Historical cemeteries

In cultural studies when we speak of culture and of cultural identity we are most often referring to the investment made by social communities in the construction of common understandings.  It is the perception that such understandings exist which enables persons to recognize and participate in shared choreographies of practice and belief, and for communities to become conscious of themselves and of their collective identity. The establishment and continued maintenance of a community’s identity is therefore given realization through the social practices which its members enter into and the unspoken knowledge which they have of the roles which they are expected to perform.  If as researchers we make the attempt to examine the significant steps which are involved in producing these choreographies, we find that we are studying an historical process in which certain types of practice are repeated over time and which, through their repetition, bestow upon a culture the specific modes of expression which come to be associated with it. According to Gramsci,  this historical process has deposited within us ‘an infinity of traces, without leaving an inventory’. To understand who we are then, our first responsibility must be to look for the evidence with which to make such an inventory.  We could do this by examining, for example, a culture’s art, literature and music, and the social meanings which these seem to encode, or we could undertake ethnographic studies, and record how observed aspects of social practice seem to make sense to the participants involved in them. We can also look for traces of cultural identity in television, in the mass media, and across the social classes, genders and sub-cultures of a society.  In all of these phenomena it is the ‘lived’ expression of culture which tends to be the object of study – the experiential activities which are associated with life and living in one’s culture and the world. Occupying the margins of experience are the cultural objects and practices of the cemetery deathspace – a place where time appears arrested, memory thwarts oblivion and belief is reaffirmed.

English Version.
En este texto se hace una breve introducción al patrimonio cultural funerario, su contenido y características, así como al proceso de reconocimiento institucional del mismo, que todavía es incompleto. Se presta atención al papel de las empresas de servicios funerarios como gestores patrimoniales.
Este trabajo se ha realizado en el marco del proyecto I+D “La construcción de la identidad europea y los extranjeros durante el siglo XVIII en la Monarquía hispánica: Líneas de continuidad y análisis comparativo” (referencia: HAR2014-53024-P), financiado por el Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad del Gobierno de España con subvención PGE.

Summary and Conclusion - In July 2021, the Ministry of Government and Consumer Services tabled a consultation paper seeking feedback to inform potential proposals for changes to the Funeral, Burial and Cremation Services Act, 2002 (FBCSA) and/or its regulations. The FBCSA and its regulations set out certain requirements for Ontario's bereavement sector. The Ministry's consultation paper also seeks to address recommendations made by the Auditor General in a recent report as well as concerns raised by bereavement sector stakeholders. We are pleased to have this opportunity to submit comments as part on consultations on reforming the FBCSA and its regulations and other related legislation and policies.

This brief addresses numerous aspects of the current regime governing cemetery and bereavement operations. However, our focus is on potential use of conservation burial reserves (CBRs) as a means to address neglected or abandoned cemeteries and potential other additional cemetery closure order application requirements, raise funds, provide consumers with a wider range of choices at more affordable prices, increase greenspace in communities for its many physical and mental health benefits, and simultaneously promote conservation of lands for wildlife and plants in urban and rural areas in Ontario.

David McRobert is an environmental lawyer based in southern Ontario, and Adjunct Professor. David served for sixteen years as In-House Counsel and Senior Policy Advisor at the Environmental Commissioner of Ontario. In the past 11 years, he has worked with numerous clients on a range of topics including environmental defence work, wireless radiation safety, air pollution, water pollution and chemical sensitivity. David has a B.Sc. in Biology and a Masters in Environmental Studies in Biological Conservation from York U. He graduated from Osgoode Hall Law School, undertook graduate law studies and was admitted to the Ontario Bar in 1990. David taught law to undergraduate and graduate students at York University, Osgoode Hall Law School, the University of Toronto and Humber College between 1988 and 2012. He has published more than 30 books and reports and dozens of journal articles and articles. Book titles include Risky Business: A Guide to the Use, Handling and Transportation of Asbestos (2012) and My Municipal Recycling System Made Me Fat and Sick (2012).

Angela Dittrich begins her second year as a Masters in Environmental Studies and law (MES/JD) student at York University and Osgoode Hall Law School in Sept. 2021. She also is completing a Business and the Environment graduate diploma from the Schulich School of Business. Angela has a B.Sc. in Integrated Science from McMaster University. Her current research analyzes extended producer responsibility (EPR) approaches across North American jurisdictions with a focus on environmental impacts, economic impacts, and metrics used to determine program efficacy.

Em Portugal, nunca as artes do ferro foram tão expressivas e diversificadas como na segunda metade do século XIX. Paralelamente, assistia-se no nosso país ao auge do fenómeno do cemitério romântico, contexto em que foram executadas algumas das melhores obras oitocentistas em ferro fundido e em ferro forjado. Neste trabalho, abordam-se alguns exemplos paradigmáticos da influência de modelos internacionais nestas obras em ferro, especialmente modelos franceses. É também explicitado como o gosto particular de cada encomendador poderia transformar um conjunto de módulos de gosto internacional numa obra irrepetível e, por vezes, inusitada.

Palavras chave: ferro fundido, cemitérios, estampas, Romantismo

The advent of the Industrial Revolution in the second part of the eighteenth-century England was fuelled by the invention of mechanical devices such as the hydraulic pump.  The adoption of this machine had a fundamental impact in trade, commerce as well as transport. Its influence eventually reached out to unusual applications such as that of the catafalque - a mechanical device based on the principle of the hydraulic pump - which became a fashionable feature in nineteenth-century Victorian necropolises. The introduction of such a mechanical innovation into the Victorian Necropolis throws open a series of questions on the matter of burial rituals and the perception of death in the nineteenth century.

The following paper studies how mechanical devices were introduced as part of London’s burial rituals between the nineteenth and twentieth century, and aims to understand how they enhanced the ideas of solemnity and dignity in funeral traditions. Inevitably, the subject throws open a series of questions starting with how and why these mechanical devices arrived to be used in these new cemeteries in the first place? What were their purposes? How did people react to them? How could a machine find its place in and be reconciled with these otherwise romantic cemeteries?

European cemeteries  are considered as  open- air museums.  Some  of them are also equipped with museums. There are organized various cultural events in cemeteries, too. Besides, the Association of Significant Cemeteries of Europe  promotes the cultural heritage of cemeteries. Even in countries where cemeteries were not yet considered as places of touristic interest, as in Greece, recently began a growing interest towards  that direction. The present paper discusses the existing conditions, focusing on the rich heritage of the various kinds of Greek cemeteries  and refers on  the perspectives of cemetery tourism.

From at least 1716 until its formal closure in 1822, non-Catholic foreigners dying in Rome were usually buried adjacent to the Pyramid of Gaius Cestius in Testaccio. Some 80 stone monuments in the Old Cemetery were systematically recorded in the 1980s; to these can be added a similar number of burials known from travel accounts and archival sources. This new, combined inventory provides notes on the life and death in Rome for each individual, where identifiable. Its information modifies current perceptions that the Old Cemetery burials reflect mainly an elite, male population of Grand Tourists and aristocrats. Women are better represented, as are a wide range of professions, crafts and domestic roles. A reassessment of the cemetery’s layout leads to conclusions about its original extent, the first appearance of stone memorials in the 1760s, and the deliberate planning of graves in a burial-ground usually considered as lacking any organizing principle.

This chapter seeks to illustrate the authors’ initiative of deploying mobile
communication technologies through the ‘iBBC’ app to locate and reference tombstones of prominent historical personalities in Singapore’s Bukit Brown Cemetery. The densely vegetated, 80-year-old former Chinese municipal cemetery filled with more than a hundred thousand graves has been largely neglected, and the traditional Chinese inscriptions written on many of the tombstones are inscrutable to many contemporary visitors. As part of the process of digital interventions, iBBC helps visitors obtain encyclopedic information immediately on-site by using Augmented Reality (AR) to recognize selected tomb monuments. Such interventions are critical in sensitizing the public to the cemetery’s cultural heritage.

This book charts a significant aspect of European heritage: cemeteries. Cemeteries are nowadays considered as formal cultural sites and open-air museums attracting a great number of visitors; while cemetery records, memorial monuments, epitaph inscriptions and symbols provide useful data, attracting the interest of an increasing number of scholars from various disciplines and backgrounds. This collective volume consists of selected papers, presented at the ASCE (Association of Significant Cemeteries in Europe) Conference: Ancient Greek Art and European Funerary Art organized by the Harokopio University of Athens-Greece on October 5-7 2017, aiming to highlight various cultural aspects of cemeteries. The authors present funerary art and its classical origin, investigate theoretical and historical approaches, plan cultural and educational routes, design technological applications concerning the use of cemeteries as cultural sites, and propose multiple ways for promoting cemetery heritage and public engagement; while the majority of the papers is based on field and archival research and is accompanied by original images. The multicultural character of death heritage is highlighted through the variety of case-studies presented in this volume, introducing different perspectives and interpretations on art, history, heritage and cultural tourism, laying the groundwork for the public discussion on our common heritage as appeared in cemeteries, appealing to both the wider public and the academic community. This book charts a significant aspect of European heritage: cemeteries. Cemeteries are nowadays considered as formal cultural sites and open-air museums attracting a great number of visitors; while cemetery records, memorial monuments, epitaph inscriptions and symbols provide useful data, attracting the interest of an increasing number of scholars from various disciplines and backgrounds. This collective volume consists of selected papers, presented at the ASCE (Association of Significant Cemeteries in Europe) Conference: Ancient Greek Art and European Funerary Art organized by the Harokopio University of Athens-Greece on October 5-7 2017, aiming to highlight various cultural aspects of cemeteries. The authors present funerary art and its classical origin, investigate theoretical and historical approaches, plan cultural and educational routes, design technological applications concerning the use of cemeteries as cultural sites, and propose multiple ways for promoting cemetery heritage and public engagement; while the majority of the papers is based on field and archival research and is accompanied by original images. The multicultural character of death heritage is highlighted through the variety of case-studies presented in this volume, introducing different perspectives and interpretations on art, history, heritage and cultural tourism, laying the groundwork for the public discussion on our common heritage as appeared in cemeteries, appealing to both the wider public and the academic community.

This book explores how Victorian cemeteries were the direct result of the socio-cultural, economic and political context of the city, and were part of a unique transformation process that emerged in London at the time. The book shows how the re-ordering of the city’s burial spaces, along with the principles of health and hygiene, were directly associated with liberal capital investments, which had consequences in the spatial arrangement of London. Victorian cemeteries, in particular, were not only a solution for overcrowded graveyards, they also acted as urban generators in the formation London’s suburbs in the nineteenth century. Beginning with an analysis of the conditions that triggered the introduction of the early Victorian cemeteries in London, this book investigates their spatial arrangement, aesthetics and functions. These developments are illustrated through the study of three private Victorian burial sites: Kensal Green Cemetery, Highgate Cemetery and Brookwood Cemetery. The book is aimed at students and researchers of London history, planning and environment, and Victorian and death culture studies.

Preservationists and archaeologists often assess cemeteries for their research value as cultural resources of communities. Cemeteries hold significant interpretive and educational value because they serve communities as outdoor museums (Meyers 1996). The Cemetery Resource Protection Training (CRPT) workshop, developed by the Florida Public Archaeology Network (FPAN), engages the public by providing an archaeological perspective and hands-on experiences for local communities to aid them in addressing the real-world problem of neglected historic cemeteries. After completing over 36 workshops in 28 different communities, the CRPT workshop template has proven to be a highly transferable means to provide education and outreach to underserved communities and sites, as directed in FPAN's mission. This paper considers cemeteries as participatory museums using Nina Simon's (2010) cocreation framework. Following a brief summary of cemetery training programs and a review of the larger cemetery crisis in Florida, the rationale for creation of the CRPT program and building blocks of the workshop are provided for other public archaeologists to adapt for training cemetery stewards. Finally, the creation of training opportunities for nonprofessionals as an advance in public archaeology practice is discussed.

1969-ben a szőnyi magtár mögötti területen aszfaltozási munkálatokat végeztek, mely során 111 temetkezést találtak. Ezek közül 98 római, 13 bronzkori sír volt. Ezen mesterszakos szakdolgozat az ekkor feltárt római korú sírokkal foglalkozik. A temetőrészlet a brigetioi canabae nyugati temetőjéhez tartozott, egy egységet alkotott a korábban feltárt Sörházkerti és a Járóka temetővel. A sírok a II. század elejétől a III. század közepéig keltezhetőek.

This master thesis aims to understand how the second-largest city of Greece, Thessaloniki, remembers the Holocaust. It investigates the development of it's ‘collective memory’ by studying the Holocaust memorialization in Thessaloniki from the end of the Second World War to the present day. Holocaust memorials are the primary source of this study, since they show how cities present their past. To analyze the development of the city’s collective memory, this study uses an existing framework that divides Thessaloniki’s Holocaust remembrance in different stages.
Studying these different stages shows the complexity of Thessaloniki’s Holocaust memorialization process. After the Second World War the Holocaust was put into oblivion for more than fifty years. During the 1990s, the Holocaust was no longer silenced. This period is represented by the construction of the first state official Holocaust memorials and the emergence of a collective Holocaust memory. At the same time, it became clear that the memorialization the Holocaust became a political expedient project for the Greek government. In the past fifteen years, the history of Jews has become more and more visible in the city itself. However, the collective Holocaust memory is still highly contested. On the one hand, the new progressive leaders make the memory of the Holocaust more visible, on the other hand, nationalistic groups equally try to influence the way the Holocaust in Thessaloniki is remembered.

Nearby paradises: the historical cemeteries of Madrid

After burials in churches and adjacent parish cemeteries were banned, between 1804 and 1851 eleven cemeteries were built near Madrid, most of them closed in 1884 and no longer extant. A clear evolution can be observed in their planning: while at the beginning they had an arid and merely utilitarian character, from the 1840s a different sensibility emerged that favoured their landscaping, giving rise to a fascinating combination of architecture, sculpture and vegetation of clearly Romantic inspiration.

Tras la prohibición de enterrar en las iglesias y en los cementerios parroquiales anejos, entre 1804 y 1851 se construyeron en las cercanías de Madrid hasta once cementerios, la mayoría de ellos clausurados en 1884 y desaparecidos. En su planificación se observa una clara evolución: si al principio presentaban un carácter árido y meramente utilitario, a partir de los años cuarenta se observa un cambio de sensibilidad que favorece su ajardinamiento, dando lugar a una fascinante combinación de arquitectura, escultura y vegetación de claro aliento romántico.

When the Albanian Evangelical preacher Gerasim Kyrias (Gjerasim Qiriazi) and other Albanians founded an Albanian-language religious community, they were faced with a problem of where to bury their dead. Protestantism had been officially recognized in the Ottoman Empire since 1850, but in Albania, Macedonia and Bulgaria, Protestants still faced local opposition. With difficulty they managed to secure several Protestant cemeteries. A century and a half later, after world wars, ethnic and religious conflicts, and postwar dictatorships, the traces of these cemeteries were lost. In the past 20 years, as researchers and visitors searched for the resting places of heroes like Kyrias, they discovered cemeteries in ruins, graves robbed, and grave stones destroyed. This paper recounts the history of several Protestant cemeteries and the attempt to rediscover and secure the bones and stones of significant Albanian religious, educational, and national figures.

Marshalltown was an antebellum free African American settlement in Mannington Township, Salem County, New Jersey, a Quaker-settled landscape. This nomination documented its cemeteries, standing buildings, and former building sites. Marshalltown was a center of Black community and institution building, activism, and resistance to slavery and racism. It nurtured churches, a school, and fraternal organizations. It is significant for its role in the growth of Black settlements in the northern border states during the First Emancipation.

“Carnivalesque” is perhaps the best, if not the only way to describe what was going on at the Bab al-Saghir Cemetery that hot summer afternoon in 2008.  In front of the graves of the Prophet’s wives, Shi‘i pilgrims could buy Viagra, sex-enhancement creams, and massage oils.  Sexual mores were normally strictly guarded in Syria and medicines were usually available only at pharmacies.  Yet, there in one of the most historically and religiously significant cemeteries in Damascus, makeshift vendors sold an array of sex-related items.  In order to analyze this phenomenon, this article draws on Mikhail Bakhtin’s notion of the “carnivalesque.”  First, it provides a short background of Twelver Shi‘ism in Syria and explains how Shi‘i religious tourism encouraged the development of black markets.  Then, it examines how Shi‘i pilgrimage, which occurred all year around, but peaked during Muharram, fostered an attitude that liberated Shi‘is from prevalent social norms and emphasized “grotesque” imagery and practices, including blood, death, and sex.  In short, it follows Michael Taussig’s call for anthropologists to attend to the transgressive aspects of religious ritual.

The chapel of St Peter and Paul in Zagreb`s central cemetery Mirogoj belongs to a group of the most interesting sacral buildings erected in Croatia`s capital at the end of the 19th century. It is one of the first monumental mausoleums ever built outside the Mirogoj`s arcades and one of the fi nest works by the architect Herman Bollé in his version of the neo-Byzantine style. It was erected in 1891 to serve as lieutenant general Petar Kukulj`s mausoleum by his widow Judita. Petar Kukulj was an Austro Hungarian field-marshal. Since such mausoleums were used by a small number of worshippers, there was no need to make them large. Moreover, the locations where they were going to be built were often very limited in order to leave more space for the cemetery. Therefore, during historicism such cemetery chapels were often erected as centrally planned buildings whether the mausoleums in question were Catholic, Orthodox, Evangelical or Jewish. Hence, Bollé was provided with an opportunity to practice designing centrally planned neo-Byzantine buildings. Since he had been working for the Orthodox Church he was mostly compelled to restore earlier buildings and build new ones of a longitudinal plan which could facilitate a greater number of believers. On those churches he hadn’t had a chance to build domes. The chapel of St Peter and Paul at Mirogoj cemetery is one of the Bollé`s most signifi cant neo-Byzantine centrally planned domed buildings. Looking at his work, we can see that Bollé`s neo-Byzantine style is infl uenced by Byzantine, Romanesque and even Renaissance elements. He also found a great inspiration in late Rundbogenstil (Round-arch style) of Berlin architecture of the 1860s and 1870s. Orthodox bishop Miron Nikolić commended his work in the chapel and it seems that it had convinced him to entrust Bollé with a comprehensive renovation work on his cathedral in Pakrac, as well as some other buildings in Pakrac eparchy (parish church in Bjelovar for example). Thanks to his work on Kukulj chapel and renovation work on parish church of Transfi guration in Zagreb, Bolle was later commissioned to renovate the Orthodox monastery Grgeteg on Fruška Gora, and the Church of Holy Spirit, Ruma, and so on. Immediately after the work in the chapel of St Peter and Paul was fi nished, the walls were painted and the interior was furnished. Zagreb Crafts School professor Josip Bauer is the author of all decorations on the walls and icons on the iconostasis. All the icons were made on a gold background showing Bauer`s relation to the Byzantine art of drawing. The author attended the Academy in Munich. Therefore, compositions of his works are inherently in correlation with the tradition of western painting but there is also a very strong infl uence of the Nazarenes. Bauer was obviously familiar with the orthodox iconography which resulted in numerous commissions by the Orthodox Church in Croatia. The position of icons on the iconostasis follows the usual rules of the Orthodox Church, but still there are some differences. In the bottom line we can see Annunciation in imperial court with icons of enthroned Christ and Virgin by its side. On the side doors we can see Michael the Archangel and Gabriel the Archangel. Saint Peter and Paul, to whom the chapel is dedicated, are painted on the left end of the row and Saint John the Baptist is on the right end. Two central rows of icons on the iconostasis depict the scenes from the life of Christ and Virgin Mary. The top of the iconostasis shows the prophets painted in round medallions and in the central axis we see the crucifixion of the Christ flanked by the Virgin Mary and Saint John the Baptist) painted above the icons showing the Holy Trinity and God the Father. Herman Bolle is the author of the design for the iconostasis as well as the entire chapel project. The estimated cost of the chapel was 14.000 forints (28.000 krones) which was a substantial amount in that time.

The purpose of this study was to document and define symbolic imagery found within the grounds of the Colon Cemetery in Havana, Cuba. Memorials erected to the dead use symbology to tell stories about the departed, giving us clues to the deceased’s values and philosophies, as well as their religion, ethnicity, social memberships, occupations, education, level of wealth, and thoughts on the afterlife (Keister, 2004). Using images of Colon Cemetery from a photographic documentary series, Havana: Behind the Facade, architectural and cemetery symbology was grouped into categories, researched for meaning, and sought for interpretations to reveal clues about Cuban culture and beliefs in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In general, these symbols revealed that this society believed in religious fervor, an afterlife, and a merciful God. This study serves to guide anyone who wants to interpret cemetery symbology. It opens the door to future studies on specific Cuban families and tombs. Most importantly, it visually preserves the symbology found on architecture and monuments within Colon Cemetery.

This thesis examines the interplay between emotion and social memory in the historical narrative (re)formation of the Harrison Township Cholera Cemetery in the village of Lockbourne, Pickaway County, Ohio. The research agenda includes a contextualization and critical assessment of documents and oral traditions as labors of representation . These are subsequently analyzed for their alignment with, or deviation from, the bioarchaeological record at the cemetery. The result is an interpretation of the past that will continue to be tested and refined as part of an ongoing multidisciplinary research project. This thesis provides valuable insight regarding attitudes of disease and death in 19 th -century Ohio, and importantly, how those attitudes are expressed in the bioarchaeological record at a historical cemetery – a rare opportunity in the United States. Finally, a reflexive aspect of this thesis aims to explore the ways in which archaeological interpretation becomes part of this ever-changing and context dependent historical narrative dialogue.

Die Gräber und Friedhöfe der gefallenen Soldaten erfuhren während der letzten Jahrzehnte einen bedeutenden Werte- und Sinnwandel. Während des Zweiten Krieges wurden die Kriegsgräber durch die Wehrmacht und die Nationalsozialisten als „heilige Wallfahrtorte deutschen Heldentums“ geplant und gebaut. Nach der deutschen Kapitulation änderte sich ihre Bedeutung zu einer Mahn- und Friedensbotschaft. Heute symbolisieren die Kriegsgräber und Soldatenfriedhöfe einen Ort der Trauer und des Leides. Über den Steinen und Gräberfeldern werden Lernprojekte, Besichtigungen und Gedenkveranstaltungen mit Jugend- und Schülergruppen aus ganz Europa durchgeführt.

English
The graves and cemeteries of the German fallen soldiers symbolize different meanings and messages during the time. In the Second World War, the Wehrmacht and the national socialists constructed the soldier cemeteries as holy places and places of German heroism. After the surrender the graves turned into symbols of a reminder of pain, suffer and war. Today the grave stones are used for educational projects, memory services, guided tours for students and young people all over Europe.

The purpose of this study was to document and define symbolic imagery found within the grounds of the Colon Cemetery in Havana, Cuba. Memorials erected to the dead use symbology to tell stories about the departed, giving us clues to the deceased’s values and philosophies, as well as their religion, ethnicity, social memberships, occupations, education, level of wealth, and thoughts on the afterlife (Keister, 2004). Using images of Colon Cemetery from a photographic documentary series, Havana: Behind the Facade, architectural and cemetery symbology was grouped into categories, researched for meaning, and sought for interpretations to reveal clues about Cuban culture and beliefs in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In general, these symbols revealed that this society believed in religious fervor, an afterlife, and a merciful God. This study serves to guide anyone who wants to interpret cemetery symbology. It opens the door to future studies on specific Cuban families and tombs. ...

When the Baltimore Center for Urban Archaeology first began archaeological study in Baltimore City, we looked at each site as a unique event within the tapestry of the city’s history. We presented the story of each site on a case by case basis. But, the goal of the BCUA was always to build a data base that would allow us to look at the entire city as one site. After 15 years of study, we are now at a point where we can begin to do just that. We can go back and look at the sites we have excavated not only as unique locations, but as interconnected places and events. Cultural activities that occurred between 1790 and 1820 on a wharf located in what is now the Inner Harbor had a direct relationship to contemporary cultural practices at a cemetery located across town on what is now the campus of the Johns Hopkins Hospital. By linking numerous sites across time and space, we can look at the city in a holistic manner through issues of gender, race, and class. And we can take this data and begin to construct a better understanding of how and why Baltimore became the city that it is today.

В статье перечисляются погребальные практики, сложившиеся к тому моменту, как на Грузию в начале XIX в. стало распространяться Российское законодательство. Традиция, привычная представителям разных сословий, позволяет понять причины, по которым буквальное применение законодательных ограничений без учета местной специфики привело ко множеству правовых конфликтов. Священнослужителям, которых вынуждали доносить на нарушителей связанных с похоронной практикой запретов, приходилось выбирать между возможными негативными последствиями для собственной службы и напряженными отношениями с представителями местной знати, прежде выступавшими в качестве ктиторов.
The 1st part of the research lists habitual burial practices, inherited before Russian legislation started extending on the territory of Georgia in the beginning of XIX century.  Traditions, different domestic social levels/classes were used to, enable us to comprehend different causes of legal conflicts which had been provoked by literal usage of restrictions adapted while national specifics were not taken in the necessary consideration.  Clegrymen who were forced to report on those who violates restrictions regarding burial practice, have got to chose the worst between negative repercussions for their own career and troublesome tension in an interaction with domestic nobility, members of previously used to be the main donators of churches. (In Russian)

This paper reports some refinements in the Threshold Model for Ceramic Resources based on distances to ceramic resources from ethnographic pottery making communities (Arnold 1985). The refinements make the thresholds more objective than they were in the previous model and enable it more precise application for identifying local vs. non-local ceramic production in the past.

This book includes some of the data the author collected from his field research works and upon his research interest. The main aim of this book is just to make it a basic reading book to those who are interest on graveyard studies in Sri Lanka.