ = f1 iˆ + f2 jˆ + f3 k̂ is denoted by div F⃗ or ∇ · F⃗ and is
∂f1 ∂f2 ∂f3
defined as ∇ · F⃗ = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Importance of Divergence:
Physically divergence of a vector field represents the rate at
which fluid is originating at a point per unit volume.
Divergence of a vector field is a scalar.
If divergence of vector field is zero then such vector field is
called solenoidal. This represents flux entering any element
of space is the same as that leaving it.
⃗ is a velocity field then ∇ · V
If V ⃗ = 0 represents equation of
motion or conservation of Mass.
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ · ∇ = ∇2 = 2
+ 2 + 2 is called a Laplacian operator
∂x ∂y ∂z
Geometrical Interpretation of Divergence

How to visualize Divergence ?
To visualize the divergence of a vector field. Imagine a
widening river. Think of a small (imaginary) sphere fixed at a
point. It is easy to convince that total velocity of water
particles coming into the sphere is less than the total velocity
of water particles coming out of the sphere. i.e., there is net
flow of water out of the sphere.
In some sense water is becoming less compressed, it is
spreading out or it is diverging. One says such a vector field
has positive divergence. Similarly one has negative divergence
when water flow is constricted. Of course one can have 0
divergence scenario too.
Essentially divergence captures the difference in outflow to
inflow of vectors at a point. Clearly net outflow is a scalar and
thus we come to associate a scalar to every point. Once we
do this at all point we get a scalar field.
Another physical situation where divergence comes in handy is
magnets. Magnetic field near north pole has positive
divergence whereas near south Unit-2:Vector
Dr. Chandra Shekara G.
pole it has negative divergence.
Calculus
Examples:
Example-1:
Find the divergence of F⃗ = 3x 2 iˆ + 5xy 2 jˆ + xyz 3 k̂ at the point
(1, 2, 3) .
∂f1 ∂f2 ∂f3
Solution:By definition ∇ · F⃗ = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Given F⃗ = 3x 2 iˆ + 5xy 2 jˆ + xyz 3 k̂
∂f1
⇒ f1 = 3x 2 ⇒ = 6x
∂x
∂f2
⇒ f2 = 5xy 2 ⇒ = 10xy
∂y
∂f3
⇒ f3 = xyz 2 ⇒ = 3xyz 2
∂z
Hence
∂f1 ∂f2 ∂f3
∇ · F⃗ = + + = 6x + 10xy + 3xyz 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
At (1, 2, 3), we get ∇ · F⃗ = 6 + 20 + 54 = 80.

Examples:
Example-2:
If F⃗ = e y sin x cos z iˆ + e −x sin y cos z jˆ + z 2 e z k̂ then find the
divergence of F⃗ at the point (π, 0, 0) .
∂f1 ∂f2 ∂f3
Solution:By definition ∇ · F⃗ = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Given F⃗ = F⃗ = e y sin x cos z iˆ + e −x sin y cos z jˆ + z 2 e z k̂
∂f1
⇒ f1 = e y sin x cos z ⇒ = e y cos x cos z
∂x
∂f2
⇒ f2 = e −x sin y cos z ⇒ = e −x cos y cos z
∂y
∂f3
⇒ f3 = z 2 e z ⇒ = 2ze z + z 2 e z
∂z
Hence
∇ · F⃗ = e y cos x cos z + e −x cos y cos z + 2ze z + z 2 e z
At (π, 0, 0), we get ∇ · F⃗ = −1 + e −π + 0 = −1 + e −π

Examples:
Example-3:
Show that the vector field
F⃗ = (−x 2 + yz)iˆ + (4y − z 2 x)jˆ + (2xz − 4z)k̂ is solenoidal.
Solution: By definition of divergence

∂f1 ∂f2 ∂f3
∇ · F⃗ = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 ∂f1
f1 = −x + yz = = −2x
∂x
∂f2
f2 = 4y − z 2 x = =4
∂y
∂f3
f3 = 2xz − 4z = = 2x − 4
∂z
∂f1 ∂f2 ∂f3
⇒ ∇ · F⃗ = + + = −2x + 4 + 2x − 4 = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Since divergence of a vector F⃗ is zero therefore given vector field is
soleniodal.
Examples:
Example-4:
Show that the vector field F⃗ = (x + 3y )iˆ + (y − 3z)jˆ + (x − 2z)k̂
is solenoidal.
Solution: By definition of divergence
∂f1 ∂f2 ∂f3
∇ · F⃗ = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f1
f1 = x + 3y = =1
∂x
∂f2
f2 = y − 3z = =1
∂y
∂f3
f3 = x − 2z = = −2
∂z
∂f1 ∂f2 ∂f3
⇒ ∇ · F⃗ = + + =1+1−2=0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Since divergence of a vector F⃗ is zero therefore given vector field is
soleniodal.
Example-5:
Show that the divergence of a position vector of any point (x, y , z)
is 3.
Solution: The position of any point in 3D is given by
⃗r = x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂
By definition of divergence
∂f1 ∂f2 ∂f3
∇ · ⃗r = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f1
f1 = x = =1
∂x
∂f2
f2 = y = =1
∂y
∂f3
f3 = z = =1
∂z
∂f1 ∂f2 ∂f3
⇒ ∇ · ⃗r = + + =1+1+1=3
∂x ∂y ∂z
⇒ ∇ · ⃗r = 3

Task for the Day
Solve the following questions and post the pics in Schoology.
⃗r
1 Find the ∇ · F⃗ of the vector function F⃗ = , where
r
⃗r = x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂ and r is its magnitude.
2 Show that the vector field F⃗ = 3yz 2 iˆ + 4x 3 z 2 jˆ − 3x 2 y 2 k̂ is
solenoidal.

Curl of a Vector Field
Definition:
The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point
function F⃗ = f1 iˆ + f2 jˆ + f3 k̂ is denoted by curl F⃗ or ∇ × F⃗ and is
defined as
⃗ ∂f2 ∂f3 ˆ ∂f1 ∂f2 ˆ ∂f1 ∂f2
∇×F = − i− − j+ − k̂
∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂x
Importance of Curl:
Physically curl of a vector field represents the measure of the
angular velocity at any point of the vector field.
Curl of a vector field is a vector.
If Curl of vector field is zero then such vector field is called
Ir-rotational. This represents the motion in which the
angular velocity at any point is zero..
∇ × (∇ϕ) = Curl(Gradϕ) = 0 hence ∇ϕ is an irrotational
vector field.
Div (Curl F⃗ ) = ∇ · ∇ × F⃗ = 0 hence ∇ × F⃗ is a solenoidal.
How to Visualize Curl:
Let the above vector field represents flow of water in some region
of space. Imagine a tiny sphere whose center is fixed at a point.
Of course, if the sphere is not fixed, it would flow away with the
flow. So imagine it is fixed to a point by an imaginary pin.
Because of push and pulls of the flow, this sphere would rotate
along some axis passing through the center of the sphere. The
speed of rotation and the axis of rotation is what is captured by
Curl. The curl of the vector field represents the vorticity, or
circulation per unit area.

Physical Example of Curl a vector field:
The field V⃗ = −y iˆ + x jˆ is sketched in above Figure. (It is the field

you would calculate as the velocity field of an object rotating with
ω = (0, 0, 1).
The curl of this vectoris
⃗ ∂f2 ∂f3 ˆ ∂f3 ∂f1 ˆ ∂f2 ∂f1
∇×V = − i− − j+ − k̂ =
∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
(0 − 0)iˆ + (0 − 0)jˆ + (1 + 1)k̂ ⇒ ∇ × V ⃗ = 2k̂
This field has a curl of 2k̂ which is in the r − h screw out of the
page.
Determinant Notion of Curl:
iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × F⃗ =
∂x ∂y ∂z
f1 f2 f3

Examples:
Ex-1:
Find the ∇ × F⃗ of the vector field
F⃗ = xyz iˆ + 3x 2 y jˆ + (xz 2 − y 2 z)k̂ at the point (1, 2, 3).
iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
Solution: By definition of curl we have ∇ × F⃗ =
∂x ∂y ∂z
f1 f2 f3
ˆ
i ˆ
j k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
⇒=
∂x ∂y ∂z
xyz 3x 2 y xz 2 − y 2 z
∂(xz 2 − y 2 z) ∂(3x 2 y ) ˆ ∂(xz 2 − y 2 z) ∂(xyz) ˆ

= − i− − j+
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z
∂(3x 2 y ) ∂(xyz)

− k̂
∂x ∂y
= (−2yz − 0) iˆ − z 2 − xy jˆ + (6xy − xz) k̂


Ex-1 continued.....
Substituting given point (1, 2, 3), we get

∇ × F⃗ = −12iˆ − 7jˆ + 9k̂.

Examples:
Ex-2:
If F⃗ = (x + y + 1)iˆ+ jˆ− (x + y )k̂ then show that F⃗ · (Curl F⃗ ) = 0.
iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
Solution: By definition of curl we have ∇ × F⃗ =
∂x ∂y ∂z
f1 f2 f3
ˆ
i ˆ
j k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
= = (−1 − 0) iˆ− (−1 − 0) jˆ+ (0 − 1) k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
x + y + 1 1 −x − y
⇒ ∇ × F⃗ = −iˆ + jˆ − k̂
Now takingdot product between give vectorF⃗ and ⃗
Culr F , we get
F⃗ · ∇ × F⃗ = (x + y + 1)iˆ + jˆ − (x + y )k̂ · −iˆ + jˆ − k̂
⇒ −x − y − 1 + 1 + x + y = 0
Hence the required result.
Examples:
Ex-3:
Find the value of a if the vector
F⃗ = (ax 2 y + yz)iˆ + (xy 2 − xz 2 )jˆ + (2xyz − 2x 2 y 2 )k̂ has zero
divergences. Find the curl of the above vector which has zero
divergence.
Solution:By definition of divergence

∇ · F⃗ = 2axy + 2xy + 2xy = 0 ⇒ 2xy (a + 2) =⇒ a = −2
Hence at a = −2 given vector becomes:
F⃗ = (−2x 2 y + yz)iˆ + (xy 2 − xz 2 )jˆ + (2xyz − 2x 2 y 2 )k̂
Now by definition of Curl
iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × F⃗ =
∂x ∂y ∂z
−2x 2 y + yz xy 2 − xz 2 2xyz − 2x 2 y 2
= (2xz − 4xy 2 + 2xz)iˆ− (2yz − 4xy 2 − y )jˆ+ (y 2 − z 2 + 2x 2 − z)k̂

Examples:
Ex-4:

Find a and b if F⃗ = (xyz)b x a iˆ + y a jˆ + z a k̂ is both solenoidal
and irrotational.
Solution:

Scalar Potential function
Definition:
Suppose for any vector field F⃗ ,if ∇ × F⃗ = 0 then F⃗ is called an
irrotational vector. Hence irrotaional vector can be expressed as
gradient of scalar potential function ϕ = ϕ(x, y , z) that is
F⃗ = ∇ϕ = i+ j+ k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
In case of irrotational vectors we note that f1 = , f2 = and
∂x ∂y
∂ϕ
f3 = for any vector F⃗ = f1 iˆ + f2 jˆ + f3 k̂.
∂z
These equations represents partial differential equation can solved
by using direct integration. Such that ϕ = ϕ(x, y , z) is solution of
these differential equations. This is potential field is also called as
conservative field.

Examples
Ex-1:
A vector field is given by F⃗ = (x 2 − y 2 + x)iˆ − (2xy + y )j.
ˆ Show
that the field is irrotational and find its scalar potential.
Solution:Find the curl of given vector

iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × F⃗ = =
∂x ∂y ∂z
x 2 − y 2 + x −2xy − y 0
(0 − 0)iˆ − (0 − 0)jˆ + (−2y + 2y )k̂
∇ × F⃗ = ⃗0
Therefore give vector field is irrotational and hence it can be
expressed as gradient of some potential function ϕ = ϕ(x, y , z)
⇒ F⃗ = ∇ϕ ⇒ (x 2 − y 2 + x)iˆ − (2xy + y )jˆ = i+ j+ k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z

Ex-1 continued.....
Comparing the coefficients of each components on both sides, we

get ⇒
∂ϕ
= x2 − y2 + x
∂x
∂ϕ
= −2xy − y
∂y
∂ϕ
=0
∂z
Integrating these PDEs (By direct integration method)
x3 x2
⇒ϕ= − xy 2 + + f (y , z)
3 2
y 2
⇒ ϕ = −xy 2 − + g (x, z)
2
⇒ ϕ = h(x, y )

Ex-1 continued.....
Comparing each of the solution above, we note that

y2 x3 x2
f (y , z) = − , g (x, z) = + and
2 3 2
x 3 x 2 y 2
h(x, y ) = − xy 2 + −
3 2 2
x3 x2 y2
Hence the required potential function is ϕ = − xy 2 + − .
3 2 2

Examples
Ex-2:
A fluid motion is given by V⃗ = (y + z)iˆ + (z + x)jˆ + (x + y )k̂ . Is
this motion irrotational? If so, find the velocity potential.

iˆ jˆ k̂
⃗ = ∂ ∂ ∂
∇×V = (1 − 1)iˆ − (1 − 1)jˆ + (1 − 1)k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
y +z z +x x +y
⃗
⇒ ∇ × V = ⃗0
Hence the give vector field is irrotational and hence it can be
expressed as gradient of some potential function ϕ = ϕ(x, y , z)
⇒V ⃗ = ∇ϕ ⇒ (y + z)iˆ+ (z + x)jˆ+ (x + y )k̂ = ∂ϕ iˆ+ ∂ϕ jˆ+ ∂ϕ k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z

Ex-2 continued.....

get ⇒
∂ϕ
=y +z
∂x
∂ϕ
=z +x
∂y
∂ϕ
=x +y
∂z
⇒ ϕ = xy + xz + f (y , z)
⇒ ϕ = zy + xy + g (x, z)
⇒ ϕ = zx + yz + h(x, y )
Observing these solution we get
f (y , z) = yz, g (x, z) = zx and h(x, y ) = xy
Hence the required potential function is ϕ = xy + yz + zx.

Examples
Ex-3:
If F⃗ = 2xyz 2 iˆ + (x 2 z 2 + z cos yz)jˆ + (2x 2 yz + y cos yz)k̂ the show
that F⃗ is a potential field or conservative field and hence find its
scalar potential

iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × F⃗ =
∂x ∂y ∂z
2xyz 2 x 2 z 2 + z cos yz 2x 2 yz + y cos yz
= (2x 2 z − 2x 2 z)iˆ − (4xyz − 4xyz)jˆ + (2xz 2 − 2xz 2 )k̂
⇒ ∇ × F⃗ = ⃗0
Hence the give vector field is irrotational and hence it can be
expressed as gradient of some potential function ϕ = ϕ(x, y , z).
Therefore F⃗ is a conservative field. i.e. F⃗ = ∇ϕ
2xyz 2 iˆ+(x 2 z 2 +z cos yz)jˆ+(2x 2 yz +y cos yz)k̂ = i + j + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ex-3 continued.....

get ⇒
∂ϕ
= 2xyz 2
∂x
∂ϕ
= x 2 z 2 + z cos yz
∂y
∂ϕ
= 2x 2 yz + y cos yz
∂z
⇒ ϕ = x 2 yz 2 + f (y , z)
⇒ ϕ = x 2 yz 2 + sin yz + g (x, z)
⇒ ϕ = x 2 yz 2 + sin yz + h(x, y )
f (y , z) = sin yz, g (x, z) = 0 and h(x, y ) = 0
Hence the required potential function is ϕ = x 2 yz 2 + sin yz.

Examples
Ex-4:
If ∇ϕ = 2x iˆ + 4y jˆ + 8z k̂ the find the function ϕ
solution: We know that ∇ϕ = i+ j+ k̂ using given
∂x ∂y ∂z
function we get
i+ j+ k̂ = 2x iˆ + 4y jˆ + 8z k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
get ⇒ = 2x, = 4y , = 8z
∂x ∂y ∂z
⇒ ϕ = x 2 + f (y , z)
⇒ ϕ = 2y 2 + g (x, z)
⇒ ϕ = 4z 2 + h(x, y )
f (y , z) = 2y 2 + 4z 2 , g (x, z) = x 2 + 4z 2 and h(x, y ) = x 2 + 2y 2
Hence the required potential function is ϕ = x 2 + 2y 2 + 4z 2 .
Vector Identities:
Identity-1:
For any scalar field ϕ = ϕ(x, y , z),
Div (Grad(ϕ)) = ∇2 ϕ ⇒ ∇ · ∇ϕ = ∇2 ϕ
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ P ∂
Proof: We know that ∇ = i+ j+ k̂ = iˆ is a
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
vector differential operator.
P ∂ϕ
Hence ∇ϕ = iˆ
∂x
Taking dotproductbetween ∇ and ∇ϕ, weget
P ∂2ϕ

P ∂ P ∂ϕ P ∂ ∂ϕ
∇ · ∇ϕ = iˆ · iˆ = =
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x 2
Therefore
P ∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ
∇ · ∇ϕ = = + + 2 = ∇2 ϕ
∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z
∇2 is called Laplacian operator and it can applied to vector field as
well as scalar field.

Vector Identities:
Identity-2:
For any scalar field ϕ = ϕ(x, y , z),
Curl(Grad(ϕ)) = 0 ⇒ ∇ × (∇ϕ) = 0
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ P ∂
Proof:We know that ∇ = i+ j+ k̂ = iˆ is a vector
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
differential operator.
P ∂ϕ
Hence ∇ϕ = iˆ
∂x
By using definition of curl, we get
iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
P ∂ ∂ϕ

∂ ∂ϕ
∇ × (∇ϕ) = ∂x ∂y ∂z = − iˆ
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y
∂x ∂y ∂z
P ∂2ϕ ∂2ϕ ˆ ⃗

= − i =0
∂y ∂z ∂z∂y
Hence ∇ × (∇ϕ) = 0.
Vector Identities:
Identity-3:
Let F⃗ = f1 iˆ + f2 jˆ + f3 k̂ be any vector
field then
⃗
Div (Curl F ) = 0 ⇒ ∇ · ∇ × F = 0 ⃗
Proof:By using definition of curl, we get

iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂ P ∂f3 ∂f2
∇ × F⃗ = = − iˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z
f1 f2 f3
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ P ∂
We know that ∇ = i+ j+ k̂ = iˆ is a vector
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x
differential operator.
Now taking dot product between ∇ and ∇ × F⃗ , we get
P ∂ P ∂f ∂f
3 2 ˆ
∇ · ∇ × F⃗ = iˆ · − i
∂x ∂y ∂z
P ∂2f
∂f2

3
∇ · ∇ × F⃗ = −
∂x∂y ∂x∂z
Identity-3 continued....
∂ 2 f3 ∂ 2 f2 ∂ 2 f1 ∂ 2 f3 ∂ 2 f2 ∂ 2 f1
∇ · ∇ × F⃗ = − + − + −
∂x∂y ∂x∂z ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z∂x ∂z∂y
Hence

∇ · ∇ × F⃗ = 0.

Identities:
Identity-4:
Let F⃗ = f1 iˆ + f2 jˆ + f3 k̂ be any vector field then Curl(Curl F⃗ ) =
Grad(Div (F⃗ )) − ∇2 F⃗ ⇒ ∇ × ∇ × F⃗ = ∇(∇ · F⃗ ) − ∇2 F⃗
Proof: Given F⃗ = f1 iˆ + f2 jˆ + f3 k̂
By definition curl we have
iˆ jˆ k̂
⃗ ∂ ∂ ∂ P ∂f3 ∂f2
∇×F = = − iˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z
f1 f2 f3
Applying curl on this again we get
iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × ∇ × F⃗ = ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f3 ∂f2 ∂f1 ∂f3 ∂f2 ∂f1
− − −
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

⃗ P ∂ ∂f2 ∂f1 ∂ ∂f1 ∂f3
∇×∇×F = − − − iˆ
2 ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
∂ 2 f1 ∂ 2 f1 ∂ 2 f3 ˆ

P ∂ f2
= − − + i
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z∂z ∂z∂x
Grouping
inside the2 summation
P ∂ 2 f2
2
∂ f1 ∂ 2 f1

∂ f3
= + − + iˆ
∂y ∂x ∂z∂x ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∂ 2 f1
With summation add and subtract 2
,we get
2 2 2
∂x
∂ f1 ∂ 2 f1 ∂ 2 f1
2

P ∂ f1 ∂ f2 ∂ f3
= 2
+ + − 2
+ 2
+ 2
iˆ
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂z∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
P ∂ 2 f1 ∂ 2 f2 ∂ 2 f3 ˆ P ∂ 2 f1 ∂ 2 f1 ∂ 2 f1 ˆ

= + + i− + + i
∂x2 ∂y ∂x ∂z∂x 2∂x
2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∂2 ∂2

P ∂ ∂f1 ∂f2 ∂f3 P ∂
= + + iˆ − + + f1 iˆ
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Now using definition of divergence and Laplacian,we get
P ∂ P
∇ · F⃗ − ∇2 f1 iˆ

=
∂x

Further by using definition of gradient and using properties of
Laplacian,we
get P
= ∇ ∇ · F⃗ − ∇2 f1 iˆ

∇ × ∇ × F⃗ = ∇ ∇ · F⃗ − ∇2 F⃗
Hence the proof.

Identities:
Identity-5:
If ϕ = ϕ(x, y , z) is any ⃗ ˆ ˆ
field and F =f1 i + f2 j + f3 k̂ be any
scalar
vector field then ∇ · ϕF⃗ = (∇ϕ) · F⃗ + ϕ ∇ · F⃗ .

⃗
Proof: Consider ϕF = ϕ f1 i + f2 j + f3 k̂ = ϕf1 iˆ + ϕf2 jˆ + ϕf3 k̂
ˆ ˆ
That in summation form can be written as ϕF⃗ = ϕf1 iˆ
P
P ∂
By definition of vector operator we know that ∇ = iˆ
∂x
Taking dot product between ∇ and ϕF⃗ , we get
P ∂ P P ∂ ⃗
∇ · ϕF⃗ = iˆ · ϕf1 iˆ = ϕF
∂x ∂x
By using product rule, we get
P ∂ ∂f1 ∂ϕ
∇ · ϕF =⃗ (ϕf1 ) =
P
ϕ + f1 =
∂x ∂x ∂x
P ∂f1 P ∂ϕ
ϕ + f1
∂x ∂x

⃗
P ∂f1 P ∂ϕ
i · f1 iˆ
ˆ
P
∇ · ϕF = ϕ +
∂x ∂x
Now using given vector and definitions of divergence and gradient,
we get

∇ · ϕF⃗ = ϕ ∇ · F⃗ + (∇ϕ) · F⃗
Hence the proof

Identities:
Identity-6:
If ϕ = ϕ(x, y , z) is any scalar ⃗ ˆ ˆ
field and F = f1i + f2 j +f3 k̂ be any
vector field then ∇ × ϕF⃗ = (∇ϕ) × F⃗ + ϕ ∇ × F⃗ .

Proof: Consider ϕF⃗ = ϕ f1 iˆ + f2 jˆ + f3 k̂ = ϕf1 iˆ + ϕf2 jˆ + ϕf3 k̂
That in summation form can be written as ϕF⃗ = ϕf1 iˆ
P
P ∂
By definition of vector operator we know that ∇ = iˆ
∂x
Taking cross product between ∇ and ϕF⃗ , we get
iˆ jˆ hatk
P ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × ϕF⃗ = iˆ × ϕf1 iˆ =
P
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
ϕf1 ϕf2 ϕf3
P ∂ ∂

⇒ ∇ × ϕF = ⃗ (ϕf3 ) − (ϕf2 ) iˆ
∂y ∂z

Using product rules, we get
P ∂ P ∂

∇ × ϕF =⃗ ˆ
(ϕf3 ) i − (ϕf2 ) iˆ
∂y ∂z
P ∂f ∂ϕ

∂f2 ∂ϕ

3
⇒ ∇ × ϕF⃗ = f3 iˆ − fz iˆ
P
ϕ + ϕ +
∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
⇒
⃗ ∂f3 ∂f2 ˆ P ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
fz iˆ
P
∇ × ϕF = ϕ −ϕ i+ f3 −
∂y ∂z ∂y
∂z
∂f 3 ∂f 2 ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
⇒ ∇ × ϕF⃗ = ϕ iˆ + fz iˆ
P P
− f3 −
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z
∇ × ϕF⃗ = ϕ ∇ × F⃗ + (∇ϕ) × F⃗
Hence the proof.

Identities:
Identity-7:
If F⃗ = f1 iˆ + f2 jˆ+ f3 k̂ and ⃗ ˆ ˆ
G =g1 i + g2j + g3 k̂are anytwo vector
fields then ∇ · F⃗ × G⃗ = G⃗ · ∇ × F⃗ − F⃗ · ∇ × G⃗ .
Proof:Given F⃗ = f1 iˆ + f2 jˆ + f3 k̂ and G⃗ = g1 iˆ + g2 jˆ + g3 k̂ are any

two vector fields, then
iˆ jˆ k̂
⃗ ⃗
F × G = f1 f2 f3 = (f2 g3 − f3 g2 ) iˆ
P
g1 g2 g3
P ∂
We know that ∇ = ˆ
i.
∂x
Taking dot productbetween∇ and F⃗ × G⃗ , we get
P ∂ P
⇒ ∇ · F⃗ × G⃗ = iˆ · (f2 g3 − f3 g2 ) iˆ
∂x
P ∂ P ∂ P ∂
⇒= (f2 g3 − f3 g2 ) = (f2 g3 ) − (f3 g2 )
∂x ∂x ∂x
P ∂ P ∂
⇒= (f2 g3 ) − (f3 g2 )
∂x ∂x

P ∂g3 ∂f2 P ∂g2 ∂f3
⇒= f2 + g3 − f3 + g2
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂g3 ∂f2 ∂g1 ∂f3 ∂g2 ∂f1 ∂g2
⇒= f2 + g3 + f3 + g1 + f1 + g2 − f3 −
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
∂f3 ∂g3 ∂f1 ∂g1 ∂f2
g2 − f1 − g3 − f2 − g1
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z

∂f3 ∂f2 ∂f1 ∂f3 ∂f2 ∂f1
= g1 − + g2 − + g3 − −
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
∂g3 ∂g2 ∂g3 ∂g1 ∂g1 ∂g2
f1 − − f2 − − f3 −
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x
P P ∂f
∂f2 ˆ P ∂g3 ∂g2

3
g1 iˆ · f1 iˆ · iˆ
P
⇒= − i− −
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z
= G⃗ · ∇ × F⃗ − F⃗ · ∇ × G⃗
Hence the proof.

Examples:
Ex-1:
If ϕ is a scalar point function then prove that ϕ∇ϕ is irrotational.

Solution:Using identity ∇ × (ϕF⃗ ) = ϕ ∇ × F⃗ + (∇ϕ) × F⃗ , we
get
∇ × (ϕ∇ϕ) = ϕ (∇ × (∇ϕ)) + (∇ϕ) × ∇ϕ
Since we know that Curl(Gradϕ) = 0 and cross product between
same vector is zero, we get
⇒= 0 + 0 = 0
Hence ϕ∇ϕ is irrotational.
Note
iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
∂x ∂z ∂z = 0
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
∂x ∂z ∂z

Examples:
Ex-2:
If ϕ and ψ are scalar point functions then prove that ∇ϕ × ∇ψ is
solenoidal.
Solution:Using
Identity

∇ · F × G = G⃗ · ∇ × F⃗ − F⃗ · ∇ × G⃗
⃗ ⃗
Put F⃗ = ∇ϕ and G⃗ = ∇ψ, we get
∇ · F⃗ × G⃗ = ∇ψ · (∇ × ∇ϕ) − ∇ϕ · (∇ × ∇ψ)
Using
the identity
Curl(Grad) = 0, we get
∇ · F⃗ × G⃗ = ∇ψ · (∇ × ∇ϕ) − ∇ϕ · (∇ × ∇ψ) = 0
Hence ∇ϕ and ∇ψ are solenoidal.

Examples:
Ex-3:
⃗ = ⃗r then show that
If ⃗r = x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂, r = |⃗r | and V
r
⃗ 2 ⃗
div (V ) = and curl(V ) = 0.
r
Solution:Given V ⃗ = ⃗r = r −1⃗r
r
Using the vector identity ∇ · (ϕF⃗ ) = ∇ϕ · F⃗ + ϕ(∇ · F⃗ )
1
Substituting ϕ = r −1 = (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )− 2 and
F⃗ = ⃗r = x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂, we get
∇ · (r −1⃗r ) = ∇(r −1 ) · ⃗r + r −1 (∇ · ⃗r )........(1)
P ∂x P
Here ∇ · ⃗r = = (1) = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 and
∂x
P ∂r −1

dr P −2 x
−1 iˆ = −2 iˆ = iˆ
P
∇(r ) = −r −r
∂x dx r
Hence ∇(r −1 ) = −r −3 (x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂)
Using this in (1), we get
∇ · (r −1⃗r ) = ∇(r −1 ) · ⃗r + r −1 (∇ · ⃗r )
= −r −3 (x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂) · (x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂) + r −1 (3) =
−r −3 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + 3r −1
⇒ ∇ · (r −1⃗r ) = −r −3 r 2 + 3r −1 = 2r −1
Hence ∇ · V ⃗ = 2.
r
Next by using identity ∇ × (ϕF⃗ ) = ∇ϕ × F⃗ + ϕ(∇ × F⃗ ), we get
∇ × (r −1⃗r ) = ∇(r −1 × ⃗r + r −1 (∇ × ⃗r )
Using ∇ × ⃗r = 0 and ∇(r −1 = −r −3⃗r
∇ × (r −1⃗r ) = −r −3⃗r × ⃗r + r −1 0 = 0 + 0 = 0
Hence ∇ × V ⃗ = 0.

Examples:
Ex-4:
If ⃗r = x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂ and r = |⃗r | , prove that
(a). div (grad(r n )) = ∇2 (r n ) = n(n + 1)r n−2
2
(b).∇2 f (r ) = f ′′ (r ) + f ′ (r )
r
(c).∇2 (r n ⃗r ) = n(n + 3)r n−2⃗r
2
(d).∇ (∇ · rˆ) = − 3 ⃗r
r
Solution: P n−1 x
(a) ∇(r n ) = nr iˆ = nr n−2 (x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂)
r
Operating divergence on this, we get
P ∂ P n−2 P ∂(nr n−2 x)
∇ · ∇(r n ) = iˆ · (nr x)iˆ = =
∂x ∂x
x
nr n−2 + n(n − 2)r n−3 x
P
r
= 3nr n−2 + n(n − 2)r n−4 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 3nr n−2 + n(n − 2)r n−4 r 2
= (3n + n2 − 2n)r n−2 = n(n + 1)r n−2 = ∇2 (r n )
P ′ x ⃗r
(b) ∇(f (r )) = f (r ) iˆ = f ′ (r )
r r
Operating divergence on this, we get
x
∂ x ∂(f ′ (r ) )
∇ · ∇(f (r )) = ∇2 (f (r ) =
P
iˆ · (f ′ (r ) )iˆ =
P P r =
∂x r ∂x
′′ x ′ ′ x
P r (xf (r ) r + f (r )) − xf (r ) r
r2
x 2 f ′ (r )
 
2 ′′ ′
x f (r ) + rf (r ) −
=
P  r 

 r 2 
r 2 f ′ (r )
r 2 f ′′ (r ) + 3rf ′ (r ) − 2
= r = f ′′ (r ) + f ′ (r )
r 2 r

(c)∇2 (r n ⃗r ) = n(n + 3)r n−2⃗r
Apply divergence on r n ⃗r , we get
P ∂(r n x) P n
∇ · (r n ⃗r ) = = (r + nr n−2 x 2 ) = 3r n + nr n
∂x
Applying gradient on this we get
P ∂ P xˆ
∇ (∇ · (r n ⃗r )) = iˆ(r n (n + 3)) = n(n + 3)r n−1 i
∂x r
⇒ ∇ (∇ · (r n ⃗r )) = ∇2 (r n ⃗r ) = n(n + 3)r n−2⃗r

2
r )) = −
(d)grad(div (ˆ ⃗r
r3
⃗r ˆ + jˆ + z k̂
x iy
Taking divergence on rˆ = =p , we get
r 2 2 2
! x +y +z
x
∂ p
P x2 + y2 + z2
∇ · rˆ = =
∂x
p 2x
x2 + y2 + z2 − x p
P 2 x + y2 + z2
2 P y2 + z2
=
x2 + y2 + z2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
2 2
2(x + y + z ) 2 2
⇒ ∇ · rˆ = 2 2 2 3/2
=p
(x + y + z ) x + y2 + z2
2
Applying gradient on this we get !
P ∂ 2 −x
iˆ p iˆ
P
∇ (∇ · rˆ) = =2 2 + y + z 2 )3/2
∂x 2
x +y +z 2 2 (x
2
∇ (∇ · rˆ) = − 3 ⃗r
r
Examples:
Ex-5:
If ⃗r = x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂ and r = |⃗r | , show that r n ⃗r is solenoidal for
n = −3 and irrotational for all n.
Solution:Using the vector identity ∇ · (ϕF⃗ ) = ∇ϕ · F⃗ + ϕ(∇ · F⃗ )

and ϕ = r n , F⃗ = ⃗r , we get
∇ · (r n ⃗r ) = ∇(rn ) · ⃗r + (r n
)(∇ · ⃗r )
x
n n−1 i · (x) iˆ + r n (3)
ˆ
P P
∇ · (r ⃗r ) = nr
r
Taking ∇ · (r n ⃗r) = 0, we get
x ˆ P
nr n−1 i · (x) iˆ + r n (3) = 0
P
⇒
r
⇒ nr n−2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) + 3r n = 0
⇒ nr n−2 r 2 + 3r n = r n (n + 3) = 0 ⇒ n = −3
Hence r n ⃗r is solenoidal if n = −3.
Next by using identity ∇ × (ϕF⃗ ) = ∇ϕ × F⃗ + ϕ(∇ × F⃗ ), we get
∇ × (r n ⃗r ) = ∇(r n ) × ⃗r + r n (∇ × ⃗r ) = 0, for all n.
Examples:
Ex-6:
−n
If f = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , find div (gradf ) and determine n if
div (gradf ) = 0.
Solution:Using the identity ∇ · ϕF⃗ = ∇ϕ · F⃗ + ϕ(∇ · F⃗ )

Here ϕ = 1 and F⃗ = ∇f
⇒ F⃗ = −2n(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )−n−1 x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂
Let x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2 and using this in the above identity, we get
P ∂(−2n(r 2 )−n−1 x)
∇ · (1F⃗ ) = ∇(1) · F⃗ + 1(∇ · F⃗ ) = ∇ · F⃗ =
∂x
1)(r 2 )−n−2 2x 2 − 2n(r 2 )−n−1
P
⇒ 2n(n +P
⇒= (r 2 )−n−1 4n(n + 1)(r 2 )−1 x 2 − 2n

⇒= (r 2 )−n−1 4n(n + 1)(r 2 )−1 (r 2 ) − (2n + 2n + 2n)

= r −2n−2 (4n2 + 4n − 6n) = 2r −2n−2 (2n2 − n) = 0

⇒ n = 0 or n = 0.5

Examples:
Ex-7:
For a solenoidal vector F⃗ , show that curlcurlcurlcurl F⃗ = ∇4 F⃗ .
Solution: Using identity ∇ × ∇ × F⃗ = ∇(∇ · F⃗ ) − ∇2 F⃗ and also

it is given F⃗ is solenoidal, we get
∇ × ∇ × F⃗ = −∇2 F⃗
Taking ∇2 F⃗ = G⃗ , we get
∇ × ∇ × F⃗ = −G⃗
Applying curl again two times on above step we get
⇒ ∇ × ∇ × (−G⃗ ) = ∇(∇ · (−G⃗ )) − ∇2 (−G⃗ )
Using G⃗ = ∇2 F⃗ in this
⇒= ∇(∇ · (−∇2 F⃗ )) − ∇2 (−∇2 F⃗ )
⇒= −∇2 (∇(∇ · F⃗ ) + ∇2 ∇2 F⃗
Since F⃗ is solenoidal ∇ · F⃗ = 0
⇒= 0 + ∇4 F⃗ = ∇4 F⃗
Vector Integration:
Line Integral:
The line integral of F⃗ along a curve C denoted by C F⃗ · dr
⃗ is
R
R P2
given by C F⃗ · dr
⃗ =
R
P1 (F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz), where
⃗ ˆ ˆ
F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k̂ and P1 and P2 are points on the curve C .
Geometrically if F⃗ is the force acting on an object

⃗ ⃗
R
then C F · dr is the work done in moving the object along C
from P1 to P2 .
The line integral of F⃗ around a simple closed curve C is said
to be the circulation of F⃗ around C .
To give a more physical intuition, if F⃗ denotes a fluid flow in
some region and C is a path in that region, the above integral
gives us a measure of total component of F⃗ along C .

Examples:
Ex-1:
If F⃗ = 3xy iˆ − y 2 jˆ evaluate C F⃗ · dr
⃗ where C is the curve in the
R
2
xy -plane y = 2x from (0, 0) to (1, 2) .
Solution:

Ex-1 continued....
By
R definitionR Pof2 line integral we have
⃗ ⃗
C F · dr = P1 (F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz)
Using given vector F⃗ = 3xy iˆ − y 2 j,
ˆ we get
⃗ ⃗ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
F · dr = (3xy i − y j) · (dx i + dy i + dz k̂) = 3xydx − y 2 dy + 0dz
2
⃗ = P2 3xydx − y 2 dy
F⃗ · dr
R R
⇒ C P1
Using the given points and curves, we see that x : 0 to x = 1,
y =R 2x 2 and dyR = 4xdx, we getR
⇒ C F⃗ · dr⃗ = 1 3x(2x 2 )dx − 1 (2x 2 )2 (4xdx)
0
0 4 1 1
R1 3 R1 5 6x 16x 6 6 16
⇒= 0 6x dx − 0 16x dx = − = −
4 0 6 0 4 6
36 − 64 −28 7
⇒= = =−
24 24 6

Examples:
Ex-2:
If F⃗ = (2y + 3)iˆ + xz jˆ + (yz − x)k̂ evaluate C F⃗ · dr
⃗ where C is
R
2 3
the curve x = 2t , y = t and z = t from the point (0, 0, 0) to the
point (2, 1, 1) .
Solution:By definition of line integral we have

⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ dr
R R
C F · dr = C F · dt dt
Since ⃗r = x iˆ + y jˆ + z k̂
Using given parametric curves, we get
⃗r = 2t 2 iˆ + t jˆ + t 3 k̂
⃗
dr dx ˆ dy ˆ dz
⇒ = i+ j + k̂ = 4t iˆ + jˆ + 3t 2 k̂
dt dt dt dt
Using parametric curves in given vector, we get
F⃗ = (2t + 3)iˆ + 2t 5 k̂ + (t 4 − 2t 2 )k̂
⃗
dr
⇒ F⃗ · = ((2t + 3)iˆ + 2t 5 k̂ + (t 4 − 2t 2 )k̂) · (4t iˆ + jˆ + 3t 2 k̂)
dt
⃗
dr
⇒ F⃗ · = 8t 2 + 12t + 2t 5 + 3t 6 − 6t 4
dt
Using the given points and parametric curves we see that t varies
from 0 to 1 i.e t : 0 to 1.
Therefore the given line integral becomes:
⃗
⃗ dr
R1
⃗ ⃗ 2 5 6 4
R R
C F · dr = C F · dt dt = 0 (8t + 12t + 2t + 3t − 6t )dt
3 1
8t 12t 2 2t 6 3t 7 6t 5
⇒= + + + −
3 2 6 7 5 0
8 12 2 3 6
⇒= + + + −
3 2 6 7 5
⇒= 7.0285

Examples:
Ex-3:
Find the work done in moving a particle in the force field
F⃗ = 3x 2 iˆ + (2xz − y )jˆ + z k̂
a) along the straight line from the point (0, 0, 0) to the point
(2, 1, 3).
b)the curve defined by x 2 = 4y , 3x 3 = 8z from x = 0 to x = 2 .
Solution:We know thatR the work done in moving a particle along a

curve C is the integral C F⃗ · dr
⃗ along the curve C .
x y z
For part (a): Parameterization is got by = = = t.
2 1 3
Then x = 2t, y = t and z = 3t which implies dx = 2dt, dy = dt
and dz = 3dt and t varies from 0 to 1. Hence the work done along
C
R 1 is
⃗ ⃗ 2ˆ ˆ ˆ
R
C F R· dr = C1 (3x i + (2xz − y )k̂ + z k̂) · (dx i + dy j + dz k̂)
2
⇒= C1 3x dx + (2xz − y )dy + zdz

Using above parametric curves x = 2t, y = t and z = 3t which
implies dx = 2dt, dy = dt and dz = 3dt and t varies from 0 to 1,
we
R get
⃗ = 1 3(2t)2 (2dt) + (2(2t)(3t) − t)dt + 3t(3dt)
⃗ · dr
R
F
C R 0
1
⇒= 0 (24t 2 + 12t 2 − t + 9t)dt
R1
⇒= 0 (36t 2 + 8t)dt
1
⇒= 12t 3 + 4t 2 0

⃗ ⃗
R
C F · dr = 12 + 4 = 16
t2 3t 3
For part (b): Put x = t, we get y = and z = are
4 8
parametric curves with t varies from 0 to 2,which implies that
tdt 9t 2 dt
dx = dt, dy = and dz = . Using this in above line
2 8
integral we get
⃗ · dr
⃗ = 2
R R
C F C2 3x dx + (2xz − y )dy + zdz
R2 2
= 0 3t dt + (2t(3t 3 )/8 − t 2 /4)tdt/2 + 3t 3 /8(9t 2 dt)/8

6t 5 t 3 27t 5

R2
⃗ ⃗ 2
R
C F · dr = 0 3t +
16
−
8
+
64
dt
2
t6 t4 27t 6

F⃗ · dr
⃗ 3
R
C = t + − +
16 32 64 ∗ 6 0
64 16 27 ∗ 64
F⃗ · dr
⃗
R
C =8+ − +
16 32 64 ∗ 6
1 9
F⃗ ⃗
R
C · dr =8+4− +
2 2
F⃗ ⃗
R
C · dr = 16

Examples:
Ex-4:
A vector field is given by F⃗ = sin y iˆ + x(1 + cos y )j.
ˆ Evaluate the
line integral over a circular path given by x + y = a2 , z = 0.
2 2
Solution:By R definition of line integral we have

R
⃗ ⃗ P2
C F · dr = P1 (F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz)
Using given vector F⃗ = sin y iˆ + x(1 + cos y )j,ˆ we get
⃗ ⃗
F · dr = (sin y i + x(1 + cos y )j + 0k̂) · (dx i + dy iˆ + dz k̂)
ˆ ˆ ˆ
= sin ydx + x(1 + cos y )dy + 0dz
⇒ C F⃗ · dr⃗ = P2 (sin ydx + x(1 + cos y )dy )
R R
RPP12
⃗ ⃗
R
⇒ C F · dr = P1 (d(x sin y ) + xdy )

Using Parametric form of the circle is x = a cos t and y = a sin t.
To get the whole circle, t need to vary from 0 to 2π . Also
dx R= −a sin tdtR and dy = a cos tdt. Thus
⃗ = 2π (d(a cos t sin (a sin t)) + (a cos t)(a cos tdt))
⇒ C F⃗ · dr
R 2π 0 R 2π
⇒= 0 d ((a cos t) sin (a sin t)) + 0 a2 cos2 t

dt
2π 2π 1 + cos 2t
⇒= [(a cos t) sin (a sin t)]0 + a2 0
R
dt
2
2π
t sin 2t
⇒= 0 + a2 +
2 4 0
⃗ ⃗ 2
R
⇒ C F · dr = a π, is the required answer.

Examples:
Ex-5:
Compute the line integral C y 2 dx − x 2 dy about the triangle
R
whose vertices are (1, 0) , (0, 1) , (−1, 0) .
Solution:Since triangle is made up of three lines let

C = C1R+ C2 + C3
⇒ I = C y 2 dx − x 2 dy = C1 +C2 +C3 y 2 dx − x 2 dy = I1 + I2 + I3
R
I1 = C1 y 2 dx − x 2 dy
R
I2 = C2 y 2 dx − x 2 dy
R
I3 = C3 y 2 dx − x 2 dy
R
Along C1 :Let C1 line joining points (1, 0) and (0, 1), equation of
x −1 y −0
this line is given by = ⇒ y = 1 − x ⇒ dy = −dx and
0−1 1−0
on this linesRy varies from 0 to R1
1
Hence I1 = C1 y 2 dx − x 2 dy = 0 y 2 (−dy ) − (1 − y )2 dy

Ex-5 continued....
1
2y 3

R1
I1 = 0 (−y 2 −1− y2 + 2y )dy = −y + y2 −
3 0
2 2
I1 = −1 + 1 − = −
3 3
Along C2 :Let C2 line joining points (0, 1) and (−1, 0), equation of
x −0 y −1
this line is given by = ⇒ x = y − 1 ⇒ dx = dy and
−1 − 0 0−1
on this linesRy varies from 1 to R0
0
Hence I2 = C2 y 2 dx − x 2 dy = 1 y 2 (dy ) − (y − 1)2 dy
R1 2 1
I2 = 0 (y − 1 − y 2 + 2y )dy = −y + y 2 0 = −1 + 1 = 0

Along C3 :Let C3 line joining points (−1, 0) and (1, 0), equation of
this line is given by y = 0 ⇒ dy = 0 and on this lines x varies from
−1 to 1 R1
Hence I3 = C3 y 2 dx − x 2 dy = −1 0(dx) − x 2 (0)
R
I3 = 0
2 2
I = I1 + I2 + I3 = − + 0 + 0 = −
3 3
Integral Theorems:
Green’s theorem in the plane:

If M(x, y ), N(x, y ), My and Nx be continuous in a region R of the
xy -plane bounded by a simple closedcurve C , then
R RR ∂N ∂M
C Mdx + Ndy = R − dxdy
∂x ∂y
Important note:
Intuitively Green’s theorem can be explained as follows. Imagine a
thin sheet of metal plate with uneven temperature distribution.
Consider a region on the plate whose boundary is a loop. Then
Green’s theorem says that total amount of heat circulating in the
region is equal to the total amount of heat circulating on the
boundary.

Geometrical Interpretation of Green’s Theorem:
How to Visualize Green’s Theorem:

Think of the integral C F⃗ .dr⃗ in Green’s theorem gives macroscopic
R
⃗
circulation of vector field F around the path C . This integral is
called a line integral over the curve C and it is a single integral.

Now imagine you come up with a microscopic circulation around a
curve. This microscopic circulation at a point (x, y ) has to tell you
how much F⃗ would circulate around a tinny closed curve centered
around (x, y ). We would picture the microscopic circulations as
bunch of small closed curves as shown in figure below, where each
curve represents the tendency for the vector field to circulate at
that location.

Green’s Theorem is simply a relation between the macroscopic
circulation around the curve C and the sum of all microscopic
circulation that is inside C . If C is a simple closed curve in the
plane then it is surrounded some region D in the plane as show
figure below. This will lead to a surface integral and hence we get
double integral on right hand side of Green’s Theorem.

Example:1
Verify Green’s theorem for C (xy + y 2 )dx + x 2 dy , where C is
R
bounded by y = x and y = x 2 .
Solution:Given C Mdx + Ndy = C (xy + y 2 )dx + x 2 dy

R R
⇒ M = xy + y 2 , N = x 2 ⇒ My = x + 2y , Nx = 2x
Using Green’s theorem
R RR ∂N ∂M
C Mdx + Ndy = R − dxdy .......(1)
R∂x ∂y
LHS= C Mdx + Ndy = C (xy + y 2 )dx + x 2 dy
R
Using given curves y = x and y = x 2 ,we get a curve C made up of

two branches 2
R C2 : y = x and RC1 : y = x
⇒ LHS = C Mdx + Ndy = C1 +C2 (xy + y 2 )dx + x 2 dy =
2 2 2 2
R R
C1 (xy + y )dx + x dy + C2 (xy + y )dx + x dy
AlongR C2 , we get limits for x areR 1 to 0 and dx = dy
0
I1 = C2 (xy + y 2 )dx + x 2 dy = 1 (x 2 + x 2 )dx + x 2 dx =
3 0
R0 2 3x
1 3x dx = = −1
3 1
Ex-1 Continued....
AlongR C1 , we get limits for x areR 0 to 1 and dy = 2xdx

1
I2 = C1 (xy + y 2 )dx + x 2 dy = 0 (x 3 + x 4 )dx + 2x 3 dx =
4 1
R1 3 4 3x x5 3 1 19
0 (3x + x )dx = 4
+ = + =
5 0 4 5 20
19 1
Hence LHS = I1 + I2 = −1 + =−
20 20
Next let us evaluate
RHS of (1)
RR ∂N ∂M R1Rx
RHS= R − dxdy = 0 x 2 (2x − x − 2y ) dxdy
∂x ∂y
R1Rx R1 x
= 0 x 2 (x − 2y ) dxdy = 0 xy − y 2 x 2 dx
R1 R1
= 0 x(x − x 2 ) − x 2 + x 4 dx = 0 −x 3 + x 4 dx

4 1
x x5 1 1 1
RHS = − + =− + =−
4 5 0 4 5 20
LHS=RHS, hence the Green’s theorem is verified.

Example:2
Verify Green’s theorem for C (3x − 8y 2 )dx + (4y − 6xy )dy ,
R
where C is bounded by x = 0, y = 0 and x + y = 1.
Solution:

Green’s
R Theorem states
R R that
C Mdx + Ndy = R (Nx − My ) dxdy .......(1)
Given C (3x − 8y )dx + (4y − 6xy )dy ⇒ M = 3x − 8y 2 and
2
R
N = 4y − 6xy
⇒ My = −16y , Nx = −6y
Consider
RR RHS of Green’sR theorem,
R we get RR
R (N x − M y ) dxdy = R (−6y + 16y ) dxdy = R (10y ) dxdy
Using the given curves as show in the figure above following
vertical strip limits of the double integral are x = 0 to 1 and y = 0
to y = 1 −Rx R
1 1−x
⇒ RHS = 0 0 (10y ) dydx
R 1 2 1−x
RHS = 0 5y 0 dx
R1
RHS = 5 0 (1 − x)2 dx

1
x3

RHS = 5 x + −x 2
3 0
1 5
RHS = 5 1 + − 1 =
3 3
Ex-2 continued.......
LHS= C Mdx + Ndy = C (3x − 8y 2 )dx + (4y − 6xy )dy
R R
Using given curves y = 0 x = 0 and y + x = 1,we get a curve C

made up of three branches C2 : y = 1 − x C3 : x = 0, y = 1to0
and C1 : y R= 0, x = 0to1
⇒ LHS = C1 +C2 +C3 (3x − 8y 2 )dx + (4y − 6xy )dy = I1 + I2 + I3
I1 = C1 (3x − 8y 2 )dx + (4y − 6xy )dy
R
I2 = C2 (3x − 8y 2 )dx + (4y − 6xy )dy

R
I3 = C3 (3x − 8y 2 )dx + (4y − 6xy )dy

R
AlongR C2 , we get limits for x are 1 to 0 and dy = −dx

I1 = (3x − 8y 2 )dx + (4y − 6xy )dy =
R 0 C1
(3x − 8(1 − x)2 )dx + (4(1 − x) − 6x(1 − x))(−dx) =
R10 2 2
1 (3x − 8 − 8x + 16x − 4 + 4x + 6x − 6x )dx =
0
29x 2 14x 3

R0 2
1 (−12 + 29x − 14x )dx = −12x + 2 − 3 =
1
29 14 13
12 − + =
2 3 6
Ex-2 continued...
AlongR C3 , we get limits for y are 1 to 0 and x = 0 ⇒ dx = 0

I2 = (3x − 8y 2 )dx + (4y − 6xy )dy =
R 0 C3
(3x − 8y 2 )dx + (4y − 6xy )dy =
R10 2
2 0
1 (3 ∗ 0 − 8y )(0) + (4y − 0)dy = 2y 1 = −2
AlongR C1 , we get limits for x are 0 to 1 and y = 0 ⇒ dy = 0
I3 = C1 (3x − 8y 2 )dx + (4y − 6xy )dy =
2 0
R0 3x 3
1 (3x − 0)dx + (4(0) − 6x(0))0 = 2 1 2
=
13 3 13 − 12 + 9 5
Hence LHS = I1 + I2 + I3 = −2+ = =
6 2 6 3
Hence LHS=RHS therefore Green’s Theorem is verified.

Example:3
Verify Green’s theorem for C (x 2 − cosh x)dx + (y + sin x)dy ,
R
where C is the rectangle with (0, 0) , (π, 0) , (π, 1) and (0, 1).
Solution:Given M = x 2 − cosh x and N = y + sin x

⇒ My = 0, Nx = cos x
By
R Green’s theorem, R Rwe have
C Mdx + Ndy = R R R (Nx − My ) dxdy .......(1)
Consider RHS = R (Nx − My ) dxdy
Using given rectangle we see that x varies from x = 0 to x = π
and y varies from y = 0 to y = 1. Using these limits and My and
Nx in RHS Rof RGreen’s theorem, we get
π 1 RπR1
⇒ RHS = 0 0 (cos x − 0) dxdy = 0 0 (cos x) dydx
Rπ Rπ
RHS = 0 (y cos x)10 dx = 0 (cos x) dx = [sin x]π0 = 0

Ex-3 continued...
LHS= C Mdx + Ndy = C (x 2 − cosh x)dx + (y + sin x)dy

R R
Using given rectangle C made up of (0, 0) ,(π, 0),(π, 1) and

(0, 1),we get a curve C made up of four branches C1 : y = 0, x = 0
to π, C2 : x = π, y = 0 to 1, C3 : y = 1, x = π to 01 and
C4 : x = 0, y = 1 to 0.
AlongR C1 , we get limits for x are 0 to π ,y = 0 and dy = 0
I1 = C1 (x 2 − cosh x)dx + (y + sin x)dy =
Rπ 2 Rπ
0 (x − cosh x)dx + (0 + sin x)0 = 0 (x 2 − cosh x)dx =
3 π
x π3
− sinh x = − sinh π
3 0 3
AlongR C2 , we get limits for y are 0 to 1 ,x = π and dx = 0
2 1
R1 2 R1 y 1
0 (π − cosh π)0 + (y + sin π)dy = 0 ydy = =
2 0 2

Ex-3 continued.....
AlongR C3 , we get limits for x are π to 0 ,y = 1 and dy = 0

R0 2 Rπ 2
π (x − cosh x)dx + (1 + sin x)0 = 0 (x − cosh x)dx =
3 0
x π3
− sinh x = − + sinh π
3 π 3
AlongR C4 , we get limits for y are 1 to 0 ,x = 0 and dx = 0
2 0
R0 R0 y 1
1 (0 − cosh 0)0 + (y + sin 0)dy = 1 ydy = =−
2 1 2
⇒
π3 1 π3 1
LHS = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = − sinh π + − + sinh π − = 0
3 2 3 2
Therefore LHS=RHS and hence the Green’s theorem is verified.

Example:4
Apply Green’s theorem to prove that the area enclosed by a plane
1R
curve is xdy − ydx. Hence find the area of an ellipse whose
2 C
major and minor axes are of lengths a and b.
Solution:By
R Green’s
R R theorem we have
C Mdx + Ndy = R (Nx − My ) dxdy .......(1)
Given N = x and M = −y
⇒ My = −1 and Nx = 1
Using
R this in RHS RofR (1), we get
Mdx
C R + Ndy = R R(1R+ 1) dxdy
⇒ C Mdx + Ndy = 2 R dxdy
RR 1R
⇒ R dxdy = 2 C Mdx + Ndy
We know that LHS in above equation is the area of the region R
RR 1R
A= R dxdy = 2 C Mdx + Ndy

Ex-4 continued....
Hence to find the area of ellipse with major axis x = a and minor
axis y = b, we get limits for x and y in the first quadrant are
b√ 2
x = 0 to a and y = 0 to a − x 2 . Hence the required area is
a
A = 4 ∗ Areainthefirstquadrent
b√
RR R a R a a2 −x 2 R a b√
A = 4 R dxdy = 4 0 0 dydx = 0 a2 − x 2 dx
a
b Ra√
A = 4 0 a2 − x 2 dx
a
Put x = a sin θ ⇒ dx = a cos θdθ and limits of θ are varies from 0
π
to
2
π π
bR2 a2 b R 2 2
⇒ A = 4 0 a cos θa cos θdθ = 4 0 cos θdθ
a a
θ sin 2θ π/2

π
A = 4ab + = 4ab = πab
2 4 0 4
is the required solution.
Example:5
Apply Green’s theorem to prove that the area enclosed by a plane
1R
curve is xdy − ydx. Hence find the area of the region between
2 C
the parabolas x 2 = 4y and y 2 = 4x.
Solution:To find the area between x 2 = 4y and y 2 = 4x

The point of intersection is (4, 4) and hence the limits in vertical
strip integration are
x = 0 to 4
x2 √
y= to 2 x
4
R 4 R 2√x Ra √ x2

RR
A= R dxdy = 0 x 2 /4 dydx = 0 2 x − dx
4
" #4
x 3/2 x 3 4 ∗ 43/2 43 16
A= 2 − = − =
3/2 12 3 12 3
0

Example:6
R
Apply Green’s theorem to evaluate (y − sin x)dx + cos xdy
C
π
where C is the triangle enclosed by the lines y = 0, x = and
2
2x
y= .
π

Stoke’s theorem
Theorem:
If S be an open surface bounded by a closed curve C and
F⃗ = f1 iˆ + f2 jˆ +Rf3 k̂ be continuously differentiable vector point
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
R
function, then C F .dr = S (∇ × F ) · n̂dS where n̂ is a unit
external normal vector at any point.
Visualization of Stokes Theorem
Stokes’ theorem is a generalization of Green’s theorem from

circulation in a planar region to circulation along a surface.
Green’s theorem states that, given a continuously differentiable
two-dimensional vector field F⃗ , the integral of the “microscopic
circulation” of F⃗ over the region D inside a simple closed curve C
is equal to the total circulation of F⃗ around C , as suggested by the
equation
⃗ ⃗
R RR
C F · ds = D microscopiccirculationof F ”dA
We often write that C = ∂D as fancy notation meaning simply
that C is the boundary of D. The “microscopic circulation” in
Green’s theorem is captured by the curl of the vector field and is
illustrated by the green circles in the below figure.Green’s theorem
applies only to two-dimensional vector fields and to regions in the
two-dimensional plane.
Stokes’ theorem generalizes Green’s theorem to three dimensions.

To view this let’s take our above picture and simply embed it in
three dimensions. Then, our curve C becomes a curve in the
xy -plane, and our region D becomes a surface S in the xy -plane
whose boundary is the curve C . Even though S is now a surface,
we still use the same notation as ∂ for the boundary. The boundary
∂S of the surface S is a closed curve, and we require that ∂S = C .
The next question is what the microscopic circulation along a
surface should be. For Green’s theorem, we found that

Microscopic Circulation= (curl F⃗ ) · k̂,
(where k̂ is the unit-vector in the z-direction). We wanted the
component of the curl in the direction k̂ because this corresponded
to microscopic circulation in the xy -plane. Similarly, for a surface,
we will want the microscopic circulation along the surface. This
corresponds to the component of the curl that is perpendicular to
the surface, i.e, Microscopic circulation= (curl F⃗ ) · n̂,
where n̂ is a unit normal vector to the surface. You can see this
using the right-hand rule. If you point the thumb of your right
hand perpendicular to a surface, your fingers will curl in a direction
corresponding to circulation parallel to the surface.
In summary, to go from Green’s theorem to Stoke’s theorem, we’ve
made two changes. First, we’ve changed the line integral living in
two dimensions (Green’s theorem) to a line integral living in three
dimensions (Stokes’ theorem). Second, we changed the double
integral of (curl F⃗ ) · k̂ over a region D in the plane (Green’s
theorem) to a surface integral of over a surface floating in space
(Stokes’ theorem).
The required relationship between the curve C and the surface S
(Stokes’ theorem) is identical to the relationship between the curve
C and the region D (Green’s theorem): the curve C must be the
boundary ∂D of the region or the boundary ∂S of the surface.
We
R write Stokes’ theorem as: R
⃗ .ds
⃗ = (∇ × F⃗ ) · n̂dS = (∇ × F⃗ ) · dS
R
C F S S

Macroscopic and microscopic circulation in three dimensions.
The relationship between the macroscopic circulation of a vector
field F⃗ around a curve (red boundary of surface) and the
microscopic circulation of F⃗ (illustrated by small green circles)
along a surface in three dimensions must hold for any surface
whose boundary is the curve. No matter which surface you choose,
the total microscopic circulation of F⃗ along the surface must equal
the circulation of F⃗ around the curve. (We assume that the vector
field F⃗ is defined everywhere on the surface.) The relationship
between the macroscopic and total microscopic circulation still
holds. The surface is oriented by the shown normal vector and the
curve is oriented by the red arrow.

Examples:
Ex-1:
Apply
R Stoke’s theorem, evaluate
C (y + x)dx + (2x − z)dy + (y + z)dz, where C is the boundary
of the triangle with vertices (2, 0, 0) , (0, 3, 0) and (0, 0, 6) .
Solution:Given C F⃗ .dr ⃗ =
R R
C (y + x)dx + (2x − z)dy + (y + z)dz
⇒
F⃗ = (y + x)iˆ + (2x − z)jˆ + (y + z)k̂
Finding Curl of this vector field, we get
iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × F⃗ = = 2iˆ − 0jˆ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
y + x 2x − z y + z
By Stoke’s Rtheorem we have
⃗ ⃗ (∇ × F⃗ ) · dS .............(1)
R R
C F .dr = S

Using ∇ × RF⃗ Rin RHS of Stoke’s Rtheorem we get
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ) · dS = ˆ − 0jˆ + k̂) · dS....(2)
R R
C F .dr = S (∇ × F S (2i
Now to find the dS let us find the unit normal to the plane as
x y z
given in the figure above i.e. ϕ = + + − 1 = 0
2 3 6
iˆ jˆ k̂
⇒ ∇ϕ = + +
2 3 6
⇒ dS = ∇ϕdA
7
Hence (∇ × F⃗ ) · (∇ϕ)dA = dA
6
Using this equation (2), we get
⃗ ⃗ 7R R
(∇ × F⃗ ) · dS =
R R R
C F .dr = S 6 S
dA
Here dA is the area of each triangular face in two dimensional
plane, therefore
R R we get
⃗ ⃗ (∇ × F⃗ ) · dS
R
C F .dr = S
7 R R RR RR
= dxdy + dydz + dzdx
6
R
⃗ ⃗ 7
C F .dr = 6 (3 + 9 + 6) = 21

Examples:
Ex-2:
Apply Stoke’s theorem, evaluate C (2x − y )dx − yz 2 dy − y 2 zdz,
R
where C is the projection over the upper half of the sphere

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 in the xy −plane .
Solution:Given C F⃗ .dr ⃗ = 2 2
R R
C (2x − y )dx − yz dy − y zdz
⇒
F⃗ = (2x − y )iˆ − yz 2 jˆ − y 2 z k̂
iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × F⃗ = = 0iˆ − 0jˆ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
2x − y −yz 2 −zy 2
By
R Stoke’s Rtheorem we have
⃗ ⃗ (∇ × F⃗ ) · dS .............(1)
R
C F .dr = S

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
(∇ × F ) · dS = S (0i − 0jˆ + k̂) · dS....(2)
ˆ
R R
C F .dr = S
Now to find the dS let us find the unit normal to the surface as
given figure above i.e. ϕ = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − a2 = 0
As given in the figure above this sphere is oriented towards z− axis
and the boundary C of the surface is x 2 + y 2 = a2 is a circle and
hence we can view the projection of this sphere on xy −plane .
Therefore ds = k̂dxdy is this projection. Using this in equation
(2),
R we getR R
F⃗ .dr
⃗ = (∇ × F⃗ ) · dS
RC RSR
⃗ ⃗
RR
C F .dr = k̂ · (k̂dxdy ) = dxdy
The RHS in above equation is the double integral which is the area
of the projected circle on xy −plane and its area is πa2
Therefore
⃗ ⃗ (∇ × F⃗ ) · dS = πa2
R R R
C F .dr = S

Examples:
Ex-3:
Apply Stoke’s theorem, evaluate C (y 2 + x 2 )dx − 2xydy , where C
R
is the rectangles bounded by the lines x = ±a, y = 0 , y = b .
R R
C (y + x )dx − 2xydy
⇒
F⃗ = (y 2 + x 2 )iˆ − 2xy jˆ
iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × F⃗ = = 0iˆ − 0jˆ − 4y k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
y 2 + x 2 −2xy 0
By
⃗ ⃗ (∇ × F⃗ ) · dS .............(1)
R
C F .dr = S

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ) · dS = · dS....(2) Since ∇ × F⃗
R R
C F .dr = S (∇ × F S −4y k̂
is oriented towards z direction and hence n̂ = k̂ and therefore
projection is on xy −plane and hence dS = k̂dxdy
Hence (∇ × F⃗ ) · (∇ϕ)dA = −4ydxdy
Using this equation (2), we get
⃗ ⃗ (∇ × F⃗ ) · dS = −4 S ydxdy
R R R R R
C F .dr = S
Given the rectangle is bounded by x = ±a, y = 0 and y = b, using
this
R above Rsurface integral, we get R R
⃗ ⃗ a b
(∇ × F⃗ ) · dS = −4 −a 0 ydxdy
R
C F .dr = S
2 b
⃗ ⃗ a y
= −4(a + a)(b 2 /2) = −4ab 2
R
C F .dr = −4 [x]−a 2 0

Examples:
Ex-4:
Apply Stoke’s theorem, evaluate C ydx + xz 3 dy − zy 3 dz, where C
R
is the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4 in z = 1.5.
R R
C ydx + xz dy − zy dz
⇒
F⃗ = y iˆ + xz 3 jˆ − zy 3 k̂
iˆ jˆ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × F⃗ = = (−3zy 2 − 3xz 2 )iˆ − 0jˆ + (z 3 − 1)k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
y xz 3 −zy 3
By
⃗ ⃗ (∇ × F⃗ ) · dS .............(1)
R
C F .dr = S

Using ∇ × RF⃗ Rin RHS of Stoke’s theorem we get
F .dr = S (∇ × F⃗ ) · dS =
⃗ ⃗
R
RC R
S ((−3zy 2 − 3xz 2 )iˆ − 0jˆ + (z 3 − 1)k̂) · dS....(2) Since
projection of the circle xr + y 2 = 4 is on xy −plane hence n̂ = k̂
and therefore dS = k̂dxd
Hence (∇ × F⃗ ) · (∇ϕ)dA =
(−3zy 2 − 3xz 2 )iˆ − 0jˆ + (z 3 − 1)k̂) · k̂dxdy = (z 3 − 1)dxdy
Using z = 1.5 in this we get
(∇ × F⃗ ) · (∇ϕ)dA = 2.375dxdy Hence equation (2) becomes, we
get
⃗ ⃗ (∇ × F⃗ ) · dS = 2.375 S dxdy .....(3)
R R R R R
C F .dr = S
RHS of above integral is a double integral over the circle
xR 2 R+ y 2 = 4 and hence
S dxdy = 4π
Using this in equation (3), we get
⃗ .dr
⃗ = 19π
(∇ × F⃗ ) · dS = 2.375 ∗ 4π =
R R R
C F S 2

Examples:
Ex-5:
If F⃗ = 3y iˆ − xz jˆ + yz k̂ and S is the surface
R of the paraboloid
2z = x 2 + y 2 bounded by z = 2, evaluate S Curl F⃗ · n̂dS using
Stoke’s theorem.

Gauss Divergence Theorem:
Theorem:
If F⃗ = f1 iˆ + f2 jˆ + f3 k̂ is a continuously differentiable vector point
Rfunction in aRregion R bounded R R R by the closed surface S, then
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
S F .n̂dS = R ∇ · F dv = R Div F dxdydz where n̂ is a unit
external normal vector at any point.
Alternately:
Let R be a simple solid region and let S be the boundary surface
of R, given with positive (outward) orientation. Let F⃗ be a vector
field whose component functions have continuous partial
Rderivatives on an
R Ropen
R region that contains R. Then
⃗ ⃗
R
S F · n̂dS = R Div F dV

The idea behind the divergence theorem:
Let’s say We have a rigid container filled with some gas. If the gas
starts to expand but the container does not expand, what has to
happen? Since we assume that the container does not expand (it is
rigid) but that the gas is expanding, then gas has to somehow leak
out of the container. (Or We suppose the container could burst,
but that counts as both gas leaking out of the container and the
container expanding.)
If I go to a gas station and pump air into one of my car’s tires,
what has to happen to the air inside the tire? (Assume the tire is
rigid and does not expand as I put air inside it.) The air inside of
the tire compresses.

These two examples illustrate the divergence theorem (also called
Gauss’s theorem). Recall that if a vector field F⃗ represents the
flow of a fluid, then the divergence of F⃗ represents the expansion
or compression of the fluid. The divergence theorem says that the
total expansion of the fluid inside some three-dimensional region
W equals the total flux of the fluid out of the boundary of W . In
math terms, this means the triple integral of ∇ · F⃗ over the region
W is equal to the flux integral (or surface integral) of F⃗ over the
surface ∂W
R R Rthat is the boundary
R R of W (with outward pointing
⃗ ⃗
normal) W Div F dV = ∂W F · dS

I hope that this makes sense intuitively from the above two
examples. In the first example, the gas expanding meant ∇ · F⃗ > 0
everywhere in W R ,Rthe inside of the container. Therefore, the net
⃗
flux out of W , ∂W F · dS, must also be greater than zero, i.e.,
the gas must leak out through the container walls ∂W . In the
second example, by pumping R R air into the tire W , I insisted that the
⃗
net flux out of the tire, ∂W F · dS, must be negative (since
there was a net flux into the tire, and we are assuming an
outward pointing normal).
R R R By the divergence theorem, the total
expansion inside W , ⃗
W Div F dV , must be negative, meaning
the air was compressing.
Notice that the divergence theorem equates a surface integral with
a triple integral over the volume inside the surface. In this way, it
is analogous to Green’s theorem, which equates a line integral with
a double integral over the region inside the curve. Remember that
Green’s theorem applies only for closed curves. For the same
reason, the divergence theorem applies to the surface integral
⃗
RR
S F · dS
only if the surface S is a closed surface. Just like a closed curve, a
closed surface has no boundary. A closed surface has to enclose
some region, like the surface that represents a container or a tire.
In other words, the surface has to be a boundary of some W (i.e.,
S = ∂W ), as described above. You cannot use the divergence
theorem to calculate a surface integral over S if S is an open
surface, like part of a cone or a paraboloid. If you want to use the
divergence theorem to calculate the ice cream flowing out of a
cone, you have to include a top to your cone to make your surface
a closed surface.

Examples:
Ex-1:
Use Divergence’s theorem to evaluate S F⃗ · dS, where
R
F⃗ = 4x iˆ − 2y 2 jˆ + z 2 k̂ and S is the surface bounding the region

x 2 + y 2 = 4, z = 0 and z = 3.
Solution:By RDivergence Theorem we have

⃗ · dS = ⃗ dxdydz
R RR
S F R Div F
Given F⃗ = 4x iˆ − 2y 2 jˆ + z 2 k̂
⇒ ∇ · F⃗ = 4 − 4y + 2z
Using this inRRHS
R R of Gauss’s Divergence
R R R theorem, we get
⃗ · dS = ⃗ dxdydz =
R
S F R Div F R (4 − 4y + 2z)dxdydz
Given region is enclosed between curves x 2 + y 2 = 4, z = 0 and
z = 3 and hence the limits of above triple integral are
z = 0 to 3
x = −2√to 2 (taking√y=0 in the circle)
y = − 22 − x 2 to 22 − x 2
Using these limits in √
triple integral, we get
R 3 R 2 R 4−x 2
⃗
R
√
S F · dS = 0 −2 − 4−x 2 (4√− 4y + 2z)dydxdz
R3R2 4−x 2
⇒= 0 −2 4y − 2y 2 + 2zy −√4−x 2 dxdz
R3R2 √ √
= 0 −2 8 4 − x 2 + 4z 4 − x 2 dxdz
π π
Put x = 2 sin θ ⇒ dx = 2 cos θdθ and limits of θ are − and
2 2
π
= 0 2π 32 cos2 θdθ + 16z cos2 θdθ dz
R3R
−
2
π
= 0 2π (32 + 16z) cos2 θdθdz =
R3R
−
2
π
R3R 2 1 + cos 2θ
0 π (32 + 16z) 2
dθdz
−
2

π
R3 θ sin 2θ 2 dz
= 0 (32 + 16z) + π
2 4 −
3 π 2
= 32z + 8z 2 0
2
π
= (96 + 72) = 84π
2

Examples:
Ex-2:
If F⃗ = xy iˆ + zy 2 jˆ + z 3 k̂, evaluate S F⃗ · dS, where where S is the
R
unit cube defined by 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ z ≤ 1.

R RR
S F R Div F
Given F⃗ = xy iˆ + zy 2 jˆ + z 3 k̂
⇒ ∇ · F⃗ = y + 2yz + 3z 2
Using this inRRHS
⃗ · dS = ⃗ dxdydz = 2
R
S F R Div F R (y + 2yz + 3z )dxdydz
Given region is an unit cube with 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 and
0 ≤ z ≤ 1 hence the limits of above triple integral are
z = 0 to 1
x = 0 to 1
y = 0 to 1

Using these Rlimits in triple integral, we get
R
⃗ 1R1R1 2
S F · dS = 0 0 0 (y + 2yz + 3z )dydxdz
2 1
R1R1 y
⇒= 0 0 + zy 2 + 3z 2 y dxdz
2 0
R1R1 1 2
⇒= 0 0 + z + 3z dxdz
2
1
R1 1 2
⇒= 0 x + xz + 3z x dz
2 0
R1 1
⇒= 0 + z + 3z 2 dz
2
1
z 2 3z 3

1
⇒= z+ +
2 2 3 0
1 1
= + +1=2
2 2

Examples:
Ex-3:
R
F⃗ = (x 2 − z 2 )iˆ + 2xy jˆ + (z 2 + y 2 )k̂ and S is the surface of the

cube by x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, y = 1, z = 0 and z = 1.

R RR
S F R Div F
Given F⃗ = (x 2 − z 2 )iˆ + 2xy jˆ + (z 2 + y 2 )k̂
⇒ ∇ · F⃗ = 2x + 2x + 2z
Using this inRRHS
R
S F R Div F R (2x + 2x + 2z)dxdydz
Given region is an unit cube with the limits of above triple integral
are
z = 0 to 1
x = 0 to 1
y = 0 to 1
Using these Rlimits
R Rin triple integral, we get
⃗ · dS = 1 1 1 (4x + 2z)dydxdz
R
S F
R1R1 0 0 0
⇒= 0 0 (4xy + 2yz)10 dxdz
R1R1
⇒= 0 0 (4x + 2z) dxdz
R1 1
⇒= 0 2x 2 + 2xz 0 dz
R1
⇒= 0 (2 + 2z) dz
1
⇒= 2z + z 2 0 = 2 + 1 = 3

Examples:
Ex-4:
R
F⃗ = (x 2 − yz)iˆ + (y 2 − zx)jˆ + (z 2 − xy )k̂ and S is the surface of

the rectangular paralellopiped 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ b, 0 ≤ z ≤ c .

R RR
S F R Div F
Given F⃗ = (x 2 − yz)iˆ + (y 2 − zx)jˆ + (z 2 − xy )k̂
⇒ ∇ · F⃗ = 2x + 2y + 2z
Using this inRRHS
R
S F R Div F R (2x + 2y + 2z)dxdydz
Given region is a parallelopiped with0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ b,
0 ≤ z ≤ c . hence the limits of above triple integral are
z = 0 to c
x = 0 to a
y = 0 to c
Using these Rlimits
R Rin triple integral, we get
⃗ · dS = c a b (2x + 2y + 2z)dydxdz
R
S F 0 0 0

Examples:
Ex-5:
Evaluate S F⃗ · n̂dS, where F⃗ = yz iˆ + xz jˆ + xy k̂ where S is the
R
surface of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 in the first octant.
Solution:

Examples:
Ex-6:
Apply Divergence’s theorem to evaluate S (lx 2 + my 2 + nz 2 )dS,
R
taken over the sphere (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 + (z − c)2 = ρ2 , l, m, n

being the directional cosines of the external normal to the sphere.
Solution:

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Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G.

July 13, 2023

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

How to visualize the Gradient of a scalar field?

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Gradient in the summation form is given by ∇ϕ = Σ ∂ϕ ˆ

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Example-1:Find the gradient of ϕ(x, y , z) = x 2 yz.

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

∂(xy + yz + zx) ˆ ∂(xy + yz + zx) ˆ ∂(xy + yz + zx)

Putting the point (1, 2, 1) in the above step, we get

⇒ ∇ϕ = (2 + 1)iˆ + (1 + 1)jˆ + (1 + 2)k̂

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Hence by the definition of unit normal vector,we get

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Geometrical interpretation of Gradient:

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Since ϕ ⇒ (x, y , z) ⇒ t, using total derivative definition of ϕ = c,

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Significance of Directional derivatives:

Geometrically, DD measure the rate of change of ϕ at any

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Solution: We know that two surface are orthogonal if the angle

Since given surfaces are orthogonal,we get

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Solution: First let us find the gradient to both surface at the

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Answer:Direction= ∇ϕ√= 96iˆ + 288jˆ − 288k̂,

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Solution: Given f = axy 2 + byz + cz 3 x 3

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Solving this equations, we get

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Solution: Given ϕ = axy 2 + byz + cz 3 x 3

Solving this equations, we get

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Solution: By definition of divergence

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

The field V⃗ = −y iˆ + x jˆ is sketched in above Figure. (It is the field

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Dr. Chandra Shekara G. Unit-2:Vector Calculus

Substituting given point (1, 2, 3), we get