70
Kirsi Karrurv,r
that hircl a will and p<.rwcr of thcir orvn, irs li:r'cigrr ir"lt',rs lrcc:lrrrc ruolc: intcrnalizcd
:itrcl intcrtrviuecl r'vith incligclrous ol'lcs, thc clclcl ch;rngcrl rrs an<>thcr rrroclc ol
thought ernergccl. Thc t:cstlcss clcacl rvcrc' incrcasingly intcrprctccl as objccts that
had no por,vcr of thcir own, but'uverc awakcned bv r.rse of r:ragic orrnlclc activc by
unclean spirits that invaded thc'ir liftless bodics. In literature this is especially
noticeablc in sources that can be associated with the clcrical clitc. In them thc clcrrcl
becanre subordinate objercts, "brainless zombics."
Further study is still recluired on the role of the dead in literaturc and how it wns
affccteci by thc crlltural change that has bccn described above. As I have arguccl
elsewherc, in native tradition. the clead coLlld return as a conscquence of nonrl
transgressions; they acted as morll jr"rdges and participatcd in thc prescrvation ancl
restoration of social cquilibriurn.ll3 It is possible that this role olthc dcacl ch:rngcd
:rs thc ar.rthority of thc dead dirrrinished. Mr:reover, I have not discrlssed hcre thc
deacl saints and saint-likc pcople rvho, for instance, appcar to rctum posthurnously
as if of thcir or,vn fiec rvill in Olcl Icelandic hagiographicai literature and latcr
folklorc, ;rn issue that deserves to be studied in future as well.
ANIMATED CORPSES AND
BODIES VVITH POWER IN THE
SCHOLASTIC AGE
lilinston Black
Nt'ithcr lttliy dead nor fully alive, zor.rrbies havc long cxercised a horrificcl lirscirrl
lr()rr irr readers ancl observcrs, r.vhether in rncclieval collcctions of rnirabilit, Efiy
Mrrclcnr parnphlets, or modern media such as thc inrlnensely popular Rtsidul lit,il
vrtlt'<r grrnes, books, and films, or 'l'\rc Walking l)t:ad cr>rric books rncl tclcvisiorr
',,'r'ics.1
Ilut
zotrrbies, which first appeared
in thc Western recorcl a millcnniurrr
,rgo,
,ll('llol lound equally distributecl over ti1re, ftrr thcy
appear in grcatcst trunrbt,t.s
,lrtrirru pcriods clf significant cr.rltural uphcaval. Practitioners of thc ncw, scholurly
Itcltl ol"zombie stlrdies," which has recentiy cleveloped in reaction to tlrc trlritlrrily
(ltc ttucleacl in popular culture, explorc the culttrral and historical r:orrtcxts lirr.
rotttbies atrd share the central thesis that stories of the rvalking dcad rcflc<.t tlccply
,,1
lr,'1,1,
ltncl somctimes ttnconscious, anxieties about threrttening iclcas urrrl cvt.rrls irr
tlrr',tttthor's culturc. This applies as much to fictional zombies of thc nrotlcr.rr
r.r,,r,
ru'lro cau r:eflcct fcars rbout thr:cats likc cliscase, nuclear wafarc, or rirt.i,rl rrrir
r('lt('rrrltion!2 as t<-: periocls of apparently genuine belief in the livirrg clcrrcl str,'lr ,rr
I1B Kener-va, "The ll.ole of the I)ea<l". For this ('oll1n)on lirrrr'Iion rllt tlre tle;rrl iu rrr.rrry
cultures, .ee Ul., Vllk, "(lhostly l)ossessi<lrr :rrrtl l{r',rl llst,rtc: lhc l)c.rtl irr (lrrr
ternporirry Lstoni,ur Folklorc,"-/orrnril of l;olklott Itr',rirr,/r.1.\.1 (.11)tXr): .ll 51, lrcrr,.\.],
Vcrsitttrs of this essay rvere presented as the keynote address for "Tl-re Four Honerrr:rrr ol
the Apocalypse," The -{th Annual Interdisciplinary Symposiurrr of the Antl,,r.,p,rl,rp11,
(ir.rdr.rate Studenr Associerion, SUNY-Buffalo (March 2014), rrrd in the sessi<;u "l lcll
Sttrtlies" lt tl-re 5Oth International Conqress of Medieval Studies irr Kulurn;rzoo, Mi<.hi
r1,rn (Mey 2015). I thank the organizers of these r:onferences {irr invitirrs lue to \l)c.rk
,rrrtl the rrttdiet,rce ancl fellorv p;tnelists in those sessions lor their helpfill c()nrrcnts,ur(l
tlLtcsti<llls. I rttu njso qratefirl t<l .foitlle llolkr I(oster for l-rel advice, urrcl trl rpy rvili.,
I)r'. Iirnily Ileiner, tor her cl<lse rc,rtlitr1.1 ol sr.r,cr-.rl tlr,rtts of this essly.
Scc tlrt' volurne ,'\'lrilsk'rs ord llt Altu itt,rrr,: rll],//rr ,utl Aldqlrors of Ilrtdrrrirt,q /i,i/, ctl,
Ni,tl1 Scott (Arrtstenl:urr;rrrtl Nt,rv Yor Lt ltrrrIrpi,.ll)t)/), 1,1pg1.i;1lly tlre ess.rys h1, 14,,u',,
Alcr,tttrler Ikrorr, "()tttokrgir,tl Arrrtrtl, lr4,rrlr Il,.rlr l'lrt. Zorrrbic irr Lrtt,r;rtrrrc, llilrrr
,rttrl (lttlttrtc," .i.l .1.1, .rrrtl l'r.lr.t I lr.rrrllr., " l lrr. ./.pr1lrrt, ,rs ll.t16rrrctcr. .l (lrrltrrr.rl
Arrricty,".15 57. lirr';l rc(rnt o\,r.r\.tt,\i ,rl rltr.lrr.Il rr.r.'lirtkl l(. l)l;tltr,,,1()(,run11
Zotttlrics itr tlrc Sor iolo;iy ol l)olltl,l I lltrrr,'," !,,,11,/,r,,1, ( i,l,r/r,t',7 (.lffl.t): ri.l'l (r{1, ( )rr
72
Witrst<lrr Bl;rr k
Arrhrr,rlr,rl (or[)scs
cltrrirrg tht: sixtcenth itlrcl scvcntccuth ccnturics ir-r ccntral Er.rropc, sufil'ring thc clc:rclly
Illlout of thc Protest;urt l\cfonuation,r,r. tirc High Miclcllc Agcs, arr cr-ir which
s;rw
drilrnatic ancl colrtentious developrncnrs in Eurc.rpean thouuht ancl rcli{ion.
It is nredicval zonrbies, or "revenarts" as thcy arc kno.,vn in thc sch<>l1rly
litcralurc, that concenr me here, fbr a troubling aspect of this periocl in thc histr:ry
of the undcrrcl is its relative brevity. One rrright casily imaginc, basccl cln cicpicti<lrrr
of the nrcclicvrtl unclcacl in popuhr culturc and ncws outlets, that thc benightccl
Miclclle Ases rvere crawiing r'vith zombics.a []ut the reality is that rrrost nrccliqvll
reports ofrevcnanrs are clustcrecl in a pcriod ollbout a ccnnlry (roughly 1 1 3()-1 23(D,
rvith clnly a scattcrins of
tales in the clcventh lncl fotrrtccnth ccnturics, l pcriotl
the beginning r:fthc "scholastic age" in lfestcrn Europe. Evcrr irr
"vith
this ce ntury of nrorc prolific rcvcnant stories, the corporcal r.rrrdeaci are still a rirre
phcnonreuon: only it flr.l' clozen reports <lf r.xplicitly corporeal revcnants survive
liom thc scholastic ct';t. and only in northern Er.rropc (England, Icellnci, ar.rcl Genrrrtrr
huds of thc Errpirc). lJy crorltrast, incorporc:rl ehosts appear by thc thonsancls ir,r
senrons, t:"utnryln, irnci nrorrlizing talcs, as e:rrly as thc tirne of l)opc Gregory thc
(ircrrt (cl. (r04) rrrtd r:otrsistcntly betlvceu the cicvcnth and sixtccnth
ccr-rttrrics.5 Thc
tlistittt:tiott lrctrvcctt irrcorpr>rcirl and corporcll r,v:rs important fi;r nreclieval authgrs,
Iirl it irrtiic,rtctl profirtrncl Inctaphysic;rl rncl thcological cliflclcnccs. Clhosts wcr.c
li'ctltrclrtly cxplrrirrccl;ts:rppalitions in clreirnrs or divinc revelatiors rcal prcr.jcctir:rrn
ol-;t sottl 'in ncccl, btrI not actu;rlly thcrc. Thc rcvcnilnt, by clcfinition, is corpqrcul
coinciciing
rurcl plrysit:irlly prescrlt.
'fltcrc hlvc bcctr trutrtcrous
stuclics of mcclicval rcvcnan.ts, mauy of thcrn othiglr
cluality. but uone have ciircctly lcidressed thc problern of rvhy thc nrajority r,rl'
ntcdieval rcvcniults aplrcar for a rclativcly brief periocl ancl in a circunrscribed rrrc;r,
To atlstvcr tl-rat clucstior-r, I r,r'ill takc nry cuc hcrc fionr contemporiry zonrbie sttrciicr
ancl idcntifv thosc arrxietics irctivc during the scholastic agc, particulirrly in thc
the t<.lpic of zotnbies attd trigrants, Jon Sratt<x, "Zornbie trouble:
3
Zorl|ie
texts.
,
rrltrrr.rl ,rrrrbit
rrr-rcl mcciicine, arrd rvas x procluct of trcrv prrttcltts
lriqhel ccluc:rtion dcveloped in thc long tr.velfth centtlry. Stttclcnts now ]rtrl'srlt'rl
rr.r turly grallllnar anci Christi:rn doctrinc, like learncd clerics of:thc carlicr Mirldlc
Ay1's, but r,vcrc frccl-rcr-rtly tr"ainecl in the exercisc of logir:, thc Inathctrati<:ul sr'icrtccs
t,l rhc tyradriuitll, and natural philosophy. Thc tr.vclfth ccnttuy salv thc tttt'ctirtg,
1.lr('tilllcs contentious .lnd sometimes cooper:rtivc, of a lrcw sciclrcc :lltd il ll('w
tlrcology, both of r,vhich hacl obvious implications lor ttnclcrstaucline bodics rrrl(l
',,,rrls. 'lhis nrecting occurred prirnarily in the contcxt of thc vibrirnt crtthctlr';rl
i, lr,rtrls of the trvclfth century and ncw univers'ities of thc thirtccr-rth, rvltclc tlrc
,,rrrrc scholats both cnrblaced Aristotelian physics lncl Hippocrrtic*Clllcrric nrt'di
r rrr. .urd dcvckrpcd a llew stnrcturc lirr the Clhristiau afterlifc rroutrcl rt filnrr;rl
,lor rr irrc of l)ur:gatory (dcvcloping throughor,rt thc tr.vclfth century but prorrrrrlg;rtctl
1,1, l(<rlnc only in 1274).6
'l'lris anxicty about bodies, coupled with a por.vcrful curiosiry typical of sclrol,rstit'
.rrrtlrors, is particularly eviclcnt in thc varictics of animiltecl cotpsc or clllp()w('l('(l
l',r,11, prrrts that apperr during tiris ela alonssicle rcvcnants in thc writings <ll'[.ltitr
, l,'ri, s. 'l'hcsc ir-rcluclc the corpscs of rmrrcler victiurs that bleccl in tltc 1:rcscttct' ol
tlrr,ir' .rtt:rckcrs (a phenomenon later cailcd "cmcntation"), mcclicinnl ,r,l,,ri(r tln(l('
lr,rrrr lir.rvpti:rn mrurrnries, clissectecl caclavcrs that coulcl hclp invcstigrttors ttnltrt k
llrr. st'crcts of naturc or the cletaiis of :r crirne, ar-rcl philosophicrrl argurricuts lirt ,t
',r,1).rr,rtc "coq)orexl tbrnr" (fonna rcrlxtreitatis) residing ir.r thc bocly itsclf irntl s('l),u,rt('
lr.r)) thc prlrely spiritual soul.' Evcry onc of thcsc corpscs, f-rorn tl-rc nlos( .r( tr\'('
rr'\'t'n;lnt to thc inrctive cacl:rver, rcpre'sents all answer to thc qucstiotl, "Wltrtt r',ttt ,t
.rl,orrt thcology, nrtural philosophy,
rrr
r,
otlrr matk:rs oJ.fad.front ilu: mcdicual anrl l?enitisstttrt u,,ttfilt
(I{oudeclge. 2l)07), 67 *7 2.
Take, for exantple "Medievll Skeletons Reveal Fear of the ljndeacl," an ouline rrrtir.lr
posted Sept 12, 2(.111, :rt rhe Archaeoloin' Nervs Nenvork, http://archaeoloqvne'rrrct
rvork.bk;gspot .c<;ttt/21111l09,/nredieval-skeletons-reveel-felr,of
.htrn1#.VdXAIrl( I Viko
June (r, 201(r)_, or the cover of the paperblck ediriorr of C)ltlridsre, Sni1rq,r,
Historits, sho\l,itrq:r utodent, uuatuibuted paintirrg of l ltorrific, siqlrtless revcrr.rnt rrrin1.4
fioDr the gritve' next to irnpaled and disnrerriberetl torpscs, holnr,(l (1en)opir.rre,rtrrl'r,
atrd e cloaketl, rnor.rkislr figtrre in il strte ollitcl',llly ilitrrrrrn,rtt.il r.t rr.rsy. I Jris t ovcr tlrcr ,r
rlissen'ice to ()ldritlqe's usuully irrsiulrtfirl st.holurrhilr,
.fc,rrr-(ll,rtrtlc Sclrruitt, (i/rortr irr tl1, Alilllt'.,|,qr,r, tr,rrrr lr.r,.r,r l.l,r.rrrlt.r.p,tr_1.rrr ((ilrir.rp,
(:tt:cessetl
[.lnit,r.r'sity.l(ilrir',r11r;t;-,.55,
lr)()tl),(llr..t,,'llrr.lrrr,,rl,,rr.l(ilr.rr,,,"rj()
7H.
lr irrs|irt'tl st'r'cr:tl gcrtcnttiotts ol t lt'r'it,tl
,rl .rrrxit'tics hcld by scholastic authon ab<;r.rt b<.rciics: tl'rc rclatiorrship bctwccn lrotly
rrr,l sorrl, thc sourcr: of the bocly's nxffral powcrs, irnd thc causc: <:f rnov('rrr('rrl irt
l,,r,lit's living <>r dcad. Thcse anxieties dcvelopccl in a periocl of rapiclly shifiirrg itlc,rs
tlu' pi.g, tht: u'alkiw dt:,ttl, an.tl
5
l)rrris, rvlrit
rrrtlrols trl tccorcl lcvcnltnt storics ltrrtl thcrr, scctrtiuqly lts ll gr()uP, to ltb,ttttltttt
rlrt'rrr. 'lhc risc irrrd subscqrlcnt clislllpclrrrrncc of nrcclicvai rcvcnalrts :trc irrtlir';rtivc
11;rrc
rlfl rrrd disphced people," I:.urLtpcdn Jttunml of ()lnml srlr/ies 14:3 (2()11): 2rr5-81.
On the revival of stories about the livinc dead durinq the Prorestani ancl (lutholit,
I\efbrnratio,s, see Ilrrce ()ordor, "Ma1ev.1ert Gh.sts erd Miristcrirrq Augels: App:r
ritions rtuci Pastoral Care in the Su,iss llefbn:ration," in'lht: Placc o-f tlu: l)rtul: l)t,ntlr rutl
l?.unutt.hrarrrc in l-att X,Icdict'ol and Earl1, NIoL!trn I:utope, ed. llrr:ce Gordon and l)clrI
Marshall
.(carnbridge,2000), u7-109, and l);rn'en oldridge, strurryt: HistoriL:s.'llu: triril rtl
4
of'tlrc schools of
itrul lrtxlir,r 7l
Ihc developruent of each of these topics ftr:ltural philosoph,v, scholestic tttetlirirtt', l'ttt
iirtory,) in the fint si:holastic era of the trvelfth lnd thirteenth centnries is u rrrorrrrrrrcttt,tl
licltl of study. For essential introductions, I point the reader to -[,ch.varcl (ir.rnt, .'l I/i.rn'r),
,y' Nrrrrr,r/ Philostry:hy: I:rotn iht Ancir:ttt L\/ttrld to tlrc Ninetertfih ():rtltu'1, ((i:rrulrnrlplc:
( l.rrnbridee Universitl, l']ress, 2(X)7), i30-(15; I)enielle Jacqu:rrt, "Meclicll Sclrolrsti. iirtt,"
irr l[/r'sk'nr A,ldkdl ')1nu.qlt.from ArttiqtLitl, to tlrc lliddk: A,qcs, ecl. Mirko (irntck .rrr,l
IJclnartlino Fentini, tnns. Anthony Shug;r:u'(Olrnbridge, MA: Htrv.rrd Uuiversity l't'sr,
l99U), 197--240; enclJacques Le ColI, 'l'lu' Binlt of'I\u,lttory, trurs. Arthur (ioltlh,rrrrrrrt't'
((.hir'rrgo, University of (ll.rit'as() l)r'ess, l()t.l.1). rvrth valtr.rl;le cotr"ectives by lI'i.rrr l',rtli, k
Mr(iLrirc, "l)ulr-1.rtory, the r'orrrrrrrrrrity ol r,rirrts,.rrrtl rnctliev;tl ch.rttge," I'i,rtrrr'lo (l')l"lr)):
r, l ti.l, :urd Is.rlrt'l Morcir,r, Ilt,rrttt't /'rrr.r1,': /'rrr,q,rt,,r1,irr Ittt tlntiqily (()xlirrrl: ()rlortl
( Jrnvt'r'srty I)ress, 20 I O).
/
;rrrr rlt'litttnl-i ".tttttrt,rlcrl r rrrlt',("'lrt,r.trllv l() tlrc,llt .ttty itt\t,ll)(('\\'ltctt
ltli'tlttt,tittittg itt.t ltttttt,rtt r,,tPrr'
olrrt.rvcr l,clit'r,crl llrrl'rr,rr',.rr'\'lrtrr',rt
ilr lrotll,l),trt, irrlrt'rirr11 rrl rlr rru'tr rr,rlttr,rl;rrrrrIt ,rttrl tlrrl lry tliYirrc llll('r\'('llllr)il ill
As slrorrkl
bc,lc,u', |
,r rrtr.rlrt,v,rl
rrrir',r,lr.,
Ilrrrlir,ttrotrtr.tlrrt,rll!il\\'r'rr,rllil\\',tt\I'rr'\r1il,1,'lltcIl{)\l()l)\'r()il\t's,rtttllr',rl
,r1 r,rtttlr l l,rl1' tIlt, \ r('l)t('\( il1 ,r
,Ililll,lt(.(l ( r)rl)\('\ l|t tlrt' Mr,IlL' Ap|r, tlrrl t", llrr t, lt,',
74
Wirrslorr Bl,x
k
humau bocly cit.r aficr tlcath?" Ancl wlrrlc thc:rc lvus :r signii'icaut clurru<>l<>gic,tl
overllp bctwecn thcsc troclcs of aninration cluring thc schol:tstic irue, clr,rring tlrc
tr.vclfih ancl thir:tccnth centurics thc clcrical elitc gradr.rllly lbauclonccl bclicl' irr
rcvcnarrts for otl-rer auiurated corpses r'vhich werc morc rclciily cxplainccl by
Aristotcli:rn rutural philosophy iurd less oflcnsivc to the llew thcolosv of Purgirtoty,
Thc tcrnporal coinciclcncc of these fi;rnrs of corpsc xninratioll is striking: lt rouglrly
the slmc timc as thc peak of rcvcnant storics in thc later twelfth centruy, rve also firtcl
numia rcclcfinccl in Latirr phannaceutical mlnuals as a spicc inlusccl rvith thc bloori of'
corpscs, ;rnd lve find thc first rcports of cruentation arrcl lttcrnpts to explain it in tcnus
ol both nltural philosophy ancl thcobgy, ancl lve also find a rcvivirl of inrcrcst itt
hunrm anatonry aud thc first rccordcd human autopsics and clisscctions in the Mkldlc
Agcs. That so nrany ncw urd cliffcrerrt approachcs to coryscs arrcl thcir potcntirrl
lninriltion tppcar at tJrc sarnc tilnc anrong Latin authors is no r.ncrc coincideucc. TItc:
sc:hollstic thcology, natural philosopiry, ancl mediciue clcvcloping clttring thc trvclfth
ccrlturry all cncouraqcd thcir strldents to ask ditTicult questions about bodies. lrt
responsc thosc stu(lcnts, niostly clcrics, rcclefinccl corpses and causccl bodics and souls
clcircl,
to nrovc f,rrthcl upart p()st tnortatr. .^vcry dcacl body becanrc truly urcl
"vholly
lnrl thc soul rvcnt urrtorurtically to Heavcn, Hcll, or Purg4atory. I\cvetrints that wcrc
rrrrinrirtcd by htrrurru souls bcc:unc unpallt:rbic to n'rainstrearn theologians and thcil
strrtit'rrts, '"vho irrclcrrsingly cxplrrinccl thenr away by clcmonic intcrwention, whilc
rr.rttrr',rl philosophcls rrrrci plrysicilus cxplorecl a range of altcruativcs that albwcd
Irrrrurrrr lrotlics to lct;rirr sourc clcgrerc of lifc for<:c, aniurltting spirit, or po\\'cr tirat cottltl
irr sorrrt' u,;ry lrclp, htu't, lical, or othcrlvisc affcrct the living.
'Io justily thcsc uclrrrittcdly bold ancl srveepinlS statcnlcnts about intcllcctuai rrrrl
lcligious rlcvclopnrcuts irr thc schoi;rstic agc, I r,vill pl:rce revcnilrts in tht: w'idcr: cor-ltcxt
of clcbatcs lbout corpscs, irrch.rrlins their uscs, their: potential ability to nlovc or spclk,
and thcir rcligious or triological status bctwccn dclth urcl thc Gcneriil l\csuncctiou ol'
all thc dclcl at thc cr1cl of tinrc. In this rcspect, I :u'n cousciously invcrting thc approirclt
takcn by Katharine I)lrk in her cssay "The life of thc corpse" (1995). whcrc sltc
conlpiu'cs thc northcrn Enropeiin beiief in the briefly pcrsistine vitality of corpscs
Arrirrr,rl<,rl ( orl)\('\ ,tttcl
,.t,rtrrs
of lhe natural orcler, for they rre :rnitrt.tterl by (iod's {rit(r' ir\ :r sigrr ol'ltil
love lbr thet special persorr, rrnrl therefirre they rvill bc lcft asicle irr rnv discLrssiorr ol
suspension
corpse lnirttrttiotr.
l(;rth.rrirre l),rrk, "tlrc Lili.ol'tlrc (iorpsc: l)ivisiorr .rrrrl ,lisscttiott irr l.rtt' rrrctlicv,tl
litrrolrc," lottttt,tl,,l tltt llistorl,ol r\h'li,itrt ,ntl .'lllit,l.S,/r't,r'\ ii0 (l()()5): I I I .1.).
'15
t'orpscs irr light <lf'dc[l;rtcs,rlrotr( ( llrrist i,rrr Alisttltcliltrrisrrt, r'vitlr tlrt'1p,rl ol
,utlir)it)l{ st:rnc of tlrc rcrtsons rvhy clclicrrl :luth()r's wcrc so itttcrcstctl itt tt'vctt;tttls
,lrrrirrl', thc "long twclfth ccnttuy," or)ly to rrlrrurcl<.rn thcnr alttttlst clltirc'ly itt I,tvor ol
,r r,rrltc of nrorc innocuous and lcss thcologicrlly troublins typcs of livirrg dc;rtl.
I
xplaining medieval revenants
Wlrilc str rics of thc rvllking clercl in thc Miclclle Ascs have long bccn krro'uvtt to ltis
t,,ri,rrrs of rcligion rurcl p<'>pular culturc, it is r:rnly in thc last fc'w clccrtclcs thrtt sclrolrtrs
lr,rvc systcntaticirlly ciistinguished incorporcal gh<>sts fiorn cotporc;tl rcvctrtttts, ;ttttl
lr[.t.rvisc distingrishcd nreclicval rcvenants lint nroclern zcltribics, whir'l-r arc h.rsctl
rr()r(.()n Atrican alld Haitian trilciitiorls thatr on prel-nodern Wcstcrtr nroclcls. Wlrilc
rlrt. l,tttcr zornbies are typically mindless and tcrri$,ingly dcstmctivc: atltorl)rlt:l ol'llcslr,
,,rrr1,ped oI any original pcnonality, nreclicval revcnlll-Its arc rirthr:r cnrbrlcliccl ghosts,
r,..rrrirrntccl by thcir orvn souls.-Whilc rcvcn:rnts typicxlly sharc lvith ztltttbir's tltt'
.rlrl)(,;lr';lllcc of a rotting corpsr', tht:y are not ncccssarily evil or clcstrttt:tivc. l\cvt'tt;tttts
rrt, irrtclligcnt imitatr:n of the living: they spcak, hrve cmotions, nltkc rcqr.rcsts, dclivcr'
rr(,\s,rqcs, rnd cven sing. Mediev:rl rcvenants ntust also be clistinguishc<1, ttlt ('()ttl\c,
Ir r rtrr thc rcsurrcctf d deacl: the latter wcre de.:rcl rurd now arc alivc, wh'ilc thc ftrt'ttrcr' .tt c
l,.rr,r,loxicllly both clcld ancl alivc, or neithcr dead nor alivc.
I t.,rclins the way in unclerstancling mcclieval rcvcnalrts r'vere spccialists itr Not'sc ,ttttl
l, t.l,utdic litcratr.rre who, startins in thc 1980s, chartccl the appc:rtrt-tcc rtlrtl ctrltttt,tl
1rr.,rni1rrs
ef
draugar (singular drau,q c'tt' tlrargr), violent corpscs rcrtttiturttccl
r) _.
,,rrl,.rrr.rl spirits.'' Thr. unclead
by
tlrcir'
Ilritish sourccs havc rcct'ivctl ,lttt'
(1 98il), Jean-C)larrclc Stlrrrritt's
l)aitlr
Burial
and
rrrr'rrtior.r in Paul llarber's lr'rtrtryires,
sctninll lnit'lc "Wr',ritlrs,
(1
Nltrcy
Clcioh's
rrrorroqnrplr I*s revcnttnts 994), and in
r,,\,(.r):lnts, rrncl
ir contincntal
ritual in mcdieval culture"
(1
ancl
99(r.1(' Whilc Schrritt cx;urtittt's plirrr.rrily
,r llild.r l{.
Ellis I)avidson, "The Restless Dead: An Icelanclii: Cihost Story," lr.t'lltt l':rll;ltt
H. I{. Ellis ihviclson ancl W. M. S. I\usst'll (C).rmbridge: l)ttblisltcrl lor llr,'
l:olklrrre Society bv l). S. llrerver, 1981), 155.-75: Clautle Lecolttettx, l;ittttitttt'\ t't tttr
1n1t\ ilt Nktycn A.qr ([)irns: Eclitiotrs hnlge, 19t16), trntrslatecl s'l'1rc l?t:lunt ol 1lx' llt,il
( l/rrr.rLr, .4rlrr'.slors, nnd tht 'l\'onsparcnt I/til of tlu: I'o.qatt Mind. tratls.
Ii. ( lr'.rlr.rrrr
,y' (i/ro.rts, ed.
with a spccificiliy Italiln bclief in the complete iifelessncss of coqrscs, whiclt
cncourlgerd the revival of humarr clissection.8 I begin by revicrir'ing the historio
graphy on rcvcrliurts, and then cxaminc the tlrst appearanccs :rnd contexts oF tlrc
"passive" fonns olcorpsc aninration outlined above. As each of tlrcsc topics (nttrlirt.
cruc:ntatror.r, disscction) has been studicd in great dcpth by othcr authors, Ily gortl
hcre is to prcsent horv scholastic iuthors only in this rlost prolific petiocl of rcvcnrtrtt
storics, thc tr,velfth irnd thirteenth centurics, clcscribed and cxphinccl clch iustancc ol
a corysc uroving, acting, or sornchow "spcaking." I will thcn cxpkrre sonrc of tltc
ncw clcrrrcnts in scholastic theology, cspcci:rlly thclsc cotrccming thc olrtologic.rl
ol
lrrrrlk"'
-fotl
lrt
(l(ochester:, VT: LruerTre<litions,2009). Despite his tide. Lecouteux titcttscr tttosllv ott
lrcl.rnrlic reveniulrs. Also of interest rre Willienr Sayen, "The Alien lntl Alicn,ttt'tl .rr
tlrrrlrriet I)errd irr rhe S:rgrrs ol the Icehnrlers," in r\drrt.trcr 'l'luory: I?cadirt,q (.)r/trrr,', t'rl
(r.], .trrtl
lcllicy.[eror-ne Cohen (Minnelpolis: Universiry olMirrnesota l)ress, 1996),2,12
( lrcqs A. Snrith, 7hr I:unctittrr of tlu' l.iritt,q l)tal in l'lcdiu,al Nhlv' artrl ()'lti( l.ittt,tttttt':
l)tillt ,utd l)c.rirr (Lerviston, NY: [,drvirr Mellen ])r"ess, 2007).
l,.rul []:rrber, I'?rryrirts, lJtri,l ord l)t,rtlt: I:olklon attl /tca/it1, (l.ondorr, I()tlfl);.lc,rrr
( lf,rutle Schnritt, fls ri,r,r,lrrrrils: lrt t,it)tlttt r'l /r'i tttrrr/r lur h socifttt rn('dirltulc (l),rris; lirlitiorrr
(i,rllirrr:rrtl, 199-l); Olci<11,r, "Wr,ritlrr, l{r.r,t'rr.rrrls,.rrr,l IlitLr.rl irr Mctlier,.rl (ltrltrrn'." I rlirl
rr tlr,rnt'c to rt'vicrv ( ,rr tol,r'r .lltttltrt' lti.t\ttti:ttt, Olfistinrit1,, ,ntl lltt lltltrttt ,,1
tlr l)r',tl itt irlililr,,il (.)r/trrrr'(ltlr.r,,r, NY < otrrll Urrn'r'r'sity l)resr,2Ol(r) lrclirtr'tltr'
lrrrlrtrr',tliorr ol tlris t'ri.ry, M,rrry rrtr',lr.r'rl t,rl,',,'l rr'\'('n,rrl\;rrc rtsclitlll'rollt'rtt'rl.tttrl
.lrr.lrrt/r,'/,1O,,,/,1lir,lrl,',, rll,rrr',/'
tr.rrrrl,rtcrl lry Atrrlttrv lrtl,ttcr ttt ,\ltJr,nl (,/t,',/ \/,rrt,r
ll)
,",,
(Woorllrrrrlt',<':
ll,,t',1,'ll l'r
'lll
'ut,l l'toli.tltt'
rrol lr,rvt
76
Winston
Atrinr,tlrrl ( otl)s('\ ittt('l
Blac k
incorporcll ghosts (rcvoranl, "rcturncr," call llrcrln ghost ol zotnbic in frcnch), Crciolit
cxplorcs thc shilring clcsctiptious of ancl cxpllnntions fbr corpol'cal rcvcniults. Most
scholarship on revcnants since then is depcnclent on thesc ,ror*s.ll
\rVilliam r:f Newburgh, an Augustinian c;rnon in Yorkshire, was one of thc rnost
proiific rcporters of revenant stories. In his Hi.ttoria Rrnmr Aryqlicarum (finishccl by
119tt), Williant relatcs in dctail four diffcrcnt stories about tle:rd nrt:n r.vho rost'
fiorn their gravcs ancl terrorizecl neighboring cornuunities in northcrn Englancl.l2
Al1 of William's rcvenants arc malevolent, cattsing clamage, spreading ILar, ancl
bcing chasccl by packs of angry dogs. Willianl reports all of thcsc stories as truc,
lnrtdi.qiosa (unnatural and ominous), contenrporary, and withor.rt explanatiorr:
That thc coq)scs of thc deacl, nrovccl by somc kincl of spirit, lcave their graves antl
teror to the living bcftlrc going back
to tonrbs wirich opcu rlp to rcceive them, is not something u4rich wor.rld bc emily
bclicvccl, rvcre it uot fbr the ilct that there havc been clear cxanrplcs irt our owll
tinrc,',vith:rbundunt accounts of such t:vcnts. Nothing of thc sort is r(]pofied ill
books r>f firrnrcr titnt:s, 'uvhich those of us who are irtciincd to stucly miuht
rvirnclcr around ils thc carlse of danger ancl
nrt'cLt:rte: upclrr, irncl surciy. sincc thcse anciertt books rccorclccl
thc
everyclary ancl
fbnucr tirnes, thcy rvor.rld not have been a[':le to supprcs$
ir('counts ol''stupcfving rrrrcl horriblc cvents if ir-rdcccl they hacl oc.t rr.cl.1-'
nnttcr of-firct
cvcrrts
<,lf
It is rr< t clclr rvhirt "bor:ks of fonlcr tinres" Willirrm rvas rcacling for eviclencc ot'
lcvcl-liluts, but if l'rc hacl lookcd lround his or,vn Anglcl-Nomran cultttrc he wotrlcl
havc fblurcl thcnr in lbttnd;tncc.
The cviclcncc lllls into two rnain categorics: first are reports by lerirncd clerics ancl
nronks, rrrostly English rrnd Clerrnan who rvrotc in the ccntury ca.1130-ca.1230,
Thcy inciude (in roughly chrr:nological ordcr) Williun of Malmcsbury, Abbot
Gcoffrcy of IJurton, W'altc--r Map, William of Ncrn'burgh, Gerv:rsc of Tilbury, arrtl
Clacsarius
of Hcisterbach, all of lvhorn claim to believe their talcs of revcuants
I
ancl
to cxplain thenr. Contcmporary with Gervasc ltnd Clcsarius rtlt'
tlrc Old Frcnch romances Annrdas et ltloiw and Peilcsuaus (both writtcn iIr thc first
arc olten rrt
loss
11
l2
For example, see
Apparitions in Mec'hevr1 [,ng1and," Irolklore 114:3 (2tJt)3): 389*402; (]. S. Watkins, /-llrtory artd tht St4tunatural hr. lt[cdicual Hryland (Cambridge: Canrbridge Uuiversiry Press,
2007); l{. N. Srv:rrtson, "Gl-rc>sts and Ghostl>usters in the Middle Ages," in'l'hc Cltrn'lt,
the Afttilifc and the ltate of thr: Soul, ed. I)eter Clarke,urd Tony Clayclon. Stur/lr-r itr Clnmlr
Hi*ory 45 (Woodbiiclge: Iloydell Press, 2009), 113-73; anclJohn llltir, "Thc lhngcrotts
of l\rtrkk l\irtl)ead in Early Mcdieval Encland," in Early lfudia.,al Sttdiu irr
^'lutlr),
ancl l):rvicl I)elterct,
ntold, et|. Stephen I]axter, Cathenne E. Karkov, Jlnet L. Nelson,
Str-rriies irr Early Medieval llnteiu (Fanrharn: Asheirte, 2()()9), 539--59. I)itn'err ()ldritlge
provicles I useful discussiou of rvalking dead in the lrtter nreclier'.rl .tlrtl [rrt'ly Motlcrtt
in Stran,qc Historits, 56-75.
Williarrr of Nervbtrlgh, l'!istoria lltrurtr.Arr.qliL,urrttr
periods
l.l
I!, utl
V.ll l,l,
irr
of' thc tltirtccuth ccntut'y), rvlrit lr li',rtrtlt' lt,rtrrttcd ('cltlctcl'ics ,ttttl tlrt'
,rfl),rr(,utly corPorcal boclics of clcirtl krriglrts'nvlritlr lise tlpoll the rtPPrrl:tclt ol tltt'
r'r Sccr:ncl ilrc thc Icc'lanclic (in'fli.s Srtqrr, litrby.**i,-, Srtqo' Ltxda'lrr Srr(rl, rllltl
Ir,,,,,.
Nlrr/s Srlqrr alnolllr otlrers, clescribing cvcnts nrouud thc ycar 1000, btrt wlittctt itr
rlrt.thirtecnth lnd ftlr,rrtcenth centuries. (As I r,vill ftrcrts lrclc on thc Lltin, st'llol,tstit'
,lr.sr.riptiolrs of rcvcnants ancl corpse animation, I r.vill lcavc tsiclcr thc stgils, witlt tll('
lrrll trnclcrstaucling thlt draugar are an important examplc of thc rtrcclicval tllrtlcrrtl.)
A lt'rv chronological, but not gco€faph.ic, outlierrs ol)ly rcillforcc thc pr<:fttsiott ol
tr,\/('ltilllts in the twclfih ancl tl-rirtccntir centuries: revctl.lnts or tilovitl14 col'pscs llr('
I'
l,rrrrrtl irr thc crrly clcventh-century Clrronicott of I)ishop Thictnur of Mcrscbtrrg;
rrr t,lcvcnth,celltllty England we fincl th.c cot?sc of Cwoenthryth, sistcr ol' St
l(r.rrchrr o[Wilchcombc, refusing to stay in its qrave. ]nd thcr corpsc <lf :r Strllirlk
rlrr.r.iff 'uvho oflcnclecl St Echnund possessecl atrcl atriuratccl by r clcnrorr;l(' rttttl itt it
,,r,t o[ supcm?ltural tales copied in the iatcr lourtcerrth c]crltury by ltl ltnottytttotts
( rrrcrcian nronk olBylancl Abbey in Yorkshirt.lT
'Ihc mrity of revenants and their lirnitcci gco!1-itphy and chronology hils lr()t
liotrc unnoticed, arrcl some schoiars have sor,rght the rcasons r,vhy orily cert.titt 111-ott1,s
,rt r.r.r'tliu tilnes accept thc iclea of an ernbocliccl ghost. Thcy havc thcrcftrrc ftlt:ttsctl
,n (()utoxtualizing mcciicval revcnants: Jacques Lc GolF ancl Jcan-Clltrclc Sclrrrritt
lr,r,,,c cxplaine:cl thc profusion of ghost stories (inclucling revcnlnts) in thc lrttt'r
N4itltllc Aues ts l product of clergy sccking ways to cducxte Christians rtbottt tltc
l,rrrrr:tl cloctrine of Purgatory and convincc them of the cfficlcy of suffi':rgcs lor tlrt'
,l,.,r,lil8 scverarl schoi;rrs have sugeested that thc English predilcction ft>r rt'vt'ttrtttt
t,rlt.s t:ry1e
()rrott.rl lr1, fo1,rrcr, ,\lt,litt',rl ( l/rrrr/ ,\/orir'r,
r)().
frr:m Norse anrl I)anish
itrv;rclers and scttlers brirrging
tllcs o['lt,u1g,t
rvirlr thcm;1' Narrry Caciola idcrrtifies in Thietnurr of Mrxebttrg's stcrrics of tt'vt'tl;tttts
,rrr irrtcntional syncrctisln of Slavic pagan and ntcclieval Christian ctlltur(rs to,ritl irr
'Watkins places the rcvenant storics of'Willirrrrr ol
, r)n\,('rsion to Chdstianity; C. S.
'Vf:rltcr
Map, and othcrs in ir priuarily Anglo-Latin traclitiott ol sttIt't
l..1t.rvlrulgh,
Park distinguisltes sotttl'rern xnd northcl'Il Ettrttpc;tttr lty
Katharinc
rr,rrrrrrrl tirlcs; and
rlr,'il clifl'cring attitucles towarcl the potcntial lifc of
I
l,'
lr,
ll
Itl
ritt, (,'liosr.r lrr tlu: it4itldk lgrs, 130*[1 1 .
N.rncy Oaciol;r ex:rniues the revenants of Thietnr;rr iu "l\evenattts, l\esttrrc'tliotl,,ttt,l
Iirrrrrt Saclifi<:e," Prctenrohtt: 3:2 (2011): 31I-38.
lll.rir, "The l)angerous Deld in Early Medieval Englencl," 540' 550.
M. I\..frureserlitedthernonkol-Byland'sstoriesin"TrvelveMeclievrl (ihostSt,rlicr,"
l:trylislt Historiral lleyirlu 37 (1922): 413*22, sonte of rvhich irre tlrttrslrttetl by.lo1'rrcr,
.\ ltliu,al (.1/ro.rt Slorir.s, I 20-25.
I
c (i6ti, 'tlu, Ilirth of -Prrrg,rrr,ry. 79- 52, 177. ll I I Schnritt, (l/ro.rt.i irr tfu L'liddlr .'l,qr'r, 'l
lTu lJI.
t
ri,
lirrglislr debt to t:r'les of'r/r,rrrqrrr rr \lrltli('st('(t lr1' l):tviclscltt, "J'he l\cstlcss l)c.rtl,"
ll,ttrrttt ol tll l)taJ, ll)ll l(,; ,rrrtl (].rr'iol;t, "Wr;titlrs, l{t'vt'tt.tttls
,rrrrl I{itrr:r1," l5 17. (1, S. W.rtIitrr, lr,rrr','r,,'r, rrt.rkt'r lltc itttport;tltt obst't'r',ttiott llt,tl
r(.\,(.lr,1rl\.uc n(,vcr lcportcrl,r\ p,rp..ur lrr'ltrlr, lrttt,rr('r,rlll('r'lrl,rtctl lirrrrly rvitlrrrr tlrc
( lttirti.rrr tr,ttlitiorl: llilttl'rtrtl l/tr' \lt|r ttt'tlttt'tl ttt '\l"litlal lit.ql'utl' 8(t
( ,rr iol,r. "l{t.vcrr.tntr, l(r.rrrrrrr tton, .ur,l llrrrl ',,rr rtlr, r"'l W,ttkirrs, IIi'l,'t)' ,ntrl lltr'
\rrltrttr'rlrn'il itt ,\lt,lttr',i l'.tt,tiltrl; l',rrl', " lll I tl' "l llrr' ( rrll)\c"'
l(l) 7')i [-ct.6ureux, '!ltt
,r
corpses.2t)
St lrn
l,t llrc
(.'/rr,,rrlrlr's o/ t/rr'l?r'iqrrr,y'
I?il1ru1 /, crl. l(itlr,rr',1 llorvlt'lt, .l vols. (l.ortrlort: l(olls Scriti,
Itllt5),2: 17.l lJl, p,u1i.rll)'tt,tttrl,tlcrl lry loyrrt'i, ,\1,',li,t',rl (i/to'l,Snrtir'r, ()7 ll).1.
Stryln,n, Hcttrl,
77
rpt,lt.t(.1'
I
Jacqr:eline Siurpson, "llepeutent Soul or Walkiug Corpse? I)ebrrtlble
lxxli('\
/8
Wittstorr Blat.k
Whut ulitcs nlrst cti'thcsc schol:rrs is r tcncietrcy t<.r cxphilr rcvcllilllts ilccortlittg
to what sort olspiritual pclrvcr lniutates thenr.2l The now stlllldarcl it-ttc4rrct;ttiott,
bcst secn in Crciola's and Watkin's work, cliviclcs rcvclliltlts into a binary r;f clivirrc
6r den6nic power. Their bcst eviclcnce contes fi-onr Willianr of Ncwburgh wlrrt,
out of his Ii:ur rcvenaltt storics, describes onlv onc tts attimate cl by thc rnan's sottl,
with Ciocl's pcmrission, altother ottc as attitnltecl by thc Devil's polvcr, ancl ou thc
he is r,rnclcar. Willianr, writing in thc 1190s, serves as a vlluablu^ transitiolal figr.rrc bctlveett revenants of thc trvelfth centttry, who lrc usually the actuill
pcople rvho livecl in those bodics, rcanit.natcd by their original souls, irnd thc'
sccolcl generation of rcveuants, aftcr about 1200, rvhich apparcntly fcll urrdcr tlrt'
prcssrlres of contcmpclrary thcology, made increasingly internatiollal ancl h<>urogeneous thr:sugh the influence of Paris and its uelv uttiversity. According to tlris
thcology, it bccame trnacceptirblc fur clerical authors to attributc a revcttattt's
"dcrnonising thc
l)ower to an uttaiciccl humatr soul. Sotrlc clcr55y rcsponded by
thc rcvcnant is
latcr
stor:ics
in
phrase:
fclicitous
rcstlcss clcacl," to nsc Carl Watkin's
other
tw<-r
thc originirl pclsoll tnytllorc, br.tt irn crnpty shcll for cleruonic prrssession.S2
[;<:r cxrrurplc, thc thirtccnth-century nroralist Cacsarius of Heistcrblc:h toid of il
prorrcylcuclcr in I)cclrcrr whcl cliecl, rrncl aftcnvards "a clcvil uroved her rmls ancl
lcgs rrs t|ough sltc rvcrt cotllttiug ttrortcy." This rrlovetnent stopped after a pricst
rfirusr.rl lrcl bocly irr h<:ly wnter atrcl pcrfomrcd ltn exorcism. Likcwise, a knight
rr;rrrrt'tl lrvt'r.tt11 r,v,ts t'rtisccl fl-<.lnr llis tonrb bv cictnons, and his horrificcl liicncl hrd
t() (ill)tul'(. lrirrr, tic hinr trp, ancl bury hilll rrgain to prcvent his rctum.23 Ilut llot
rur>t
thit'tccnth cclrtrlr,v, cvcn thc clcttronizcd revenallts clisappear, and the
liltcl. nrcclicvrll uuclcrrcl population car)c to trc cotnposcd almost cntirely of inctlrporcll ghosts. lly thc 1230s, Willian'r of-Auvcrgne, bishop of Paris, could riciictllc
anyor)c bclicving thirt dcacl rncn could cornc birck to lile. And Willirrrr was harclly
a lroclcrn skeptic, lbr hc clid belicve in ghosts, witches, clemons, ancl all mrnncr ol'
[rrrg irrtp
t|c
incorporcal spirits.la
While this standard explanation of changes in nrcdieval rcverlants is convincittg,
insofar as wc can argue liom the scant evidencc, it ovcniruplifics a complcx sulrjcct
by defining rcvcnants only by their spiritual auiuratins forcc, ciivine or clemortit',
2l
22
23
The prirlary exceprions are rhose scholarr rvho oller physicel or nredicll explan:rtitltts
fbr stones.t,r,rr,h. unrlead. These inclr-rde Peul }lerber rn,ho, itt l/arnpirt:s, Buridl, anl
l)crrllt, lttributes ntany st<lries of the bloated an<l b1<locly appearltllce of revenrrnts ;ttltl
vaurpires t6 1om1rl pl'ocesscs of deconrpositror.r, itnproper'1y understoocl rtt the time, rttttl
Stepiel (lordon, rvho ettdbutes certain stories ol detnotrs and levenauts (inclrttlirrg
those of \)7i1lianr of Nervburgh) to traurnaric episocies of uightntarcs rtntl sleep par:rlysir
i1 "Mecl:ical Condition, l)enron or lJr.rdeld Corpse? Sleep I)aralysis rtncl the Nightrrr;rte
irr Medievll Europe," Sttcial Histttry of )vlerlicittr:28:3 (2t)15):425*1'l'
Watkins, Histttry arul tlu: Supcrttailuzl in Mcdiud ltrqhtd' 182'
Tlrese srolies irre rel;rte<i by Wrtkins, History and tlu' Sttpt'nrdtrrral itt Altditr',il
Etrcland, 183.
2.1 ()iciol.r. "Wraitlrs, I(eveu,rnts, rrntl ll,itull," l7; Mich.rcl l). tllilcy, ii'rirlirl.S/rirlrs, /'(r',1
(lrrrrell
.irrrrlri /i,//i1s; 'l'ltt llottttl,tits ry' ,Stt2t'triti/irtlt irr I^rlt ,\ltJitv,il lirtroltr'(lrlr'rt'r, NY:
LJrrrvcrsitv l'tcss, ,lOl.l). (rO (rji.
Arrirrr,rlr,<l ( orl)\(,\ ,rrrrl
,rrrrl ttot trtkirrg tuto.lc(()ul)t tlrt'rr,r(rrr'c
ol tlrt'lrotly itsclf. Morcovcr', thc
lrrlrlk,r
79
tr',rrrsli'r'ol
r,lr\,rtiou fi<lur sottls to clcnrolrs tklcs not ('\plirir) rvhy storics <>f lrrry lcvcrlut(s, ('v(.rr
tlrr'tlcrrt<lrtic, clisrrppcar so strclclcr-rly irr thc thirtcclrth ccl'rtury. Wc t'iur hcgrrr trr
,ur\wcr th;tt clucstion by exarrrining othcr ruocles of cotpse anirnltiou, wlriclt rvcrt'
,lr'st ribccl ilt thc sanle tinrc urd in sirnilar scholastic circlcs as thc bulk ol'tlrc n'vcrrurrl.
',trrics, und
woulcl cvcntually replace thosc rcvcnants ts thc only rrcct,pt,rlrlt,
"vhich
rypt's of liviuEl clcld arnong the lcarnecl clcrgy.
Mummies and mumia
l(rrtrulrly colltenrpol'ary u'ith the peak of revcnaut storics in thc trvclfth cclrtrn'y is
tlrr' :rppcl:ance il1 European pham acr:logicll tcxts of lllcdicincs clcrivcd liorrr
Irrrrrnn corpscr.tt M.,li.irr.s rnacle from thc deacl arc not the salllc ils thc livirrg
,lr',rrl, of course, but they sharc in thc tenclcr-rcy, lnost prououncecl irr tlrc sclrolrrst.ir'
,r11', to iclcntify ancl explore any sort crf rcr-nnant vitaliry in co4)scs. Irr purticrrl:rr, tlrc
, lr,rrrljc in clefinition alrlong twelfth-century Europclu phamrlccrrticll arrth<lrs ol'tlrc
rrrr'rlicittc krx:lvn as ntumia - frorn a spice fourrd rlc-irr corpscs to a spicc clcrivccl fiorrr
, ()rl)scs - is syrnptouratic of a wider desire to fincl bodies with powcr to rt'plrrtr'
rr'\'('ilrn1ts, 'uvhich were increasingly unacccptxblc in cuncnt tlrcolr)gy. NIuiltitt, ot'
"rrrrrrur.rty," is a sticky resin derived fr<xrr the head or spine of Egypti:ur nrunrrrrir's,
,r, r orrliug to medieval phannaceutical mlnuals. Like rnuch of the ncw rncclicirrc irr tlrc
l,rrrq trvclfth ccntury, Europeans learnr:d <>f nunia fronr Arabic sour'(:csr btr( tlrc
nr,unrcl in r'vhich Latin authors modificcl thcir sourccs is consistcnt witlr clrrrrrllitrg
,rtti(rfdcrs tolvarcl the vitaliry of corpscs. In Pcrsian ancl Arabic nniltiyd nreurrs sirulrly
"rr,.rr".rncl by thc tentl-r celltury Arabic nrcdical atrthom Llsc thc tcl'n1 fi)r rr;rtrrr',rlly
r( ( ul'ling bitunren or asphalt, '"vhich r.verc uscfirl in piasteni ancl :rrrtickrtcs. 'llr.rt
r,'rrr:rirrccl thc Arabic definition for the rest olthe Micldle Ages. Ilut bccirusc tlris stir'kv,
l,l,rrk firrrn olpetroleum lookcd a lot like the substancc found arouncl tlrc rrcr'kr t,l
rrrrrurnrifiecl Eg1'ptilns, or becanse the blackcned skin of rnany nlunlmics lrlokctl liLt' rt
Ir,rs bcctr preplrccl rvith biturnen, an author in thc Arabic or Latiu rvorlci corrlirsc,l tlrr'
Irlo substiurces. In reality, the secrctions fionr Egyptiirn rnunrmies was prob.rlrly,r rrrrr
,'l llunrs, bloocl. spinal fluid, aloe, ancl rnyrrh, and thc clark color <:>f thc nrrrrrrrrri,'r rr
,lrrc to thcir grcilt agc and thc- coloring of otl-rcr prcscrviltivcs, but not bittrrrrcrr.
l,rrlopcrrn schohrs, translating Ar;rbic rncclical texts in the clcvcrrth rrntl tw('llilr
rlnturics, itll clcscrihc ilutnid as a sticky substancc lbuncl nclr or on rntrrrltrilir'tl
l',rrlics. particullrly lrouncl thc neck. Lr thc latcr cleventh ccntllry, thc llrrrrt',1
rrr,',lit;rl tr,ruslltor Constantinus Aficlnus conlpilccl ir book on thc clcgrccs (irrtcn
rrry) ()l rrrcclicinal ingrcclicrrts, cirllcd thc Libcr,qrudurtrrt r>r l)c,qrudilurs sirttylirirrttt,
'
r l(.rll [{.
I).rrrnenf}ltlt, "lluypti.rrr Mrrrrri.r: l lrt' Sirtccrrth Oentury llxl)ericr)( (.
l
.ur(l
l lclr.rtc," .Silr'r'tr//t ()'tttrtrl, .lorrttrul l(rr.' (lr)l'l'r)' lr, 8oi Mrch;rcl (l,rrrrillc, "'l lt(. (:('rl)\(.
rrr llrc (i,rrrlcrt: i\/tlrlrt irr Mcrlicr'.rl Ilul',rl lllrr',tr,rtsorri," ln ,/1/ir'n)/()(r/J 7. ll r,ul,n'or.
l'lt
(['lorctttc: SISMlil , l')')r)) .rr)/ lllt ll rr lr,rrrl Srl111i lr.t(('\ tlt(' ltislrtty 6l trtttrttr,t
rrrlrr tlrt' li,rrl1' Motlt'rrr ,tnrl [\4,'rlr't tt rt,rr ttt ,lltttlrrtrr'', ('tttttilnrl: ,utl l'unittt. 'l'ltt lli'
tttl'tl (htptt Alt/t ittt ltrtn llr llr'lr,tir,,tll tr lltt I tttttn,nt\ (Nrrl York: ltorrth.rl[t., .l0 ll)
{.',r11,r'
80
Winston
Arrinralc<l (.or[)sos anrl
Bla<.k
r,vhich twclflth-ccntuqr cclitclrs inscltccl in thc /)rartirrl scction of iris nlt:tlt-tttlcttt;tl
rncdical cncyclopeclia callccl the I',antc.qni.2(' Constittrtitrus is al'u'arc ot tllc cltrsivc
clcfinition of tu.rnria, and strcssc's that it is a subst:rncc appliccl to thc dcltcl rrrttl
thercby changcd by them: "Sonre say that nnunia is asphalt, yct it is :t ccrtlin spicc
fi;1gncl ip the tonbs qf the clcad. For the ancients anoitrtcd the clcacl with it so thcy
"2' ltt
rvor"rlcl not putrcfii or proclucc wornls. It is hot ancl dry in thc third .lcgy""
is n
but
thcrlrselvcs,
corpscs
the
by
produccd
ts
not
nrunia
opinion
Constaltintts'
scholitr
mcclical
Italian
an
Platearius,
Mltthleus
preserwation.
sgbstalce usccl in their
rvriting his popr.rlar urtidotary Circa instans in the rnid-tr,velfth ccntury, erlaboratcs
on Colstantinc's report: "Mr,rrnia is hot and dry in the fourth [.sir] clcgrce. accolcling
to Corrstantine.... Murnia is a spice lvl.rich is four.rd in the tombs of the clcad. ln
antiqlity it wtts cttstomary fbr coryscs to be prcpared r'vith tralsanr ar.rd rnyrrh
arqulcl thc heaci lncl neck, rrnd this still happens atllolUJ the pagans :rrouncl tlabylort
thc
[i.c. Cairo], ."vhcrc thcre is a great deai of balsanr. Thcreforc tl-re bloocl [of
5oclvl is clr;rwn up to thc hcad by thc hcat of the balsanl wircrc it is cookctl,
hcirtccl, rlricci, ancl transfunnccl into nrutnia. Munria is likcwisc fourlcl around tltc
s1.rirrc. Yotr shoulcl sclcct tl'rlt lvhich is shiny, b1ack, ill-srnelling, ancl also hcavy."rx
Irrrr l)lrrtcurius, uuttttitt is uow rr procluct of thc corpsc. It is still cotnposed mostly tll'
by tire blood'2'
l)r'cs('r'vittivc spiccs, btrt it is nlixccl ancl tratlsftrt'luccl
Irr tlrc lirllo."virru tlcclclcs thc conncctiou betlvccu rrntnrid and ther corpsc itsclt'
llt(.w stl()llqcr', ls l:itrlol:rcun scholrrrs shiftccl thc mc:rnitrg <tf nunitr liorn a spice
lirtrrrtl ttc.tr ()r olt col'pscs to x spicc procluccd by colpses. T'he first to do so wlttt
(icr.rrr.rl 6lt
i(r
27
2tl
Orcprrlpl, tliurslatgr' ql thc n-rcdical rvorks of I\hlzcs (al-l\:rzi) irl
C)n r6e circtrlation oltl-re l-iblrgrarlrull see Faith W:rllis, "The Ghost in the,4rtlrdLr: A
Twelf-th-cc:1tury (ioltnrentlry otr the Constantiniln l-ibcr Ctddtnmt," and Witrsttltt
IJlrr<:k "'l rvill icld rvhat the Arab once teusht': Clotlstantine the Atlictn in Nothertt
Etrropean Metlical Verse," botl-r in Htrbs and Hcrilrrs tion the Anrient ivlediti:rnur:at thntrlglt
tfu i,lt:dieual Wtst. Etsays ln Horutr ttfJohn N\. /tlr/d/e, ed. Antre Vatr Arsdall rn<1 Tinrothy
Crahenr (Famhar:r: Ashgate, 2012), 107'51 antl 153-85'
Tralslari1';ps ere 111y orvl utrless otherrvise indicated. "Mttmi:r quiclam dictutt crinc
asprrllnrl: cprecl;rnr t,,rren spe.'i.. cst qr-le ittttcuitttr in sepr-rlcris n)ofttlol'tu11. Arrtitltri
errim morttros ex ea ungeh,rnt ne cito putrefierenc: iltlt vernles prodttcereut: clditllr et
sicca est in tertio grirdn." Constautinus Afiit:lnus, Pategrti, [)ractic:r, lib. II, "l)t'
ttrtrrtria", printed iu Optnl t)nmil \'smt"' 2 vols (Lyons' 1515)' r'ol 2' fbl u4r'
"Mumir calida est ei si,:ca in qr"rarto gradll tesae Coust:rtrtino.... Est :rtrtetn nttttttil
quechln species, t1r-te in sepulcris moltuonrr-Il reperih"rr. Solebant ;rtttitlttittts ('()rllol',1
,rro.t.r.r..r1, tlalsamo, vel mila condiri, et adhuc fit epr-tcl pallanos circa Ilrrbilonilrnr, ttltl
est copia lrglta balsami, circi cerebrurn et spinatn. Vndc slngr.ris ld cerebrunr cltlofc
balsanii trahitur, et excoquitur, arluritnr et desiccatltr et itt t.t-rttttti:tttt trlitlslllittxttlr. cl
circa spirranr etiam rnunlia inueuitur. Eligen.la est qtrc lncida est nisra et fetidl, tprr
etiarn est solicla." Mrrtthaeus Pl:ltearius, Oirca instarrs, prir-rted ls l)c sintpliri trcdiitt,r, itt
Prartica-loIarntisl Straltiortis tlirta ltrcuiorirmr (Vetrice: ()(:teuixntls S(-ottLls, l+97), fi)l. :OJ\',
This pess;tge rvas copied, rvith firv chnutres, in the thirteenth-cetttttty'l'r:rlatrrs lt lu'tltlt
by lrs. Ilutholorn;reus Mirri de Senis, iI'rarlnfrrs dt' lrt'rltis (A'Is Londott, l)ritislt I"iluny,
eil. Iolarrd,r Vetttttnt (Flot'ence: SISM['L' 2()09), 56 I 62'
Kiu.l l)lrntrenli,ltlt torrIuscs tlre tcxts,rrrtl tlltes ol'thcst't'.ttly;ttttltorr rttt ltlttltti,t, trr,tktttg
(l<lrrst.rptirrrrs;1t(l l'l,ttc,ltill\ rornt'lrow rlcpcrtrlt'ttl ott tltc l,ttct (ict.ttrl rrl ('lr'tttotl,t',tlltl
Mit lr,rt'l ( ,trrrrlk' ,rtr,l l(r, lr,rrrl Srrli;i trrltt'tit tltrs r tttlltlrlttll,
tiqt:rton 717),
29
thc
llrxllt,r 8l
II/Os, rvlro slys in thc Sy1tstni11111 llrr.rrr, ;r lrrir'l rrlplrlbcticll gk:sslry of irrglctlicrrls itr
It lr.rzcs' lvolks, "Muuria is a strbstancc fi.rurrcl in thc larrcls whcrc rlclcl l:otlics rttr' ptr'
l',rrt'tl rvith rrloc, by which thc licluicl of thc corpsc is rlixe cl with thc rtloc rtttct Irct otttt's
,,rrnil;rr to nrarine pitch."3') In Clerard's transhtion of'Rhazes' nrost flllnous w()r'k,
I iln't' ,d iiltutursorcnt, tnttnid is prcscribecl fur various ciischargcs, sr.lch as blootly Irosc.
rl)rtlir)lj bloocl, dyscntery, or menstrual problelns, app:rrcntly applyirrg thc krgir'ol
,ttttili,t sirttililtu.s, likc treating like: the tnununy's dischrrgc hclps yotrr clisr'lt,rlgc,tl
V,rri,rtious on l\hazcs'staterncnts, by wry of Gerarcl of Crernona, wcrc tnrtclc lirr tlrt'
rrr'r( scvcrll ccntLlries, 'uvith an incrcasing enlphasis on thc tmnsfi'r ol: virtttc li'orrr
rlrc lrtrnnn bocly to a pitch-like substance. Accorclinq to Kar'l I)anrrcnfc'lcit, "l hcsc
tr.l(.r('nccs inclicatc that initially the nrumi:r of the tornbs w:rs consiclcrcd to bc tlrc
r,,,,inous, iuouratic cxudatc rvhich canrc from thc bodics of tl-re aucicnt Egyptiirrrs
,rrr,l rvlrich rcceived a special viftue becausc it containcd fluids <;f thc bocly."t'r'l'lris
r1,t.r r;rl virtue is not a soul, of course, but learned Europcan physicirrns ilr)cl nirtur,rl
wcrc cager to locatc a certrin life'-givirrg propcrty t<.1 urcclicittcs
fronr corpses.'"' No. r.vas this a short-lived phenomcnoni nnttnid ltrrtrrrt'tl itt
rl()\l [)hlrnnaccutical r-nanuals of later rncc]ieval ancl c;rrly lnoclcm Europc, ;urcl wrts
rr,,r'rl irr rncclicincs and paints even into thc Victorilr-r clrt.
W,rs thc tr:rnsition csf ntuuia frorn bitur-ncn to a lni\turc of spiccs, pitch, urrtl
l',,rlily fluids of a corpse a nrt:rc: accidcnt of trrnsl;rtiou? This is unlikcly. ltr rtortt'ol
tlrr.Ar;rirrc r.vorks is niumid givcn any definition beyorrd a var:icty of bitrrntcrr, rvlrilc
Latin Europeans nrotlilicd rtr'
' \,r'n in thc rnost liteml translations of Arabic tcxts.
r,l,lt'tl to thc passages on mwnia to stress its origin in hnnran coryscs arrcl thc lrc;rlirrp,
I'roIt'r'tics prescnt in this rnixture of exotic spiccs r,vith. cxotic boclics. A4rrrrrirr lirrt
.r1'1,t.,rrt'rl in Europe sirlply irs part of thc sr.veepinu translation nrovctrtctt( rll lltr'
l,,rr11 t',vclfth century, which bcgan with rncclical works in southcrn ltirly. lts lr'
,1,'lrnitiou ancl wiclesprelcl popularity by the htcr trvclfth lnd thirtccrrtlt r't'ttttttit'r
rr'\)/nll)torlratic of r clesire of learned Christians to iclentify othcr firrrrrs rtl'r'otprt'
.rrrrrrr,rtior.r that rvcrc iess frightening, rnorc uscful. anci 1l1ore acc:cptirblc to ('urt('nl
I'lrrl,,sophy and thc,ology than werc revenants.
l,lrrlosophers
,lr.rrr,,t'rl
( ruentation
of corpsc iurimrtion, contemportry r.vith thc reclcfinition ol rllttli,t
rn,l tlrt'pc:rk of rcvcnant stories, is the clezrd body thrt blcccls in the prcscttcc ol tts
A
rl
tt
,,rrrrilrrr casc
"Mrrrrri.r res est que inuenitur in ten-is ubi rn()rtLlonll)r corpora aloe t'ottclirttttur,l (lilil)lr\
Irrrrrror nrortui cunr aloe nrixtis Isir', ,l'rtu' lnixtusl resoluitur et sinriliatr,tr pici rtt,ttinc."
,\l,rr,rrryirtrrr Jlrrsis, in ()trtttttll irr hoc t,olutnittt'i,l/rcr,ll,rsis dd alttiltttsorott... (rr.p, l,l()/),
l(ttv lt,('v: l(t(rr. Tr'.rrrsl.rtrorr ir nrv ,,rvrr.
l.i/rr'r Jlrrsl.r,rd,ilnl:lts,rrttu. '['l',r(t,ltlr\ l'r'rtitti, r,rP. l{) (n.1r. i,[97), tirl. l(rv.
I ),rrrrrcrrlcltlt, "liuypti,rrr Mttttti.t," l(,'r.
l(,rtlr,tlrrrc l).rrk uocs too l,rl in,r\\r)rr,rtlrl', tlrt',,1,'rtr,'to littrl.t r('nur.urt vit,rlity irr (orl)\('\,
rr rrr tlrr'r'.rsc 01 ,/rilltrirt, otrll'rytllt llotlltIttt I ttt,r;'r',tttr (" lltc I ili'ol tltc ('0t|rc", I l{,
I I i). f lrc l,rrt tlr.rt .rll tlrrt'r' ol llrIrI r',rtl\ ,rttllt,,r', t\t tililtilitt rvt't'(. ll.tlt.ttts or rvrilttrl,l ttt
ll,rly r orrlr,rrltr lr lro,rtl,.tttttrttl
82
Wirrsl<:rr Bla< k
Arinr,rl<'rl (or[)s(,s,rnrl
tlrut:clcrcr. This rcprcscnts a litctal intcrpre t;rtiolr of Gocl's ."vorcls t<.r Ciriu in Cicncsir
4: 10 (KJ), "Whlt lust thou donc? Thc voicc of thy brothcr''s bloocl clicrh lrnto nlc
lrom thc ground." Early uroclern jr.rrists namccl this telling ..crion of .l coryscr
whetlrcr judgcd natural or miraculous, "cmentation" (jus mtentatiLtnis tad,tucri), xttl
l)aarrcclt ("bicr-right") or l3alrprolte in Gemran, and thcy wrote prolifically on its
reality and relevance in a court of, 1aw.3a It fil:st ;rppcarccl, horvevt-r, iu thc latcr.
twelfth centllry and, like stories of rcvcniurts, is fbund only in northem Er.rropc. A
clilliculty in undcrstarrding the meaning of cmentirtion in rhe High Micldle Agcs,
and whethcr people actr"rally believed in it, is that bleeding corpses arc firuncl 1t
trruch itr historical sources as in fictional litcrature, like the Ni.ltt:lunqenliad, ltuein,
and Gottfried von Stral3burg's'1''istan.35 As rve shall sce, rhough, naturirl philosr:phcrn
cagcrly enrbraccd thc subject of cruentation and savc every irnpression that thcy
lirlly believed in its existcncc.
I)crhaps the carlicst case occ,urccl around 1180, r.vhcn the Cisterican abbot <.lll
'lrois-fontaines,
d'lgny, lvls brutally rlurdered by onc of his rnonks,
an axe r,vhile he.uvas praying. Picr::c: lc llorgnc, thc
"vith
(listcri<:ln :rbbot of Igny was
visiting at thc tirnc, and according to his rcport o[
the ttrttrclct', (i['rlrcl's corpsc lrlcd in thc prcscnce of Simorr r,vhilc a]l rhe monkl
cl6r:arc1
Sinrou, who hit his lbbot
rvcrc [.lcitt1; itttcrros:ttccl. -lhis r,vas not consiclcrccl clefir-ritive proof of Sirnon's guilt,
but rv:rs tukcrr as <lrrc of scvcr:al "conjcctural signs." Soon after, in 1189, King
llcrrry ll of'Iirrglrrtrd cliccl rvhilc fighting his rcbcllious son ILicharcl. All sourccs
;lgrt'c IIcrtry cliccl c>l:ttatltrltl cituscs, and not from nrurcler or battlc, but noncthclcss,
rvhcrr l\ichrtrci ctrtcrccl thc chapcl rvhere his f,rthcr 1ay, blood eushecl [i'on.r thc dcrrcl
kirrg's uostlils. '["hc flor,v of blood stoppcd thc monrent I\ic]rarcl lelt thc r:oonr,
C)thcr Enqlish chrorriclcrs in thc fbllorving quartcr ccntury, inclucling l\ogcr ol:
Hovcclcn, Ilcncclict of Peterborough, Matthclv Paris, and Gerald of 'walcs, rccorrl
this story.'](' Or-re final cxarrrple: Thomas of Cantimpr6, writing l.ris llonuri urtiversuh,
dc apibu: in the 126()s rccords how in 1220,Hcni, abbot o1-a rnonasr(:ry in Blois,
rvls rnurclereci by three assassins who had bcen hired by his or.vn canons. Tlrc
canolls werc upset
Hcnri's stric:t policics and attempts to refitnl the rnorr.
"vith
astcly. When Hcnri's body rvas iaid out ir-r the chr"rrch and thc triritors entcrctl,
blood cxplodecl 6:onr his dry rvounds. His bloocl rvls accusinq sonrcone in thc
ror:nr, btrt it ''vasn't clcar r,vhorn. Hcrrri haci clearly fearccl the r.l,orst, sincc hc hltl
34
The urost lhorotrgh stu.1y on this topic is by Alain lloureau, "La preuve prrr
1e cuclrrvr.e
clui sai.une rru XlII'siicle. Etrtre exp6rience collnr)urle et savoir scolasticlue," in ll c,rlrtucn:/'l'hc corpst. Nliu'ttlo,qu-r VII (1999): 247-Sl.lloureau irrproves and expancls on Hcrrri
Platelle, "La voix clu s:rng: Ie cldavre qui saigne en pr6sence cle sr:rt nreutrier," in ,4rtr,s
du 99t: Congris ntttitual tles Socii'tis savantu, I)t:stn;on, 1974, Sertion
llilolo.git rt tl'ltistoin'
jusEt'i 1610, I, l,t Piitl Poprilairc du Nloyen ligc (l)aris, lg77), l6i--179, reprintetl irr
Henn Platelle, Prlsurct fu I'nu-dcli. LJn.t: visiott ntldi('u,il1' rltr ttrttntfu (Villeneuve d'Asct1:
I)resses (Jnivenit;rires rltt Septentriou, 2(X)4), l.l- 21'1. I)l,rtcllc's t,ss.rv is rrrost vulu.rblc lirl
lt
his sttrdy of thc later pet:istente ;trrtl tlcvcioprrrcnl
35
.l(r
ol tlrt.orit.r of tnrtrrt,rtiorr itr tlre
sixteenth iuttl severrteerrth cerrtrrlitr.
llettin,r []iltlh.rucr, r\/r,r/ir'r,,r/ Ill,ror/ (1 ;,11,1'11, t lntvn\tty ol W,tlcr l,rt.ir, "l0O(r),
lltlttrt'.ttt, "l ,r lrtt'ttvc P,u lt, r,rrl,rvrr.," .l'ro ',-,
.lI
.16,
75
'/(r,
lrorlk's
tll
rlrr',r,ly rctlucstc(1 pr'()tcctiorr liorrr tlrt'popt'lrrrrrrt'll. Irortr othcr cxurrrplcs, lristtllit'.rl
,rrr,l litclirry, rrrc rccorclccl by Al;rirr llotrr<'rru lirr thc ccntuly bctwccrr lll',l0 ;urrl
I lllo, wlrich lvc nccd not rcvicw now. i7
in northcnr Europc, cspccillly irr firrgl;rrrtl,
it is tl-rcre thlt the natural philosophcrs first sought rational cxphl"lilti()r'ls fol tlrcsc
lrrlilrtcrrirru nrarwels. Aror"rnd 1200 an English scribc conrpilcd 332 (prcstions ru)(l
,rr\\vr'r's, rnostly about naturll phenonrcna and drawn prinrarily Frorr thc rvlilirrllr
,,1 tlrc Sirlcmitan lnisters LJrso and Maurus. Thesc so*cltllecl "Salcrnit:rrr (]trcstiorrs."
,rl s,hich llrian l-arvn has fbuld and editecl sor:rc eleven cliffc'rcrrt collcctions, urc;r
vrlrr;rblc sourcc ft.rr unclcrstanding
phcnornenl natunl phil<ls<.tphcrs rvct'
"vhat
,'lrst'r'virrg, lnd the ilssurnptions they brough.t to thcir obserultiou, cirtcgoriz,rtitrrr,
,rrrtl dcscriplion of naturc. The ruthor of thc first irncl largcst collcction (()xlirltl,
llorllt'i:ru Library, tns Auct. f.3.10) discusscs the proccss of cmcr-rtutiorr in tr.v<l tlil'
l,'rt'rrt cyrrcstions; he clearly felt it was an irnportant ;urcl clcbatlblc to1-ric of'rr;rtrrr;rl
;'lrilosophy. This is harclly oclcl in this c<lllection, sincc rnany of thc clucstiorrs
, r)n( ('r'n thc close obserwation of thc behavior of ci:rrpscs, sr.rch as: Wlry do tlcirtl
'Why
\\'()rr)cll lic supine in the 'uvatcr?
clo dcad nren lic prclne iu thc watcr'? Wlry
,lot's,r clca<l lnrln not float except after his gall bladclcr has burst? Why clo rvc li',rr'
tlrt' tlcrttl, and cspecially those whom rve lovccl in lifc?3s
Irr onc instance cmentation is treated with its o\v11 question, "Why clocs lrloo,l
I'rrl,lrlc out of thc:'uvor,rnd of a murclerccl nran r.vhcn thc c>ne who killcd thc ru;rrr
Storics abottt crucurrdon werc popular
,rrrrl
l,,rrrs <rvcr
,,,,i,i
lrim?" (Qrrrritur
quare sulteruenientc gtt clui lrcninetil ocddit,.rrlrgli.r
Th. author
calls his clctailecl resporlse
a
r,.r: r,rrlrrr'n'
that is, iu) lusw(.r'
l'.rsr'tl on niltural ancl physical causes. Hc strcrsscs that this nrarwel occurs only itr
rr'rt'ntly clcacl corpses, in which thc blood and spirits are fieslr crr<:uuh to sct'k
rrnion tlrrongh the medium of tire air with thc blood arld spirits <lf thc rrrtrrr['r'
lrt tirrr, r.l,hich are apparently still or-r thc persorr or weapon of thc murclclcl strl(linll
rrr'.rr'. I.'his hirppcns accorclins to thc standarcl principle of rncdieval naturirl phikxolrlrv
tlr,rt likc secks like: thc clead nran's spirits, still rrctivc so long rs thc corlst',urtl
I'lootl rrrc fi-csh, scck their sinilindo whcrever possiblc. Earlicr in tlris rvolk, tlrt'
r.ililc unthor lnentiolls crucntation under the largcr topic of the lar,vs ol'ilt(r,rr'litril:
"Wc likcrvise sec blood flowing lrorr thc wouncl of a murclcr victirrr wlrilt'lrir
rrur'(lcrcr prsscs ucar, llvhol is able to pass by clistantly enough that, trccuusc ol tlrir,
rr r)() way rvill Ithc blooc1] flo',v or1t."+o As this;ruthor cxplains, ilttracti()11 l)('(\\'('('rl
Irvo srrbstuuces (inclucline a rnurderer ancl his victinr's blood) happcus in v,rrrotrs
rltrrlliat?)te
physica,
\I Al.rin lJoure.ru, "La preuve plr le cadavre clui s;rislrre eLr XIII'' siicle".
\lt lltt Pnrtt Strlorritatt Qrtc.sriorrs rdind.lrottt t llodldtrr l\4artuscriltt (Aurt. l:..1. /0), ctl. ltri.rrr
l,rrvn. Au<'tores llrit,rrrnici Mctlii Acvi
V
(l.onrlort: []ritish A<:adenry, l()7r)),
//
ll"l\t)
[]2(rl ((]rrr'rilrrr lutut tttiltul\ ltottt,, trott snlfintil( rtisi rupto li'lb?1,
tntttlnn\ littrt,rttttrt,,,,,r\,,r,r',/,rr,\ ttr lilt rlilt,titttttsT), pp. 125 ).7, l.\1.
I lo l.Il),
l)tost ,\rrltntilut (.frrrrtirrllr, r.,1, l.rrrrr. //ll.rt,'t
"SrtrrilitcI vitlt'rrrrrs llrrt'rrtt'rrr \,rr[',ililrr'ilr r'\ \
rrrtIrlr'r ti, irtlctli'r lotr. l)r'r)l)(. tr.ln\
irtt,r'ttirrrthr itt aqru?),
l)270 ((]rrr'lilrrr
l', llr
Itt
qlit(
llrl'
illrIri
('illll('. l,lnr r('nt()l(' l)olc\l lt,ilt\ltr rItilrl lrrill'tIr lr'ri nilllr) nr()rl() cstlrtl " 'lln'
,\,lttrtil,ttr (.)lr'\t,(rr,\, r',1, Lru'rr, //ltltr.' tI ll I
r
l't,,t,
84
Arrlrn,tlt'tl ( or[)s('\ attcl Ir<xlit'r tl5
Winston Blar,k
ways ancl bccausc
vacuitatis),
tlrc "law of iightncss"
(lcge
laws: by tl-rc "larv
o[ cnlptincss" (/r;qr'
lcuitatis), thc "law of sinrilitndc" (lt:.qc sinilin'
ol a viiliety of naturill
It is this last larv, olsinrilitude, that is at play irr rnuch of tlcclicval
thcory and in crucutatiotr.
r/ini.$.
l.rcclicrtl
Tlrc carliest author of Salernitttrt ryracstiorrc.r did rveli to cr.nphasizc that his atrswcl
was pltysica, lor all orthodox scholars re cognize c1 that they were causlrs ancl cxplitnations outsidc of tirc strict linrits of Aristotelian physics and Galcnic nrcdicine. Iirr
cxample, a ror.rghly colttelnpol'ary scribe adclcd arlother 163 qucstions later in Attct,
F.3.10, and also askcd about crltcntation. His response takcs intcl consideratiotr
botlr natur:al philosopl-ry ancl divinc interuetrtion: "|M\ry dttes tlrc ltlood oJ a murtlu
uictim
in the presurce oi tha u.ntnlcrer? Il.csponse. It is ;r divine judgnrcnt, so thitt
.flotu
[thc murdererl cau be rnovcd tcr repent. Or, the murderer hinrself is rnovcci in hir
own cor-rscieuce, rvhcreby his spirittral substanccs are tlovcd, rnd having bcctt
nrovccl thcy scncl forth a spirit and a smoke which rloves the air. With the movccl
lir lctins rts I ttrcclittrn, his brcath is carricd right up the victinr's body. And becrusc
thc bocly is fi'cslr, is grcxvs wrln-I1, so that its hunrors are ntovccl atrd lrotn that illl
cntption of'bkrocl ot,,:urs."4l This binary cxplanation for the car,tsc of cnrcntatiott lt:ltUl.ll ol'sul)cl'nittul'itl - corrtirruccl throughout thc thirteenth centLlry, as is seen irt
(iilcs ol'llorur.'s irrtcrplt'trrtion (rccordcd in the 'l 290s) of the bleccling corpsc o1'
'llrorrr;rs ol O;rrrtilrrpc, bishop of Hcrcfor:cl, rvho ciicd irt 1.282. Cilcs consider:s thir
t'Pisotlc ol crtrcrrtrrtion a rrririrclc, sincc hc rcjects all crueiltation and similar cases of'
,rr'tiou ;rt :r tlistuncc to bc tt.ltLll'illly itnpossiblc.+2
Norc rl)xr this sccontl author also changes his physicd explanation, locating tlrc'
origirr;rl sourcc oi rnovcllr.cnt in thc living pclson: it is the Itturclcrer's agitatctl
scr)r fbrth and cruse the victinr's (nrostly dcacl) blood to por,rr forth,
Such a physicll explanation, 'uvithout mentioning a divinc judgr.nent, is repcatcd irt
rrrothcr "salcrnitan" c<liiection, callecl the Qtrcstiottcs Alani, founcl in a tuauuscript
of ca.1230-1240, owrrecl by thc cathedrai library of Notrc l)arlrc, ancl likely maclc
spir.its th:rt
uc
in l)uis. This "Alanus" adds scvcral irnportant cletails: cruclltatioll c'rccttrs only rtp ttt
the third day atlcr death, thc agitated spirits of thc murdcrer actually crttlsc thc
corysc's blood to dissolvc ancl grow morc subtlc and flo.,ving (fluxibik'ur), ancl this
rransfc'r of spirits cal) occur only in thc rare case whelt thc r'vouucl is nncovcrecl lntl
thc murclcrcr lcaning right ovcr: it.a3
.ll.
"Queritur qu(1re iiltctfectore presutte sanguis ftit ittterenpti? I\esponsio. I)ivirta ultio est, ttt
co1)moveiltru :rd penitenclum. Vel ipse irlter-Gctol' est eonrmotus itr sttl crrtlsciettti.l,
ullde comrnorrentur spiritualia, qlle commota spinturn et fur]rtlrn a se etltittttttt t;ttt
colrmovent lera. Aere colltmolo rnediante,:rnhelittts cletertul. usque ad ('olptls illt('l'
tccti. Quod corplts tlni;r rccens est, calefit. Unde hut-not'es colllltt()veltttlr et inde lit
eruptio s:ur[JLliIris." flre Pntse Sak:ntitart Qrrcsliotrs, ed' L:nvn, #l]lli2 (p. 1U3).
.12 Steven Il. Murrr:ne, "\zllsic rnd the Physir::rl World in Thirtecnth-(lentttty
Schol;tslt
cisnr," ip lluidenrc and Inrcrprttiliorr irr S/rrrlir's ott I:at'ly SriurL utl t\'ldiritrt.,lissrtyr itt
Flonor ttf'-loltrr ll. l,hrlorh, ed. Idith I)udley Sylll :rrrtl Wrllirrnr l\. Nervtrt;ttt (l.eitlcrr:
llrill. 20{)9): lu()
u5.
(\t itth,tli'ttt \, si sttprtrrtil iuk'tlilnt ir/,,(r,i( /llrr'l t.t t'tlttur, tl lttt
n\tlli. nl lrtlittttt lir'ttt,,,. lrr rprrrtrlrrr\,rulcnr, r't lil,ttlto \l( tlllll.ll(), cl.l('l('illll.l\(lllll
ll "
Qrrr,rtirr.
Ottil
rilirltrit
( 'r'rrt'rrtrrti<tlr wls ncvcr ils collln'toll irr tlrc lristrrrit,rl t't'c<trr1 irs ttttltttid, ltttt likc ltlrtltti
t
lt
t(.illilinccl iur lcccpt;rblc bclicI lbotrt [)ost-nrortclrl tt-rt?sc ;ttlitltrttitltt :trtttlttg tltr'
l,.,rrrrt.cl c'litc klr irt lcast anothcr fivc ccuturies. What concems tls lttost ltctc is tlrt'
,.nl('xt of its fint appcarances in hist<lricrl, literary, lnd scientific sourccs, all oc<'trllitrg
,rt tlr('siunc tinrc that revcntt'lts arc: derllonizecl ancl thcn cxclucled fiotrt tlrtltotltlx
l,,.liel rrncl that ttnililia is bcing reintcrpretcd as a virtuotls cotnpositc <>f spit:cs rttltl
,,'rpsc fluicls. Wrat lcln-red authol.i thought corpses could do irltcr dctth wrls l)cilll{
l,orlr linritcrl and expanded: tl.rey were becomins lcss nrobilc, lcss indcpcnclcttt, bttt
tlrr.rt'lvus ln increasinu variery in the nroclcs of thcsc motc plssive lilnrts of ltttitttlt(itltt.
Dissection
n l).tttcnt should bc obvious now. At roughly thc s;urrc titnc rs thc pcak of rcvt'tt;tttt
rt the sltrre tirne as the rcdcfinitio:n of mwnia in Latin phlnttacctrti<:rtl ttrtrttt;tls,
,rrrrl .rt the salre time as thc first reports of cmentittioti, wc firtcl llso tl:c rcvivill ()l
ltt('rcst in human:rnatonry and thc first recordccl ltuntltr clisscctiotts in thc Midtllc
,,torics,
A11.s. ['o 15c nles{cm observcr, the caclavcr ttsecl fcrr disscction sccnrs f;lr
rctrtovctl li'ottt
.rny,notion of the living dead or corpsc animation. A prerecluisitc of clisscctiort
"vottltl
,,rrrt,l1,bc that the anatomicai specimcn is c<xlpletcly clcad. And, to bc sttrc, rlly lirrill
, r.rrrrplc here is thc least "animatccl" of any sort of corysc atrimatiou, btrt I 'incltrdc it
Irr.r't.:rs rtn indication r>f another r-reu,dcveloprrent in thc scholastic agc cttttt't't'ttittll
tlrr.rrscs nrade of corpses ancl bcliefs about what corpscs cor-rlcl tcll thc livirrg. l]otlr
,lrsrt,t ticx-r aud cruentation were used around thc tunl oIthc thirtecnth ccttttrry itt lcg,rl
.,r,1(i1$i (:rnc1 r-rot rncciical) to investigatc murcler; both reprcsent cascs rvhcrc thc livirlg
,,,,rrr,,lrt proof or e'vidence of causltion frr:m thc body of a cleacl pcmorr.
lltc first trcatiscs on hunr:rn tnirtonly rvritten in Europc fbr ncarly:t tttillcttttitrtrt,
,,rrrr.c the time oFG;rlen. in thc seconci ccrltury AI), r.vcre produccd itt rtrttl :trorttttl
tlrt.sourhcm ltalian city of Salerno in the errly trvcllth ccntury. lrrspirctl lry tlrt'rr
,l,rsc rcadings of Hippocrates xncl Galen, the Salcmitan scl-rolars lgrccd tlrrrt sttt.lyitrlq
tlrr.rr:siclcs of l body by clissection woulcl bencfit philosophy in gcrrcrirl rttttl ttrt',lit,rl
t't,t tv,tr
l,r,rr'(it'c in particular'. Another step i1r thc risc of disscction in thc scltollstit'
rlrr,tr':urslltir.rn into Latin of rvorks by Aristotle thrit prcscntccl ituitttltl rltttl lttttll,ltt
,ul,rt()r)ry in a positive urd prouressive light. Aristotlc rrclvocatecl tiissct:tiott;ttttl t't,t'tt
lrvrrcction in his book on ,r,rimals.*l Grlcn, ,r dcvotcc of Aristotlc, srtid tlt,rt tltt'
lrr,l,lt'rr, iltcn-ral olg:uts calt qivt' proqnostic signs that coulcl hclp rr tltlt tot
,;Lrirllnr cltklr, clrti cur.rr spiritibtrs irrlirstrs letinetur et c()Itsetvatttr itt ltrcttrltrtl vttlttt't-.tlo,
(.1 ,lqens in s;rrrguinenr ipstrnr tlissolvit, Sctl rrott sullicrt ipsuttr itlt res<llvcre ct strlrtili.trc
it,t gt Ilrrxillilenr redd,rt clr,ri.r,rbsorrtc irrtclli'ttort'tt,ltt hltbet sintile cltto extitt'lttr ttl lrtt
trtt.r srrlttiliet. Setl r-tttrr l)()stc,l \lrl)erv('rrit irrtcrlr',1()r ('t l)rll'Lllll lll()rilttlr sttPr,l t,ttl,tvt't,
vrrlrrt.rt.rn,rrrcnl.c rlistoopt.r'lo, r'l irrrPtr,rlt,r lnl('rl('(l()ti\ ttr,lttt',ttl tttrlltts itttctli'tti lilrcrr'
'llk' ltttt\t \nlt'tttilitt (]trr'r/irrlrs, crl, l;rrvrr, //Nl I
lrrrrsil ltt,rvctrir'(,ctt vulnu\ rrrltirrlt,rt,'"
(pp, JftT uli),
l't't\t'tlttttt tn lltt I tnrltt'ttt /{r'ttrtirr,ttrrr'(l',rtrrlr,rrrtl Arlll',.rtr',
I I ltr'pit'r'lircrr,lr, /)irrr'r/irr,, ill
Ir)"r)), l.) I I
86
Arrlrn,rlt,rl ( orl)\cs ;rrrrl
Wirrsl.orr Bla<.k
Itotlk,r
87
in orrlcr tlr,rt lrc,orrl,l r,'tttlt't rr llrl vclclic't irr light ol lrtltlr
diviuc knolvlcclgc.l'l
It is rrot knrlr.vn iIciissccticlns wcrc lctrrally pcrfirrl'rclcl in t]rcsc <:itscs ovt'r'st't'tt lry
lll()( ('llt lll, but retcrenccs t() post-nt()rtcur intcmal cxanrit.lttious ittt:rcusc Iry tltr'
, rrrl ol thc thirtccnth ccntury. not ol1ly f<rr rncclical ancl juclicirl purposcs, but ulso
l,rr lirrrcnrl rituals rrnd birrhs. Thc first conclusivc evidelnce of hunrtu disscctiott
r r)nrcs in thc r:riclst of this period of changing rttitucles about surgcry rurcl sttrgt'otts.
lr,r Sllinrbcne recorcls that in 1286 a physiciln in Crcrnonn clisscctccl thc bocly of';r
\,rr rinr ()f a pcstilcntlxl illness to look fbr pathological signs. In 1.102 thc llologrrt'sc
I'lrYsicirrn llartolorlco da Varignana was surrunonecl by civic juclgcs to opctt tlt<'
l,,,r11,of onc Azzolino degli Oncsti,'"vJro r.vas suspcctccl to hnvc clicd by poisorritrg.
Ilrr. <'or.rlt tnlstcd lJlrtolomeo's conclusion that Azzolino hld clicd of rttt cxt't'ss ttl
I'lootl in thc vena cava, ancl uot of poisonir-rg. It is rgainst this nrcclicrtl arrtl lcg;rl
l',r, kgroirrrcl that Monclino dei' Luzzi, a profc'ssor of nrcciicinc lt thc Urrivcrsity ol'
llrlor:ua, taught rvhat is believed to be thc fint course olaultotny busccl orr hutttutt
,lr,,sr.ttion lrct'uveen 131.(r and 1326. Hc wrote a textbook to accor]rprny his lcttttrcs
clctcrrninc the outcorlc of l cliscasc, lnd thcrcfilrc cvcry cl<:ctor nrtlst bc skillccl irt
anatoltly. Hor.r'cvcr, all of thc carly Salenritrrn an:rtontical clcnronstratiotrs (such iw
thc Anatotry o-l'the l>tg ancl the Secow! Saleruitttn l)ernonstrttfionas) rvcre pcrfirnuccl ott
pigs, ratlrcr than hum;rns. It seenx hurnan cadavers wer:c too dillictrlt to obtain uttcl
that the pig anatomy closely enough approximatccl the human. Thcy also cot.rsciously
irnitatcd Claien in his choice of animals, lor he prircticcd dissection on clogs, pi14i,
and apes, though probably not on any intact hutnzrn colpse.
For anatomists to nrake the transition from pigs to humans, thcy hacl to bc'
convincccl of a real nced lor cutting opcn a hunrirn body. It ivirs not tlut rncclicval
pcopic had any quainrs ;rbout opening and clismcmbcring corpscs. Historians tll'
anatomy, iikc Katharine Park ancl l{ogcr Frcnch, havc convincingly clcmonstratccl
that "nrutilation by clissection of the dead hurnan body was not of itsclf objcctionab1c."a6 ln fact, rvhat anatonrists r,vould cvcntually do to bodies rvas lcss
clcstructivc tharr the clisrncmbennent or quartering orcicred as judicial punishmcnts,47 or evcn than thc routinc diserrrbo',veling ancl even boiling of roval ancl
rroblc: corpscs tlut r.vrs conlrron in northern Europe (it rvas callcd thc lro.i ttutonicuil
"thc (lcnrlrn custour," by appaliccl Italians).+E This wirs clone for thc wealthy, kings
cspccillly, to prcpirrc: thcir boclics lor crnbalnring ancl to bury their various linrbs
rrncl cutrlils in nrultiplc pl;tccs, to bcncflt thcm r,vith trultiple scts of prlycrs.
A sigrrilicrrrrt ilupctus fi;r hunriur clisscctiorr caulc not fi-om thc doctors, but frottt
rrrlrrrit's or'(()rpses,
tlrc lur.vyt'r's. '['lrc rcviv;rl of l\ourrrr lnw in thc twelfth centtlry, r.vhcn joined to I
lt'rrclvt'tl sturly or rcdiscovcry ol Aristcltlc's rvortris on logic ancl physics, itrcrcasccl
tlrc bultlcrr ol'rloubt in lcgal cascs anc'l cncotrrlgedjuclges to rcquirc rnore trngiblc
lirrrrs ot'pr'o<>ltthan iln oath or an orrlcal. This clcvclopcd into thc use of physiciaus
rs cxpcrt rvitr-rcsscs in judicial cascs, such as in supcr-vision of torture and honriciclc
r't.|trrble pr:lctice in schools of mcclicir-rc end courts of law. Katharinc l):tt'k It:ts
rrlirrctl pcrsuasively thlt the risc of clissecti<:n rvas clttc as nrttch to tlrc lc;trrrctl
I'lr!siciln's clcsire fbr knor.vledge of ]runilr-r inirtotlv as to a set of u<ltt-:tcltdcnti,'
",lrsst.ctionlikc practiccs - cnrbahning, ilrrtopsy, fctal excision" in prlr:ticc tltrrirtll
rlrt,Lrtcr Miclclle Ages.'53 Michlel McVaugh:rlso h:rs suggcstcd th;rr this srt.ltlt'tt
iuvcstigati<>ns.+''
l)uling thc thirteenth centrrry, civil and church
lar.qrcrs bcg;rn to
thc lcgd possibilitics of- e vidcnce drawn from thc corpse in cases c;f sr"rspicir>us
dc:rth, and thcy tunrcd to physicians anci anatonlists for cvidcnc".t" Arl ear'ly c:;tst'
cornes fiom around 1200, rvhen a pricst caught a thicf rcdhanclcd ar-rd stnrck hirtr,
Thc thie{ escapcd, orily to be killed by the parishioners. Sincc a pr:iest may havc
bccn guilty of nurnslaughter, thc case was sent lll thc r.vay to l)opc Innocent lll
(r:. 1198-1216), rviro in a dccrctal ordered a physician to inspect the thief-s cr:rpsc
to dctcuninc whether the pricst or parishioncrs caused thc futrl bkrrv. This is orrc
see
of scvcral
cases
in r,r'hich Innocent III reqrlcsted physicians irncl surueons ttl
.15 Tlre lttter wod.
is discLrssed and translate<1 by Faith !7al1is in X.(edicv,l L'lcditittc:
(Toronto: Uuiversity of Torortcl Press, 201t)), 1.59*74.
.16 French, I)isscctirtn aril ltiuisectiort iu tlrc Euroltt:m Rcttai.ssatrcc, 1 1.
.tr7 Katheline Royer,
(.h.rtto,
17rc
itrspect
A lTult
h4qlish Exuutiotr Narrtttivt:, 1200- 1700 (Nerv York: l)ickclirrg &
l+). J7-.i9.
4U Park, "The Lile olthe Corpse," I l2-l-1.
,19 l']hilippe Arils, 'lhr Horrr ol' ()ur l)ttlt, tr,rrrs. I Iclctt Wt',tvcr (Ncrv York: Vinl,rl,tc
llooks, l1)t'i l), J5l.
5o.loseplrSlr.rtzrnillcr',"llrr'.lrrlis|rrrtl('r(c()l tlr('l)r',rrl lhrrll,: Mt'tlir,rl l'r,rr'tiliortIrirl,rr rlrr
Scrvirr.rrl (lrvit ,rrrrl l,'pi.rl Arrtlr,'rrtr('\." ilr /\hrrr/r,r'tr' / ll r,ir/rttt'rr'(li)()()):.l.l.l .i0.
2()
rr,rtrrr,rl ;rnt1
to two hnrnan dissections nrirdc bcfbrc he tlught,
rrr,rtonrizing hurnlus as early as 1300 o, ,.-,."
,rrr,l rctcrs
so he uriry huvc lrt'ctt
At thc stxrt of the tburtcenth century thc irrtcrrogation of hurtnrr ('()r'l)sc\
tlrrorrgh closc analysis or even dissection u,as rapiclly bccorning a strtttclrtrtl :trttl
r,
to huurln clisscctiorr reflectcd popul;rr reception of thc tcirchirrg ol (l,rk'rri,'
rr,rt()nry :rround Boiogna in the 1260s, particularl.v by thc physicilrr 'l',r,ltlt't'
Al,lclotti and the surgeon Williarn olsaliceto.5l Surgicrl ilnatomy wus u ttt'rv ltr'l,l
nr(l \virs clcvcloped by a rising class of litcrrtc surgcons, rnostly Frcnch rtrrrl It,rli,rl
( )rrt'w:rs Henri dc Mondcvillc, r,vhn appcllecl to thc authoriry of ()llcn to v,rlirl,rtr'
.r rtrlrrcou's knorvlcclgc olanirtolrly: "it is neccssary tbr a surgeon to kttorv lrt,tt()ltty,
.,rr tlnt hr: ciocsn't confuse a broad ligarncnt rvith a tncmbranc, or a routtrl rvillr ,t
r('rvc, iulcl thcreby tnakc rnistakcs as hc practices."ss
I o thcsc lrgunlents firr t]re rise of disscction in thc lltcr scholrrstic cr:t I rvottltl
Irl.t.to uclcl thc inflr.rcnce of thc chirngcs in attitudcs tor.vard rcvcllilnts utttl torl,st's
,rl)(,r)ncss
,l
',f
,I
,l
',
r
Ynez Viol6 ()'Ncill, "lnnocerrt
III lntl
tl.re
[volution oFAuatonry," ll'fudiul Ilistoty.tll
(lt)76):129-33.
,J)i.rsrtliott utd l/it,ist'cliott itt tlrt li,lt,t1,t,ttt /lttt,tisr,lttt't', 13, 34--35.
l(rrtlrrrrine l)rrrk, .Slrrrts pf'll'rttrtt ( i'rrlt, ( i'rttt,ttirttt, ,nt(l tlk'()ri.qitts rtl Iltrtttrttt I)irrl/irrtr
(Ncrv York: Zottc lJooks, 2(lo(,), Ir
McV,rtrglr, 'l'lr l?.,tiott,i,Strr.qr't1' ry' lltr ,\li,l,ll,' 'lr'r', (l lrrtcttr c: SlSMlrl., J(X)(r), .).tr),
MtV.rtrglr, 'lltt llttiott,i.\ttt,t'r't1', {rr) ('t't ,ll',rr Nlrrt, ( ltttrtirtt' l'ottr'ltt'llt,'lhr lhll' ,utrl
,\rrr,(,.rf llr tlt i\lil'lh,'lqr'r, tr,rrrr llrrrlrrr,rr\ Nl,rrtt', (( ,rnrl,tirl[tt': l'r,lilt'l'tcir, lr)r)(l), lor
lll()l(' ()ll I ll'rtri rlr M,,tt,lt'r'tll,", lrlt'.11 'rll !llllr' r\ lll ll"lll\'. ,lll(l (li\\f( li()ll
Ilrlrrch,
88
Winstorr Black
Atritn,rlorl
thlt I lravc bccn cl-rlrtirrg: thc nlovc fi'onr rcvcrlrrrts to ttttttttid ancl crttcttt;ttiott ,ts
the rnost acceptablc lornrs of corpse urinution cncouragccl scholars to look luorc t()
coryscs, rncl incrcasinglv to their intcrnal org;lns and fluids, fur itllswers about llaturill
causatioll and thc cornpr:sition of human bcings.
Corpses and scholastic theology
Thc abandonrnent of activc revcnants in favor of passivcly auiuratccl coryscs wlln
graclual, taking place roughly bctween 1130 ancl 1230. During rhis tr:ansitiorrrrl
century, revenallts arc clescribed frcc1ucntl1,, but thcy presentecl a ploblem lclr
leamed reporters, not becruse thcy returned [ronr the tlead 0't:ca11 that qhostri
causcd no such anxicty), but rather because of thcir corporeality, the firct that thcy
hrcl or arc bodics. It becarrre morc dillicult fbr thc leanred clcrgy, rnany of rvhottt
r,vcrc also traturll phik:sophcn, to imaginc that a soui would cvcr c()lllc to residc irr
ir clcarl bocly, r1o lnattcr ho',v bricfly or how siniil thc retuming soul. This diflrculty
wls crciltcd by thc nnny tr,vclfth-ccntury thinkers who pronrotecl a uerv definition cll:
rr hrrrn:rrr trcing rrs rr brrl;rncccl r-rnity of body ancl srlul, what Carolinc Wllker Bynuttt
c,rlls thc "psychosornutic pcnl;n." Accorcling to tbis nerv clefinition, personai lirlfill*
ur(.nt (.llrc orrly thr'otruh thc fitting cclujunctiou of a good body rvith it good sottl,
:rrr itlcu rvlriclr flclv in thc ficc of <:cnturics of Ar-rgirstinian thcology, which hircl
tlt.lirrctl ;r l)crs()n ls :r potcntilll,v goocl soul trappcd in a mostly evil body. Theologiiurs
ol tlrc lliglr Midrllc Agcs thr"rs also rcclst dcrth :rs.I tenlporltry clisjunctior.r of body
rrrrtl soul,:r splitting of thc psychosotuatic pcrsolt, r'vhich rvould bc healed only in
tlrc ( )cncrel l{cstrrrcctiou ol thc dcacl lt thc cnrl of- tiute.5"
'l'his new psychosouratic thcology, popularizcd cspecially thrr:ugh its presencc itl
l)crcr Lonrblrd's Scrrtr:lres (ra. II5t)), r,vhich r.vas requirecl rcaclir.rg of all students ol'
theologv by ther thirtcenth ccntury, had thc potcntial to cornpletcly erasc revellalltti
fiom clerical rccorcls, if- not tiom popular bc1ief.s7 Thc incrcasccl focus cluring thc
trvelfth ccntury on thc inrminent reur.rification of bodies ancl souls, both blcssccl
ancl wickccl, ncntralized any perccived ncecl 1or thc carlier, tclrlporary reunificatitllt
56
Carcrline Walker
llyntuu,
71rc Ilesun'ectitttt of the Ilody
in
l7lestent
Clilsrianity, 20U'1't)h
(Nerv York: Colunrbil L)niversiry Press, 1995), Chepter -1, "Psychosonutir: l)enotts ittttl
I\eclothe<l Skeletons: Irnages of Resunection in Spiritual Writing ancl Iconogrrphy,"
156*99. In rny appr<rirch to irnirnlted coipses, I;un cottsciously lcrllowiug t nrotlel
populanzecl by llynr-rrn in a variet,v of her rvorks over rhe lirst qLrarter (:elltllrv, by tlkirtg
senously both tlre ;rbstmse discussions of scl-rolastic tl'recllr:gians ancl thc poptrllrr beliefi ol
aver:l!{e Clhristians, and interpreting the trvo in ligl-rt of elch othc'r tt:r protluce rt fitter
syrlthetic uuder:tan<1ir.rg of n'redieval culture. Much of l]ynunr's resetrch on hiqh tlctl
ieval religion r-evoh,cs uround the collcept of'rnrtcri.rliq,, aud she h.ts repelted'ly ltrgttctl
thlt the corporealiry of saints, relics, :urd tonrbs, of dist:ussiotts of hellfire, pttrgittori;tl
pnnishments, aud the firu1 resun'cction is absolutell, <:etrtr;tl to untlerstltntlitiu nre<licv,tl
religion after the nvelfih century.
57
lrhilipp W. Il.osertunn, l\'tt,r Lornltord (()xfirrd: ()xtortl Universrty l)rcss, 2(X)'l),
105--1Oti, fitr rrn introrltrttion to thc L.onrtrrrrtl's tltorrglrt ott lttttttrttt lrtltlits rttttl sottls, Sre
'lirtlltlr-()'t,llrr)r /lr'/rrliortr /)i votttrr',
rrls<r ( llrrrc Morrrglc, ( ),,rorl(,.\f rntl Ootttrort'ry' itt
l)tlr,t Lottilti; l't,\r,,rtr,,,rr,r ,nrl tlr l)tyrlolrrtttt ol'llrtl,t.1'1'( I rrrrrltorrl: ltrcpolr, ,l{)1.\).
See
(
ori)\(t\ ;tttrl
ltorll,t
8')
lrody urtcl sottl irr tltc firrnr ol lcvt'rr,rnts.'l'lrt'l.otrrlr.trrl lirrthcr o[rvi;ttctl ;r rrt'r'rl
lr)r l('vcnilr)ts by clcscribing p()st lrll)silti;ln rrrrrnkirrcl us sorucltow rlc:rd rrlrr':rrly. IIt'
r,'ru,rlkccl iu l'ris Sorlrrrr:r,s (ll, cl.29, l)rocnriuni), collccming thc prrrlishru<'rrt ol
A,l,rrrr firr nriginrrl sin, "he nr:rw h;rd a dcad bocly bccausc of sin" (.rr'r/ qtid lu l,mdtnut
ttun uttrttuuut rLtrytus lntbebttt). That is to sny, now that hc had sinnccl, hc r,virs li;rlrlc to
,lrr', lrlcl rr bocly that coulcl die, ancl thcrcforc'nvas irs goocl rts clcld rlrcrtrly *',r
rv,rlkirrq corpsc. Thc irnpc#ict ter)sc usccl hcrc - habebt,litcrally, "lrc r,vrrs hrrvirrll
,rrr ,rlrc,rclv clcad bocly" - is irnportant for stressins thc past and prcscrrt rcrrlity ol
rlr'.rtlr filr sinful lrurnanity. Though this stater-ncnt sccnrs to 1'rrriut il pilrticul:lrly
,lrr';rry picturc of thc human condition, this ne'"v psychosonratic llrcology cr)('our
,111,',1 rr nrorc positive interpretation of thc unity of body ar.rd sor-rl in this lifi: rrrrtl ol
tlrr'ir rcunification in the lifc to coIrrc. But Peter Lornbard coulcl not clcstr'oy,r
u'rrlcsprcad rncl popular belielovemight ancl thlt, of coursc, was not his irrtcrrtiou.
lrrr rrcrrrly a celltury after hc wrote we find amonq clcricirl authors u conflitt ol
r,lr',rs lrbclut rcvcnrnts and colpscs: for some ruthon, dcacl bociics bccirrrrc ruolt'
lrrlly dcacl, anci less likely to 1:ecornc rcvel)itnts, rvhilc for othcrs, clclcl botlics
lr('(.rnlc nrorc activc ancl more, likely to rise irncl tcrrorize the living. Of c<:rrrsr', trvo
lrrrturlly cxclusivc iclers can exist'nvithin the sanrc tcxttral corrlr'nunity, but'uvlr:rt I
,rrrr lriuhlighting hcrc are sonrc of the rcpcrcussions of this intellcctuirl <:()lrfli(:t.
'llrlt conflict can be understood better bv looking ahcad to thc sidc thac ".nvorr,"
rr,rnrt'ly, th<'rsc theoloeiatrs lvho advocatcd the vicrt,that clcad boc{ics rcrtt;rirr tlc;rtl
,rrrrl crrrrnot bc joincd to their souls tor thc duration o[clcath. This vic,uv bct',rrrrc
l,rrr1.1lir..1, like so many theoloqical icleas, in the tc'lching of Thorn:rs Aclrirr:rs rrr
rlrt' 125()s ancl 1260s. Aquinas'views on corpses'uvere shapccl try his firrrr bclicl'irr
tlrc rrnicitv of lonn in human nrture; thtt is, therc is only one ftxn or pxtt('r'n l()r'
lnlnriur natLlrc, the soul, which is sufficicnt to turn undefinecl prirrrc nrrrttt'r'irrto ,r
Irrrrn;ru bcing and to n-raintain the continuity of onc's owu bociy bctwt'crr tlr',rtlr
,rrr,l thc Clencral Resurrcction.'8 Aquinas, like nuny <tf his schollstic ptt'tlt't t',srrtr,
,rlro t'qr-rrrtcd the Christian soul (arrinrn)
thc medical .'pirirl.s (or pttuutkt) tlt'r'ivt'rl
"vith
()irlcnic
lrorrr
rraclition, ;rnd distinguishcd both fl-onr a nrorc physicirl lirlrrr li)un(l lr
tlrr'llt'slr itsclf.se At clelth, thc bocly's plrlrr.s is cxtinquishecl rrncl thc ttrirttrt/syititttt
,1,'1r,q115 thc bocly, lcaving5 no substlntial fonn to makc that corpsc lr)y sor'( ol ,r
lrr\()n. l'lrus fbr Aquinas, thc notion of ln :ininratccl corpsc is lt contludit(iorr irt
rr'un\, ir louical inrpossibility. A body quabocly is alivc, and a clcacl bociy is orrly ,r
"lrotly" ils li tc:nn of convcnience, as thcre is no "fomral continuity bctwccn tlr('
lrvirr,, bocly arrcl thc cc,rpsc."('') A corpse is of rrn<>thcr specics clltircly. r)lcrc n)r(t('r
111
,li
','l
An crccllent iutroductiou to tht. topit is still M. I)c Wulfl l)t tutitrtt.litt'rttat. ()illt' lr
/.r'"irrls. [.es l)hikrsophesdu Moycn Agr., I (l orrr',rirr l),rris: Inrtitutsup6ricurtle lrhiLrs,rplric
r[' I'[-)rriverrit(',
I
9()2).
(',rtiol,r, "Wr',rrths. I{t'r,t'rr,rrrts, .rrrrl l{rtrr.rl," / '), IL St't' .rlso M. l). (lhcrrrr, "S|rrilrrr,
I c vtrr',rlrrrl,rilc rle I'irrrc,rrr Xllt'rtr'', lr'," /i,r,lr'rlr\ \,r'r'rlr'\ pltil,t.topltiqtrt tl lltlol,yi4ttr', ll
(l')57); .l{)() .}.1;.f,rr:rr's.1, l}onrr, "N4,',lr,,rl (,lrnrl', .rlr(l tlr, Mcrlicr,.rl l.rrrgirr,r6it' ol l rlr',"
l't,ilirir.ltt (l()1"'l.l): r)l I t{).
r,ll l',rrl', " l lrc I tlc ol tltr' ( otlrr'," I ll
90
Witrstorr Blar.k
Arrlrrr,rlr,rl
tlrat slltrcs ccrtain rlcciciclrts rvith living bodics. Writing iu his Srrrrlrt,r cttttra Ot'tililtt
on thc subjcct of sin, Aqtrir.ras rnakes an asidc on the naturc of lifc'in boclics ancl lili.
in souls which clarifies further his thought on corpscs: "Thc body lives accorcling
to its llilturc bccausc it is uniteci lvith the soul, which is its principlc of lifc. So thc
bocly, nrade alivc through the soul, nloves on its or,vr.r; but a clcacl bocly cithcr
rcmains nnnroving, or is rnovcd only by an cxtcrn.rl thirrg."6l Aquinai is herc rrsirrg
r.vhat is by this tirnc contnton scholastic knowledge about thc naturc olclead b<lclics
to nrakc a llorc nuancccl point about the iif'c and movernent of souls. So, in thit
casc, hc does not cxpiain r.vhat the "qlltcrnal tl-ring" rnoving il corpsc might bc, brrt
wc c:ll1 assrllne tl-rat he nreans divinc intervention or dcmonic posscssion.
ArgLring against thc T'homist unicity of fbmr werc ir eroup of scholastic philosophcrs, rrrost notably St lJonaventr,rrc, Hcnry of Gherrt, and l)uns Scotns, who
clcscribccl a pluraiity of substantial fomrs in hunr;rn ,rrt.rrc.t'2 Thcy clairneci th;rt
lrtrmrrn nature rcqnires both the soul and'a-fonno corporeitdtk, or "corporeal fonn,"
lucl thlt thc httcr rcts rs a link bctwccn bocly and soul. Like urany innovations in
scholirstic philosophy, Latin scholastic theologians pr:obably derivcd-/braia ct)U)()reitdtis
[lorrr irlcirs in thc Islanricrtc worlcl. Aviccnna had argued for somcthing like thr.
litnttt rorporcitati.s, r.vlrilc Avcrroes clcniccl that nrlrttcr itself had its or,vn fbm-r, but wns
lrrtht'r'tlclirrccl orrly lry u sct r,lf acciclcnts, a dcbatc rnirrored by the Thomists uncl
tlrc Stotists. Irr the Clhristiirrrizccl vcrsion of Aviccnna's tcachirlq, both lbnns (sorrl
,ul(l (()r[)()r'(';ll Ii:r'rrr) ;rrc ctclrr;r1, btrt bctwccn deat]r arrcl resurrcction they rcmlitt
\('l),u,rtc! tlrc soul, rvhich is thc spirituirl lbn-n, uoing to Hcraven, Hcll, or Pr-rrgatory,
rrrrtl tlrr "(()r[)orcxl fi:rrn" chvclling in or ncar the co,,pse.t''t Aqr-rinas and his stuclents,
rrrostly f )onrirric:rrrs of coursc, cxplicitly rcjccted corporcai fornr (Srllnra theolo,qint
l.r c1. 7(r a. 4, a. (r), but tlut clicl uot prcvcnt thc iclea gaining somc traction in tlrc
Litcr thirtccrrth ancl fburtccnth ccnturics; it r,v<.>rrld not bc until mucir latcr thirt
Thonras' ideas rvcre considercd ucrrJy rruinrpcachlblc. Later 'fhomists rr",ere still
lcft r.r,ith thc prclblcm ol whrt u.'rs the essence of a corpsc: rvhat infonlcd a clclrtl
bocly so that ',ve knor.v it is a clead body? Thcy rvere obliqccl to posit a -fi>runt
61
62
63
Thonras Acluinas, Suttuttit t:ottra Centiles, lib. 3, crp. 139, n. L7'. "Vivit euirn corpur
natnraliter pel hoc cluod lnimae unitur, quae est ei principiunr vitae. Corptis auterrr,
vivificetunr per aninrtm, ex seipso l1lovetur: sed niorpus nx)rtLlunl ve1 onurobile munr(,
vel :rb exterion t:rntllnl rnovetlrr."
M. I)e Wu1f, l)t: uuiute fonnae. ()illts dc ltssittas, 10-42. On rvhether Acluin.rs evcr'
etrrbrated a plurelity of fonns, seeJohn F. Wippel, "Thonras Acl.tinas ancl the Unity ol'
Sr-rbstantial Fonn," in )>hilosophy and'l'haology itt tlu'[-otr.q l,[i.ddle A.qcs. .4'li'ibrrtt to Str"
phen I:. lJrotn. ecl. Keut Emerl', Jr., It ussell L. Fliedrnan, and Andreas Speer (L.ei<lcrr:
llrill. 2011). l17-54.
A. Hyrnan, "Aristotle's 'First Matter:' rnd Avicenua's .urrl Averroes"Oorlorell Ft>nrr',"
in Harry Austryn l,tr\tll.;onJubilcc l,/oluttc ort tlu' ()rctsittrr ttf lis SwL'rrtl,-l:ifilt Birtltd,ry.2 vol:,
(Jems:r1er:r: Anretictn Acrtrlenry fblJervish l{esertrclt, l9(r5), I,3ti5 1t)6; l),rc Nikol,rttr
Husse, "lnfluenr:e of Arrtbit' untl Islauri<: l)hilosoph,v ou the L;rtiu Wt'st", 'i /ir' St,utl,ttl
lttcy,rloptdit ol'l)ltilosrtplty'(l'.rll 20 1 I Lirlitrorr), []tlrv,rrtl N. Z;rlr,r ('tl.), t.llf l
lrtrp://111,1
to.st.rrrlirltl,t'rlu/,rltlrivt's/l,rll^l0l.l/cntrics/,rr,rhit islurrrir'irrllrtcrrrt' (,rrrcsst'rl .furrt.
20 t 6),
(,,
(
r)tl,\o\ ,tttrl lrrlrllt,r 9l
rrhlitttirtt, lvhich is not csst'rrti,rl lo ,r lrrrrn.rrr (i,r'. livirrg) bcing, irr pl;rr't' ol'llrr'
r
r rI
rst ;r r r ti:rl .for
I
fi t d
( \') rp o r('
i td t i
s.('
l
of corlrsc, r.vorking buckwirrrls by .rrLruiuq abotrt t'nvcltilt.tcntttt'y trlr';ts
thirtccnth-ccntury oncs, but ilr sonrc Icsp(rcts corpol'cill ft>nri is csscntiirlly,ill
,,rrrtlitc rlncl rcfillcd version of the r.videsprcacl belicf in ln anirnutirrg plirrciplt'
r,,rrr,rirrinq ir-r corpscs. Fc:r cxanrplc, Claudc Lecouteux argues thrt revcl)rllrts, cspcci:rlly
lr t'l,rrrrlic drarr.qar. cor-rld be explained best by positing a "rnultiplc soul," otrc p;rlt ()l'
rvlrith qocs to ther afltcrlife, and onc or more p:Irts that:tnintatc thc corpsc, olr.it'r'ts,
.
,6i-,
'rr ,lr)inl,lls."- I hc vlnous types of corpse animatiou, rcvcn:illts incluclcd, lloulislrirrll
ln tlrc scholastic rse can be unclerstoocl in light of cithcr Lccotrtcux's "rrrultiplc
,,rrrrl" or htcr th.cories of corpolcll lomr. Takc, fbr instatrcc, tltc rcvcuutrt-tightirrll
;rrrr,
rrriil11
in stories fi'orn both Englancl and Icelaucl: in nraruy <;f thcur, thc rt'vt'ttrttt(
r\ l)ut to rest onlv by the completc clestruction of thc cot?sc, usurrlly by btrrrrirrll.
llr,rt this was a supposcdly common proceclurc is cviclent in r.rnc of Willi:rrrr ol'
N,'rr,lrurqh's stories abor.rt a relatively perccful rcven:lnt, thc corpsc of u tttrut fiotrr
llrrr'kinghlmshire r,vho haunted his wifc ancl his brothcrs xt night, rctunlilrq t() lris
lir,rvc chrring the day. The usual nrob of locals, plrssibiy with pitchfirrks irr lurrtl.
rrt.t rvitlr their archdeacon, r.vho rctenccl thc cirse to the bishop of Lincolrr, lltrglr
,,1 Avrrl<:n. Many of thc bishclp's ircivisors rccommcrtclccldigging up thc corpst;rtttl
I'rrrrrirrij it, a rrrcthod they claimecl had becn usecl successfully bclolc iu liuLllirrrtl.
llrslrop Hugh, horvevcr, insistccl thrrt Gocl:rllo'uved the rcvcnrnt to haurrt tltt'ttt
lr,(,u.rsc ttc man's sor,rl needed lorgivencss. Hugh laicl it to rcst by pllcirrg rrrr
of absoiution ou thc cotlsc's chcst. No fircs wcrc ilcccssilly.
' lrr\(oPul chlfter
llris is not the casc in Wiliilrn's threc other storics. in lvhich lll thc rcvctrurts
rrt' lruntccl dor,vn and burnecl to ashes to prevcnt thcir rctum, cxactly ls thc ltislrogr's
r,lvisors lcconuuenclccl. Severrl scholiirs have rightly notecl that in thcsc t';tscs, tltr'
r('\'('niurt is probably atritn:rtcd by the l)cvil, xncl not by the sotrl with tlivirrc pt'r
rrrrrsion, as if that su{Ilcecl to cxplain why thc fomrcr had to bc violcrrtly l,tttttr',1
rn,l tlrc latter canonically put to rest.66 But thc insistenccr oll thc cotttlrlr'lr'
,lr'rt rLrction of thc corpsc is not consistcrlt with all arqu[rcnt ttf tt'vt'n,rttty lry
,lr'rr()nic posscssion. A sirnplc cxorcisr.n shoulcl su{Ticc to drivc out thc irrlr,rlritrrrl',
,1,'rrron, lc:rvins the corpse unurolestccl likc thc innoccut unsoulcci ttltttt't i( ts, tl
\\( \\,('rc to t:rke a strictly Thornist position. Thc problcrm with thilt positiorr (,rp,rrt
lrrtlt ,lltilchrotlisnl) is that most dcscriptions of rcvetrirnts assllll'lL: n sh:trcrl itlcrrtrty
lrr'r\\,('('r) thc sotrl of thc dcacl person ancl h.is or hcr corpse. Thc cor'psc rctttt'rttlrcts,
.r,, tl \vcrc. thc soul t'hat ouce inh.rbitecl it ancl rrrr.rst suffcr or othcrwisc ilct in .l( ( ()l
,l,rrrrt'rvith thc siufirlness of that soul. Evcn in tl-rosc t:tlcs o[cxpli<:it posscssiott, tltt'
,l, r,il tlrooscs c()rpsc\ of r>nly thc nrost sirrfir'l pcoplc (Willilnr's thrcc clctrtorrit t,nt's
tr,r'lrrriques
r,l lrrrclrlr l)oh'le, Ood,
tlu';1111/11r1 1r/
Nrrtrlt'tiltl tlr',SrIr'rit,tttn,t/ (l)t lto n',utlr tl tluutrlr') ,'l
l'rtr',r Sr',on(l ('(lili()n (St l.otus: llcrtlcr', lrrl(r),
l),yqttr,tlir'lir',tti.rr', (l'illrs. iur(l t'rl. Artlrrtr
r,
,
I
I r"i.
I rt
orrtt'rrx,
I
lt'
ll.tlttttt
tl llr I )r',t], tt
(r{r I ,,t ,'s,rtttIlt', ( l.rr iol,r, "Wt,rrtlrr, ll t't r'tt tttlr rr,l ll rtu,rl," ,lll ,'.1, ,ur(l W,rtkitts, IIr/rrr),
,ur,l lltr ,\rt1u'ttt,tllr,ri, Ili.l 11l{
92
Wirrst.on Black
lllillt, tl ltrstful pricsf, antl a rvickccl, cholc:ric lllilll), 'ls it- thcil sin lcli
rcv(:llrtl)ts is ttot stl
traccs iu thcir flcsh that prcclispclsccl it to posscssion' l)efining
tor
the pcriocl ultclct'
clivine.
and
detllotlic
6f
binary
sinrple a lttatter as positing a
of- corpses' 'l'ltc
aniniation
the
in
belicfls
of
discussion bcars witness to a rauge
arc
I
rvc:rlthy
f<rnrl sot1tt'
burning of revenants slrares r'vith the coutrovcrsial doctrine of cotporcal
as lollg itl
corpscs:
htlmatr
of
of thc sarnc: assglnptiol-ls abor.rt tire lingerilg vitalify
il ir
whethcr
pow(jI.
the dc:ad body is ar lcast partially intact, it retains i}n animating
il
soul'
or
a
scconclary
explaiDcd by tr uamoless lingering vitaliry, thc taint of sin,
extension, thcse i<leas abor.rt aniluatiol stcnlnilg fi6r1 n
-lbrma rcrporaitatis. ll:i
of nwni,t,
powerr .rth". tl-rrn thc cterrnrrl soul call bc applied to my other cxamples
caclavers'
clissectcd
even
cruentirtioll, and perhlps
Thc scholastic age witncssecl clrar.natic ancl overlapping clevclopnlcnts in philalrd cialcrlitl
osophy md thcology, which inclr-rdcd rn Adstotelian tratttral philosophy
psychosonrrrtic
il
catlscs,
rational
for
ntcclici,c blsccl on obscrvation ancl thc search
of thc glity ()f bocly lnd sortl, ar)c1 the lbnrralizatiol of the cloctrinc 9t'
\ruOMEN, DANCE, DEATH, AND
LAMENT IN MEDIEVAL SPAIN AND
THE MEDITERRANEAN: IEWISH,
CHRISTIAN, AND MUSLIM EXAMPLES
('ict Soutter
thc6ry
Irurg.rtorv. 'Ihcsc rrcnds provokcd (>r rcflectcd) an ;Inxiety about bodies anlollll
ab<lr'tt cqryses all(l
sr.lrol;rrs :rrrcl cucottrrrgccl thctlr tq ernbrace x [a11gc of nc'"v icleas
tlrcrr potctrt.iirl urrinr;rtion. At ilrst, tlr,u'ing thc trvclfth ccntury, thcse clcvelopirtg
rccord ltncl
;rrrcl rcligiotrs lllovclltcllts ctrcottragccl inquisitivc clcrqv to
"r.lr,,,,ti.rr,,rl
porrtlcr. tlrt. rrrcrrttittg 9t'st<xics
1|ottt rcvctlalnts, the walking delrcl'
1]r'rt
by
thC
tl,i't".,,t1, c(.ntrtry. in tltc cotttcxt oftrnivcrsitics lnd their faculties (rvhether artS,
Aristotcliittt
rrrr.tlictrrt., l;rw, or tlrcoltlgy) wlrich wcrc cstablishcci on a fbundltion of
longcr
acceptlblc'
no
was
clc:ad
rvalking
in
thc
Itrgir'. plrysit s, ltrcl cPistcnrology, bclicf
subjcct trt
c<:1l1plcteiy
objects
bccarne
l\cvcr,.rrrts r.vcrc split ir) two: rhcir clcld boclics
with tlrC
of
contact
caplble
tr:ltrlrill l1'uvs rrncl thcir sotrls bccltrlre purcly incoryoreal,
trntil
thc
body
rvith
nriltcriai r,vgrlcl rrs ghosts or visiols, but incapablc of rcturiting
alilratiott
of
sort
thc clclt:ral l\cstrrrectton. Nclncthclcss, the leed to sce solllc
ttttl
pcrsist iu hlurr.an bo<lics aftcr cleath 'uvas too strollg, a[cl cructrtatiou, trttll'lt,l'
or spcilk'
dissection replacecl rcve nants iis the acccptablc furnrs of corpses that ;rct
t\, , orditrq to historic accounts, Jcwish wontcr). havc bccn experts on gricf tltrrltrglt
tlr,'r litu:rl hurcnt traditions. Givc-n all avlilablc infbmration, this practicc wrls s(,cu
r',,r nlciuls of clealing with the profouncl sernsc ols:rclness that corrres r.vith krss:urrl
,lr',rtlr. Vier.vcd as a syrrrbolic Dance of Death, thc r,vor.nen's typical bchrrvior ol'
ru',rilirrr:,
strmpiug fcet, and cl:rpping hands rnay bc constmecl
as a nre:lns
nf'collcr'tivt'
I'urliit)ll thc body and soul of gricf l)ocumentatiou of Jewish worlrcn ;rs lrrrrrt'rrl
l,',r,lr'r's iri mcdicval Spain is sparlc, yct thc Qina.t, Planyideras, Llarouas, ()t' nr()rr,
,,,rrrnr<rnly, llilerhas appear to have becn rc:spectecl for their serviccs firr rrrrlrrlrrurl',.
Nlcrlit'v:rl Sp.rnish rccorcls and continuing Sephardic history rcvcal that tlrc rvolk ol
rlrc Iittlrchas was rn cstablisl'red traclition rnlongJeu,,ish women, arrcl th:rt tlrt'y lcrl
lrrrrt'r,rl lrttttcut rituals fi>r Christians rrrd Muslinrs,:rs lvcll asJclvs. Accorrrr(s ol tltr'
I tt,ltlt,r' pcrlonnances lre lascinating, irs cvidcn.:e of u,onrcn-lcrl rittr:rl irrvolvrrrll
r1',', r.rlizccl rnovcrncnt ancl rhythrn that r.v:rs apparently irnportant firl Scplr,rrrlr,
, r)lnnlunitics. Thc story of their practicc is also au cxcellent rnelns ol"t'xplorrrrlq
,l.rrr, r' :rnrl rie:rtlr in the Middle Ages. First exanrilir.rg the clctails of thc /irrlr',Jr,r''
,/,trr ,r or ritr.ral clcath clancc, I r.vill bricfly compare Christirn and Mtrslinr cxurrrplt's.
I .rrrr dcfinir-rg wollrcrl s l:rnrcut tr:aditions as dancccl ritual lbr trvo pirrury r'(',1\on\.
lrrrt , lrihlicll and rabbinic tcxts indicatc a long history ofJcwish wonrclr's nr()uul
rrrli lr',rdcrship, r.vith spccializccl nrovonclrt associutccl lvith nrourninll. Additiorr,rlly,
, ,,rrrlr,rrisorrs of ltrchcologicul nr:rterill fi'or-n Mcclitcn"alrcan cotrntrics <:lc:rrly rlcIrt t
\\r)nr('n lts lc:tclcrs ol lanrcnt iu rllncc lrncl rrrr:vcnrcnt. That is, thcir llr()v('ul('nl\
\\( r(' ('\tr'.ror'(linlrry rrucl rlrythrrric, rrsctl ltll hclc.rvcrrrcnt ancl clclrth ritu:rls. Wltilr'
,,rrr(' nl,ly rcgirrrl tlrcir nroti()l)s ;ts sl,tlir', lirlt t'rl t'rprt'ssion of gricf, thcil l)uttcnt ()l
rr t tor
rs,lllotved Iirr irrrplovis;tl iott,uttl,r,l,rl,l,rl i,,t t,
l
(,rtlrcrirtt'llcll, lt/rrr,r/ l'ln'oty: llitrt,rl l\,ttt,, tt t'l,rrrl
l'r(.\\, l')(r.l), lJ.) ll I orr ltrr,tl Ir,,, r,ri
rrrrl Ncrv
Yorlit ()xlirrrl llrrrvr.rrrt\
DEATH IN MEDIEVAL
EUROPE
Death Scripted and Death
Choreographed
Edited by Jodlle Rollo-Koster
ll
L",,y,tl,.'"9,q:,,,
CONTENTS
List of illusttdtions
,N
Acknowledgmen*
x,
List
o;f contributors
,dt
lntroduction
Jodlle Rollo-Koster
'l7riting and commemoration in Anglo-Saxon England
Jill Hanilton Clements
From powerful agents to subordinate objects? The restless
in thirteenth- and fourteenth-century Iceland
deacl
40
Kirsi Kanerua
Animated corpses and bodies with power in the scholastic
age
71
in medieval Spain and the
Mediterranean: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim examples
Cia Sautter
e3
Winston Black
-W.omen,
dance, death, and lament
Wills and testaments
114
t;randne Michaud
Spcctacular clcath:
English towns
Jamts l)auis
crpitll
prrrrislrrrrcrrt irr rrrcclicval
130
vlll
Cont(]nts
Gh<lstly knights: kings' funerals
in fourrtccnth-century Europc
and the emergence of an intemational style
Mikhail A. Boytsou
Death of clergymen: popes and cardinals' death rituals
1,49
164
Jodlle Rollo-Koster
ILLUSTRATIONS
A
dea<l zone in the historiography of death in the Mid<lle Ages:
the sentiment of suspicious death
186
Franck Collard
10
Registering deaths and causes of death in late medieval Milan
Ann C.
Index
209
Carmichael
237
Figures
1.1
1.2
l.3
1.4
Face A, Hartlepool 1 (C,'{SSS 1: Couttty Durham and
Northumbeilan$, alpha, omega above; "Hildepryp" below in
mnes. @ The Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture,
l)urham Universiry (UK), photographer T. Middlemass
Face A, Lindisfarne 24 (C-1SSS L'. County Duilrum and
Northumbeiland), "Osgy6" written out in both runes (abovc)
and roman script. @ The Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone
Sculpture, Durham Univenity (UK), photographer
T. Middlemass
Face C, Newent Memorial Tablet (Nervent 2, C/SSS l0 'l\u:
Western Midlands): a large figure of Christ surrrounded by
figures at the Last Judgment; the name "EDR-ED" hcre labcls
one of these figures in the upper-left comer. Photograpl"r @
Richard Bryant; ursed with permission.
Face A, Monkwearmouth 5 (C-,4SSS 1: Cttwty l)urham and
Nttrthunrbeilanfl, epitaph of Pricst Hcrebericht. @ The Corpus
of Anglo-Saxon Stonc Sc:ulptttrc, I')ttrhanr Univcrsity (UK),
photographer T. Miclcllcrrrrrss
24
24
28
3l
Tables
0.1 I')catlrs rcgistcrcd Jrrly ?t, 145.1, irr tltc Milrtrrcsc Nccro/ogi
,,.|
l,l5.l, trr tltt' Milrrncsc Nt'rrr,/r1(i
I 0,2 I)crths re gistcrcd Jtrly
I
218
2le
Winston E Black