- faculty.vassar.edu/tavarez
Vassar College
Anthropology Department
126 Raymond Avenue
Poughkeepsie, NY 12604, USA
David Tavárez
Vassar College, Anthropology, Faculty Member
- History, Anthropology, Mesoamerican Ethnohistory, Religion, Mesoamerican Studies, History of Religion, and 32 moreMesoamerican Archaeology, Mesoamerican Religion, Anthropological Linguistics, Ethnohistory, History, Writing and Memory, Writing systems, Mesoamerica, Colonialism, Imperialism, Mesoamerican Writing, Empire, Latin American Studies, Latin American History, Mexico History, History of Colonial Mexico, Mesoamerica (Anthropology), Zapotec, Mesoamerican linguistics, Indigenous intellectuals, Cultural History, Comparative Religion, Linguistic Anthropology, Anthropology of Religion, Nahuatl, Classical Nahuatl, Agency, Estudios Mesoamericanos, Language and colonization, Calendars, Gender, Philology, and Social Historyedit
- David Tavárez is a historian and linguistic anthropologist whose interests include religion, calendars, colonial Nahu... moreDavid Tavárez is a historian and linguistic anthropologist whose interests include religion, calendars, colonial Nahuatl and Zapotec, and Indigenous intellectuals. A recent Guggenheim fellow, he is the author of Rethinking Zapotec Time (Texas, 2022); The Invisible War (Stanford, 2011); 60+ peer-reviewed articles & chapters; editor of The Oxford Handbook of Ritual Language (OUP, forthcoming) and of Words and Worlds Turned Around; and co-author of Painted Words (Dumbarton Oaks, 2016), and Chimalpahin's Conquest (Stanford, 2010).edit
Awarded May 13, 2023, at the NAISA meeting in Tkaronto.
Research Interests: Religion, History, Native American Studies, Latin American Studies, Anthropology, and 15 moreIndigenous Studies, Latin American and Caribbean History, History of Religion, Ritual, Colonialism, Nahuatl, Mesoamerica, Calendars, Mexico, Mesoamerican Religion, Colonial Latin American History, Cosmology, Zapotec, Dominican Order, and Mexican Codices
As the first exhaustive translation and analysis of an extraordinary Zapotec calendar and ritual song corpus, seized in New Spain in 1704, this book expands our understanding of Mesoamerican history, cosmology, and culture.
Research Interests: Religion, Christianity, Latin American Studies, Indigenous Studies, History of Religion, and 12 moreRitual, Indigenous Politics, Colonialism, Nahuatl, Latin American literature, Calendars, Mexico, Mesoamerican Religion, Colonial Latin American History, Zapotec, Ancient Astronomy and Calendars, and Dominican Order
The NECLAS prize is named in honor of the Latin American historian Marysa Navarro.
Research Interests: Religion, Christianity, History, Latin American Studies, Anthropology, and 14 moreIndigenous Studies, Languages and Linguistics, History of Religion, Mexico History, Nahuatl, Latin American literature, Ritual Theory, Mesoamerica, Calendars, Mexico, Colonial Latin American History, Zapotec, Oaxaca, and Dominican Order
2023 Best Subsequent Book Prize, NAISA; 2022 NECLAS Best Book Prize; Honorable Mention, 2023 Social Sciences Book Prize, LASA Mexico Section. In 1702, after the brutal suppression of a Zapotec revolt, the bishop of Oaxaca proclaimed an... more
2023 Best Subsequent Book Prize, NAISA; 2022 NECLAS Best Book Prize; Honorable Mention, 2023 Social Sciences Book Prize, LASA Mexico Section. In 1702, after the brutal suppression of a Zapotec revolt, the bishop of Oaxaca proclaimed an amnesty for idolatry in exchange for collective confessions. To evade conflict, Northern Zapotec communities denounced ritual specialists and surrendered sacred songs and 102 divinatory manuals, which preserve cosmological accounts, exchanges with divine beings, and protocols of pre-Columbian origin that strongly resemble sections of the Codex Borgia. These texts were sent to Spain as evidence of failed Dominican evangelization efforts, and there they remained, in oblivion, until the 1960s. In this book, David Tavárez dives deep into this formidable archive of ritual and divinatory manuals, the largest calendar corpus in the colonial Americas, and emerges with a rich understanding of Indigenous social and cultural history, Mesoamerican theories of cosmos and time, and Zapotec ancestor worship. Drawing on his knowledge of Zapotec and Nahuatl, two decades of archival research, and a decade of fieldwork, Tavárez dissects Mesoamerican calendars as well as Native resistance and accommodation to the colonial conquest of time, while also addressing entangled transatlantic histories and shining new light on texts still connected to contemporary observances in Zapotec communities.
“This is a superb study of both the Indigenous secret republics of letters and their Indigenous rivals. It is also a brilliant analysis of Zapotec divinatory colonial practices.’’
—Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra, University of Texas at Austin, author of How to Write the History of the New World: Histories, Epistemologies, and Identities in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World
“This book introduces participants in a 'republic of letters' in the Zapotec language who, in the 1600s, created something new through their combination of ancestral knowledge and new knowledge from the Spanish realm. With its focus on actors outside the colonial political hierarchy, the book gives extraordinary insight into the lives of residents of colonial Indigenous towns that were locally administered, often only lightly overseen from distant political and religious centers. David Tavárez’s understanding of Zapotec history and cultural achievement is without parallel. The analysis of Zapotec literacy as 'anti-colonial discourses' contributes to an important global reconsideration of Indigenous lives under colonial power.”
—Rosemary Joyce, University of California at Berkeley, author of Ancient Bodies, Ancient Lives: Sex, Gender, and Archaeology
“Rethinking Zapotec Time makes several significant contributions. It is a major synthesis of documentary evidence from the Zapotec mantic and ritual manuals that is both revisionist and encyclopedic. David Tavárez’s work has succeeded in mining the manuals' content to understand local historical processes and to link them as part of a longue durée in the production of knowledge by Zapotec peoples that goes back more than a thousand years. The book also sheds new light on highly debated issues concerning Mesoamerican calendrics and synchronology with European time, as well as contested interpretations of obscure passages in the Codex Borgia and other divinatory manuscripts.”
—Javier Urcid, Brandeis University, coauthor of The Lords of Lambityeco: Political Evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca during the Xoo Phase
“Rooted in the exceptional linguistic skills and erudition of David Tavárez, this study of Zapotec-language calendric texts and ritual songs not only explains the workings of northern Zapotec pre-Hispanic and early colonial timekeeping, it reveals the multifaceted intellectual traditions of colonial indigenous ritual specialists. They fostered intense communal efforts to maintain sacred beliefs and local practices, sometimes leading to dissent within communities and suppressive efforts from Catholic officials. Nonetheless, the Zapotec sacred survived—transformed in some ways—until today, a story Tavárez brilliantly details.”
—Susan Kellogg, University of Houston, co-editor of Género y Arqueología en Mesoamérica: Homenaje a Rosemary A. Joyce
“This is a superb study of both the Indigenous secret republics of letters and their Indigenous rivals. It is also a brilliant analysis of Zapotec divinatory colonial practices.’’
—Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra, University of Texas at Austin, author of How to Write the History of the New World: Histories, Epistemologies, and Identities in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World
“This book introduces participants in a 'republic of letters' in the Zapotec language who, in the 1600s, created something new through their combination of ancestral knowledge and new knowledge from the Spanish realm. With its focus on actors outside the colonial political hierarchy, the book gives extraordinary insight into the lives of residents of colonial Indigenous towns that were locally administered, often only lightly overseen from distant political and religious centers. David Tavárez’s understanding of Zapotec history and cultural achievement is without parallel. The analysis of Zapotec literacy as 'anti-colonial discourses' contributes to an important global reconsideration of Indigenous lives under colonial power.”
—Rosemary Joyce, University of California at Berkeley, author of Ancient Bodies, Ancient Lives: Sex, Gender, and Archaeology
“Rethinking Zapotec Time makes several significant contributions. It is a major synthesis of documentary evidence from the Zapotec mantic and ritual manuals that is both revisionist and encyclopedic. David Tavárez’s work has succeeded in mining the manuals' content to understand local historical processes and to link them as part of a longue durée in the production of knowledge by Zapotec peoples that goes back more than a thousand years. The book also sheds new light on highly debated issues concerning Mesoamerican calendrics and synchronology with European time, as well as contested interpretations of obscure passages in the Codex Borgia and other divinatory manuscripts.”
—Javier Urcid, Brandeis University, coauthor of The Lords of Lambityeco: Political Evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca during the Xoo Phase
“Rooted in the exceptional linguistic skills and erudition of David Tavárez, this study of Zapotec-language calendric texts and ritual songs not only explains the workings of northern Zapotec pre-Hispanic and early colonial timekeeping, it reveals the multifaceted intellectual traditions of colonial indigenous ritual specialists. They fostered intense communal efforts to maintain sacred beliefs and local practices, sometimes leading to dissent within communities and suppressive efforts from Catholic officials. Nonetheless, the Zapotec sacred survived—transformed in some ways—until today, a story Tavárez brilliantly details.”
—Susan Kellogg, University of Houston, co-editor of Género y Arqueología en Mesoamérica: Homenaje a Rosemary A. Joyce
Research Interests: Religion, Christianity, Ethnohistory, Art History, Indigenous or Aboriginal Studies, and 15 moreLanguages and Linguistics, Latin American and Caribbean History, Cosmology (Anthropology), Colonialism, Indigenous Literature, Ritual Theory, Calendars, Latin American Colonial Literature, Mesoamerican Ethnohistory, Mesoamerican Religion, Colonial Latin American History, Zapotec, Precolumbian Cultures, Oaxaca, and Mexican Codices
A sophisticated, state-of-the-art study of the remaking of Christianity by indigenous societies, Words and Worlds Turned Around reveals the manifold transformations of Christian discourses in the colonial Americas. The book surveys... more
A sophisticated, state-of-the-art study of the remaking of Christianity by indigenous societies, Words and Worlds Turned Around reveals the manifold transformations of Christian discourses in the colonial Americas. The book surveys how Christian messages were rendered in indigenous languages; explores what was added, transformed, or glossed over; and ends with an epilogue about contemporary Nahuatl Christianities.
In eleven case studies drawn from eight Amerindian languages—Nahuatl, Northern and Valley Zapotec, Quechua, Yucatec Maya, K'iche' Maya, Q'eqchi' Maya, and Tupi—the authors address Christian texts and traditions that were repeatedly changed through translation—a process of “turning around” as conveyed in Classical Nahuatl. Through an examination of how Christian terms and practices were made, remade, and negotiated by both missionaries and native authors and audiences, the volume shows the conversion of indigenous peoples as an ongoing process influenced by what native societies sought, understood, or accepted.
The volume features a rapprochement of methodologies and assumptions employed in history, anthropology, and religion and combines the acuity of of methodologies drawn from philology and historical linguistics with the contextualizing force of the ethnohistory and social history of Spanish and Portuguese America.
With a foreword by William B. Taylor. Contributors: Claudia Brosseder, Louise M. Burkhart, Mark Christensen, John F. Chuchiak IV, Abelardo de la Cruz, Gregory Haimovich, Kittiya Lee, Ben Leeming, Julia Madajczak, Justyna Olko, Frauke Sachse, Garry Sparks.
In eleven case studies drawn from eight Amerindian languages—Nahuatl, Northern and Valley Zapotec, Quechua, Yucatec Maya, K'iche' Maya, Q'eqchi' Maya, and Tupi—the authors address Christian texts and traditions that were repeatedly changed through translation—a process of “turning around” as conveyed in Classical Nahuatl. Through an examination of how Christian terms and practices were made, remade, and negotiated by both missionaries and native authors and audiences, the volume shows the conversion of indigenous peoples as an ongoing process influenced by what native societies sought, understood, or accepted.
The volume features a rapprochement of methodologies and assumptions employed in history, anthropology, and religion and combines the acuity of of methodologies drawn from philology and historical linguistics with the contextualizing force of the ethnohistory and social history of Spanish and Portuguese America.
With a foreword by William B. Taylor. Contributors: Claudia Brosseder, Louise M. Burkhart, Mark Christensen, John F. Chuchiak IV, Abelardo de la Cruz, Gregory Haimovich, Kittiya Lee, Ben Leeming, Julia Madajczak, Justyna Olko, Frauke Sachse, Garry Sparks.
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2020 Podcast on New Books Network:
Words and Worlds Turned Around: Indigenous Christianities in Colonial Latin America (Colorado, 2017). Edited by David Tavárez.
Interviewer: Krzysztof Odyniec
Words and Worlds Turned Around: Indigenous Christianities in Colonial Latin America (Colorado, 2017). Edited by David Tavárez.
Interviewer: Krzysztof Odyniec
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Painted Words presents a facsimile, decipherment, and analysis of a seventeenth-century pictographic catechism from colonial Mexico, preserved as Fonds Mexicain 399 at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. Works in this genre present the... more
Painted Words presents a facsimile, decipherment, and analysis of a seventeenth-century pictographic catechism from colonial Mexico, preserved as Fonds Mexicain 399 at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. Works in this genre present the Catholic catechism in pictures that were read sign by sign as aids to memorization and oral performance. They have long been understood as a product of the experimental techniques of early evangelization, but this study shows that they are better understood as indigenous expressions of devotional knowledge.
In addition to inventive pictography to recount the catechism, this manuscript features Nahuatl texts that focus on don Pedro Moteuczoma, son of the Mexica ruler Moteuczoma the Younger, and his home, San Sebastián Atzaqualco. Other glosses identify figures drawn within the manuscript as Nahua and Spanish historical personages, as if the catechism had been repurposed as a dynastic record. The end of the document displays a series of Nahua and Spanish heraldic devices.
These combined pictorial and alphabetic expressions form a spectacular example of how colonial pictographers created innovative text genres, through which they reimagined pre-Columbian writing and early evangelization—and ultimately articulated newly emerging assertions of indigenous identity and memorialized native history.
In addition to inventive pictography to recount the catechism, this manuscript features Nahuatl texts that focus on don Pedro Moteuczoma, son of the Mexica ruler Moteuczoma the Younger, and his home, San Sebastián Atzaqualco. Other glosses identify figures drawn within the manuscript as Nahua and Spanish historical personages, as if the catechism had been repurposed as a dynastic record. The end of the document displays a series of Nahua and Spanish heraldic devices.
These combined pictorial and alphabetic expressions form a spectacular example of how colonial pictographers created innovative text genres, through which they reimagined pre-Columbian writing and early evangelization—and ultimately articulated newly emerging assertions of indigenous identity and memorialized native history.
After the conquest of Mexico, colonial authorities attempted to enforce Christian beliefs among indigenous peoples—a project they envisioned as spiritual warfare. The Invisible War assesses this immense but dislocated project by examining... more
After the conquest of Mexico, colonial authorities attempted to enforce Christian beliefs among indigenous peoples—a project they envisioned as spiritual warfare. The Invisible War assesses this immense but dislocated project by examining all known efforts to obliterate native devotions of Mesoamerican origin between the 1530s and the late eighteenth century in Central Mexico.
The author's interpretation of these efforts is punctuated by three events: the creation of an Inquisition tribunal in Mexico in 1571; the native rebellion of Tehuantepec in 1660; and the emergence of eerily modern strategies for isolating idolaters, teaching Spanish to natives, and obtaining medical proof of sorcery from the 1720s onwards. Rather than depicting native devotions solely from the viewpoint of their colonial codifiers, this book rescues indigenous perspectives on their own beliefs. This is achieved by an analysis of previously unknown or rare ritual texts that circulated in secrecy in Nahua and Zapotec communities through an astute appropriation of European literacy.
This work contends that native responses gave rise to a colonial archipelago of faith in which local cosmologies merged insights from Mesoamerican and European beliefs. In the end, idolatry eradication inspired distinct reactions: while Nahua responses focused on epistemological dissent against Christianity, Zapotec strategies privileged confrontations in defense of native cosmologies.
The author's interpretation of these efforts is punctuated by three events: the creation of an Inquisition tribunal in Mexico in 1571; the native rebellion of Tehuantepec in 1660; and the emergence of eerily modern strategies for isolating idolaters, teaching Spanish to natives, and obtaining medical proof of sorcery from the 1720s onwards. Rather than depicting native devotions solely from the viewpoint of their colonial codifiers, this book rescues indigenous perspectives on their own beliefs. This is achieved by an analysis of previously unknown or rare ritual texts that circulated in secrecy in Nahua and Zapotec communities through an astute appropriation of European literacy.
This work contends that native responses gave rise to a colonial archipelago of faith in which local cosmologies merged insights from Mesoamerican and European beliefs. In the end, idolatry eradication inspired distinct reactions: while Nahua responses focused on epistemological dissent against Christianity, Zapotec strategies privileged confrontations in defense of native cosmologies.
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Como muestra, se incluye el capítulo 1 de la versión revisada en español de mi libro "The Invisible War: Indigenous Devotions, Discipline, and Dissent in Colonial Mexico" (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011), publicado por la... more
Como muestra, se incluye el capítulo 1 de la versión revisada en español de mi libro "The Invisible War: Indigenous Devotions, Discipline, and Dissent in Colonial Mexico" (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011), publicado por la Universidad Autónoma Benito Juárez de Oaxaca, El Colegio de Michoacán, CIESAS, y UAM.
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This book, published by the Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México in 2012, is a Spanish-language revised version of "Chimalpahin’s Conquest: A Nahua Historian’s Rewriting of Francisco López... more
This book, published by the Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México in 2012, is a Spanish-language revised version of "Chimalpahin’s Conquest: A Nahua Historian’s Rewriting of Francisco López de Gómara’s La conquista de México. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2010).
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This chapter provides a close analysis of the significance of a singular intellectual project that showcases the vibrant religious and humanistic discourse that issued from several Nahua-Franciscan partnerships in the sixteenth and early... more
This chapter provides a close analysis of the significance of a singular intellectual project that showcases the vibrant religious and humanistic discourse that issued from several Nahua-Franciscan partnerships in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. As argued below, this Nahuatl exegesis of On the Imitation of Christ depicts the fine editorial guidance of the Franciscan Luis Rodríguez, and the extraordinary collaboration of Nahua scholar Hernando de Ribas with the Franciscan Alonso de Molina. This chapter presents novel evidence regarding the identity of the authors of two manuscript versions of the Imitation in Nahuatl, one held at the Escorial Library in Spain, and the other at the John Carter Brown Li- brary in the United States. It also presents innovative information regarding the structure of a Nahuatl adaptation of On the Imitation of Christ. While the original manuscript of Kempis’s Imitation opens with a concise first chapter, the Nahuatl adaptation held at El Escorial turned this chapter into an impressive rhetorical salvo: an adaptation of its contents into a six-part university sermon, a public mode of engagement and performance favored by preachers and academics in late medi- eval times, and which was recast to conform to the intellectual terrain of sixteenth- century Nahua audiences.
Research Interests: History, Intellectual History, Anthropology, Translation Studies, Renaissance Humanism, and 11 moreFranciscan Studies, Thomas Aquinas, Nahuatl, Linguistics, Mesoamerica, Latin American Colonial Literature, Mexico, Colonial Latin American History, Historia colonial, Medieval Sermons, and Thomas a Kempis
El presente capítulo presenta un primer acercamiento a un texto importante y singular entre los arriba citados: un tratado político aristotélico escrito en latín por el renombrado teólogo Dionisio el Cartujano, y adaptado al náhuatl bajo... more
El presente capítulo presenta un primer acercamiento a un texto importante y singular entre los arriba citados: un tratado político aristotélico escrito en latín por el renombrado teólogo Dionisio el Cartujano, y adaptado al náhuatl bajo el título de Izcatqui yn innemiliz yn tepachoa, "He aquí la forma de vida de los gobernadores," para la posible edificación de gobernadores y jueces nahuas. Se discute el manuscrito donde se localiza, se identifica su fuente, y se presentan ejemplos de su contenido, con énfasis particular en la adaptación al náhuatl de dos ejemplos de justicia y buena jurisprudencia: la imparcialidad de Zaleuco de Locros y Carondas de Catania, dos legisladores primigenios del mundo griego antiguo.
Research Interests: Religion, Latin American Studies, Political Philosophy, Latin Literature, Indigenous Studies, and 15 moreLanguages and Linguistics, Theology, Aristotle, History of Religion, Colonialism, Franciscan Studies, Nahuatl, Classical Reception Studies, Mexico, Colonial Latin American History, Aristoteles, History of the Franciscan Order, Denys the Carthusian, Historia Colonial De América Latina, and Classical Studies
Selection, Chapter 6, "Mutable Memories: The Moteuczomas and Nahua Nobility in the Atzaqualco Catechism," 113-159. In Painted Words: Nahua Catholicism, Politics, and Memory in the Atzaqualco Pictorial Catechism, Elizabeth Hill Boone,... more
Selection, Chapter 6, "Mutable Memories: The Moteuczomas and Nahua Nobility in the Atzaqualco Catechism," 113-159. In Painted Words: Nahua Catholicism, Politics, and Memory in the Atzaqualco Pictorial Catechism, Elizabeth Hill Boone, Louise Burkhart, and David Tavárez. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. Painted Words presents a facsimile, decipherment, and analysis of the most captivating pictographic catechism from colonial Mexico, a seventeenth-century text now preserved as Fonds Mexicain 399 at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. Such works presented the Catholic catechism in pictures that were read sign by sign as an aid to memorization and oral performance, which Catholic priests demanded of their indigenous parishioners. The genre, sometimes called "Testerian," has long been understood as a product of the experimental techniques of early evangelization, but this study shows that the existing texts are better understood as particularly indigenous expressions of devotional knowledge. Although sixteenth-century precedents did exist, nearly all extant Mexican pictorial catechisms contain some version of a catechetical questionnaire that places them after 1644.
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This chapter sketches two distinct modes of engagement pursued jointly by Franciscans and Nahua scholars as they produced a printed and manuscript corpus that spans the decades between the 1550s and the 1620s, which was impacted by... more
This chapter sketches two distinct modes of engagement pursued jointly by Franciscans and Nahua scholars as they produced a printed and manuscript corpus that spans the decades between the 1550s and the 1620s, which was impacted by censure and increasingly orthodox evangelization policies. It plumbs into the Nahua-Franciscan confidential mode to reveal a previously unknown work: a Nahuatl-language adaptation, by the Franciscan Alonso de Molina and one or more Nahua co-authors, of ‘On the Government of a Polity,’ a political treatise by the fifteenth-century theologian Denys the Carthusian. The chapter argues this translation was part of several attempts to test the boundaries of what Counter-Reformation policies allowed not only to be printed, but also to be circulated in manuscript form among indigenous colonial subjects.
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This essay contends that the path followed by the Dominican fray Pedro de Feria in his Valley Zapotec Doctrina (1564), based in part on a work by fray Bernardo de Albuquerque, was narrower, less adventurous, and more rigid than the one... more
This essay contends that the path followed by the Dominican fray Pedro de Feria in his Valley Zapotec Doctrina (1564), based in part on a work by fray Bernardo de Albuquerque, was narrower, less adventurous, and more rigid than the one embraced by Saint Dominic, founder of the Dominicans. Although Feria adopted a theological basis to explain in Zapotec the emer- gence of idolatry as a universal phenomenon, he also appropriated a crucial section of Aquino’s Summa theologica without any citations or references, so as to avoid censorship. This analysis presents a linguistic, philological and semantic investigation of the discourses that denounced both Zapotec gods and idolatry, in order to define the intellectual and theological genealogy of the Feria-Albuquerque Doctrina. It is proposed here that the construction of a common ground, shared by Zapotecs and Europeans but bracketed by catechetical translation practices, was for Feria the most promising strategy for erasing the memory of ancient gods and shoring up his catechesis in Zapotec.
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This chapter summarizes archaeological, ethnohistorical, and linguistic data regarding religious practices in two important cultural areas in Latin America, Mesoamerica, and the Andes. It begins with an analysis of the development of... more
This chapter summarizes archaeological, ethnohistorical, and linguistic data regarding religious practices in two important cultural areas in Latin America, Mesoamerica, and the Andes. It begins with an analysis of the development of Mesoamerican religion from the Formative to the Postclassic periods, continues with an appraisal of Inca state religion and an ancient regional cosmology in central Peru, and closes with a brief comparison of Mesoamerican and Andean cosmological beliefs and practices.
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Sometime after the summer of 1703, a strange traveler journeyed to several Zapotec-speaking communities nestled in the rugged geography of Villa Alta—an alcaldía mayor northeast of Oaxaca City in New Spain. He wore a pectoral ornament... more
Sometime after the summer of 1703, a strange traveler journeyed to several Zapotec-speaking communities nestled in the rugged geography of Villa Alta—an alcaldía mayor northeast of Oaxaca City in New Spain. He wore a pectoral ornament around his neck—a gift from the Benedictine friar Ángel Maldonado, a newly appointed bishop who had arrived in Oaxaca in July 1702—and was received throughout Villa Alta with “great noise and expressions of joy.” Upon his arrival in each locality, he would gather the townspeople and proclaim an offer of amnesty from the bishop: in exchange for registering a collective confession about traditional ritual practices at the administrative seat of San Ildefonso, and turning in their ritual implements—such as alphabetic ritual texts and wooden cylindrical drums—each Zapotec community would receive a general amnesty from ecclesiastical prosecution for idolatry.
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In 1570, the Franciscan friar Jerónimo de Mendieta bestowed a rare gift on Juan de Ovando, then president of the Council of Indies. Mendieta placed in Ovando's hands a small manuscript volume in superb Gothic script with illuminated... more
In 1570, the Franciscan friar Jerónimo de Mendieta bestowed a rare gift on Juan de Ovando, then president of the Council of Indies. Mendieta placed in Ovando's hands a small manuscript volume in superb Gothic script with illuminated initials and color illustrations, one of several important manuscripts he had brought to Spain for various prominent recipients. Were it not for its contents, one could have thought it a meticulous version of a breviary or a book of hours, but its contents were unprecedented. This tome contained a scholarly Nahuatl translation of the most popular devotional work in Western Europe in the previous century. It was Thomas à Kempis's Imitation of Christ, which caught Iberian Christians under its spell between the 1460s and the early sixteenth century by means of multiple Latin editions and translations into Portuguese, Catalan, and Spanish, including a version in aljamiado (Spanish in Arabic characters). Indeed, a decisive turning point in the Iberian...
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This chapter investigates the nexus between authority and carefully calibrated and highly patterned actions accomplished through and alongside language. In the anthropological literature, many of these practices are described as belonging... more
This chapter investigates the nexus between authority and carefully calibrated and highly patterned actions accomplished through and alongside language. In the anthropological literature, many of these practices are described as belonging to ritual activities, as they instantiate, represent, or memorialize world-changing acts. This exploration focuses on a variety of representative examples drawn from Mesoamerica, Amazonia, the Andes, South Asia, and Africa. Through a survey of historical case studies, ethnographic research, and various theoretical approaches, the chapter outlines five important domains demarcated by ritual speech: language ideologies, epistemologies, and the construction of authoritative ontological models about the cosmos; performances that interdigitate speech and collective identities that actors perceive as customary; the diversity and precariousness of ritual language at the boundaries of intelligibility; ritual performance and the demarcation of social differences; and the relation between ritual speech and non-human forms of agency.
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The notion of a “spiritual conquest,” as opposed to a military conquest by Spanish forces and indigenous allies, was developed in detail in Robert Ricard’s eponymous 1933 work. While the metaphor of a “spiritual conquest” is broadly... more
The notion of a “spiritual conquest,” as opposed to a military conquest by Spanish forces and indigenous allies, was developed in detail in Robert Ricard’s eponymous 1933 work. While the metaphor of a “spiritual conquest” is broadly understood and used, many recent historical works eventually turned their attention to a close analysis of distinct processes and tendencies in terms of the methods, practices, and dynamics of colonial evangelization in Spanish and Portuguese America. The topical sections below address important work in this area of inquiry published in the last twenty-five years, with occasional references to earlier foundational works.
Research Interests: Religion, Christianity, History, Intellectual History, Latin American Studies, and 15 moreIndigenous Studies, Colonialism, Religious Conversion, Resistance (Social), Indigenous Knowledge, Nahuatl, Andes, Latin American Colonial Literature, Quechua, Colonial Latin American History, Guarani, Zapotec, Mayas, Tupi-Guarani, and Nahuas and Mixtecs
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This article presents a translation and analysis of the only extant formal confession of human sacrifice written in an Indigenous language in the colonial Americas. An analysis of this document, written in Northern Zapotec by the town... more
This article presents a translation and analysis of the only extant formal confession of human sacrifice written in an Indigenous language in the colonial Americas. An analysis of this document, written in Northern Zapotec by the town officials of Yalálag in 1704, provides numerous insights about how a community deployed traditional rhetoric to seek mercy from their civil magistrate, and to provide a justification for committing acts of idolatry and child sacrifice. Rather than aligning with the canonical middle ground (nepantla), often used as a yardstick, this confession eloquently and incisively places Northern Zapotec society in tentative terrain point in terms of their knowledge of Christianity, and depicts Christianization as a long-term process, which confessants boldly tied to latent forms of negotiation.
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https://vimeo.com/751299286 "Rethinking Time and Cosmos in Central Mexico: New Insights." Lecture for the Pre-Columbian Society of New York, September 2022: This presentation, based on the first comprehensive survey of these songs... more
https://vimeo.com/751299286 "Rethinking Time and Cosmos in Central Mexico: New
Insights." Lecture for the Pre-Columbian Society of New York, September 2022:
This presentation, based on the first comprehensive survey of these songs and manuals, presents new insights regarding Mesoamerican cosmology and the 260-day divinatory count. It also examines multiple connections between cosmological beliefs and ritual protocols in this corpus, and sections from two pre-Columbian codices in the Borgia group: Fejérváry-Mayer 1, and Borgia 29-32.
Insights." Lecture for the Pre-Columbian Society of New York, September 2022:
This presentation, based on the first comprehensive survey of these songs and manuals, presents new insights regarding Mesoamerican cosmology and the 260-day divinatory count. It also examines multiple connections between cosmological beliefs and ritual protocols in this corpus, and sections from two pre-Columbian codices in the Borgia group: Fejérváry-Mayer 1, and Borgia 29-32.
Research Interests: Religion, Christianity, Ethnohistory, Latin American Studies, Art History, and 11 moreLanguages and Linguistics, Ritual, Colonial Religion in Latin America, Calendars, Mesoamerican Religion, Colonial Latin American History, Zapotec, Oaxaca, Mexican Codices, Historia Colonial De América Latina, and Borgia Group Codices
Research Interests: Religion, History, Anthropology, Cosmology (Anthropology), Ritual, and 15 moreReligion and Colonialism, Colonialism, 17th-Century Studies, Writing, Latin American History, Calendars, Latin American Colonial Literature, Mexico, Mesoamerican Religion, Colonial Latin American History, Latin America, Zapotec, Cultural Astronomy and Astrology, Oaxaca, and Anthropology of Religion
Esta tabla presenta, de un solo vistazo, dos correlaciones: la primera entre la cuenta del año de la Sierra Norte (SN) zapoteca y la europea, y la segunda entre la cuenta mexica (antes de 1507) y la europea. La tabla podrá ser útil para... more
Esta tabla presenta, de un solo vistazo, dos correlaciones: la primera entre la cuenta del año de la Sierra Norte (SN) zapoteca y la europea, y la segunda entre la cuenta mexica (antes de 1507) y la europea. La tabla podrá ser útil para cualquier persona interesada en situar referencias a fechas en los sistemas mexica y zapoteco en documentos coloniales. La primera correlación, entre el ciclo adivinatorio zapoteco (SN) de 260 días (biyee), la cuenta zapoteca (SN) de 365 días (yza), y el año europeo, fue establecida por primera vez en Justeson y Tavárez (2007), y en Tavárez y Justeson (2008), quienes también analizan la estructura del yza y del biyee. La segunda, entre el año europeo y la cuenta mexica/tlatelolca de 365 días (xihuitl) se basa en la correlación establecida por Alfonso Caso (1939, 1959), y aceptada por muchos especialistas. Ver la introducción a la tabla para mayores detalles (Tavárez, ms., 2018).
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This table presents, at a glance, two correlations: one between the Northern Zapotec and European year count, and another between the Mexica (pre-1507) and European years. It may be used by anyone working on indigenous documents from colonial Central Mexico that feature Nahua or Zapotec dates. It is based on the correlation among the Northern Zapotec 260-day divinatory cycle (biyee), the 365-day count (yza), and the European year, which was first established by Justeson and Tavárez (2007), and Tavárez and Justeson (2008). It also follows Alfonso Caso's (1939, 1959) correlation between the European year and the xihuitl, or Mexica/Tlatelolca 365-day count. For further details, see the brief introduction to this table (Tavárez 2018, ms. draft).
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This table presents, at a glance, two correlations: one between the Northern Zapotec and European year count, and another between the Mexica (pre-1507) and European years. It may be used by anyone working on indigenous documents from colonial Central Mexico that feature Nahua or Zapotec dates. It is based on the correlation among the Northern Zapotec 260-day divinatory cycle (biyee), the 365-day count (yza), and the European year, which was first established by Justeson and Tavárez (2007), and Tavárez and Justeson (2008). It also follows Alfonso Caso's (1939, 1959) correlation between the European year and the xihuitl, or Mexica/Tlatelolca 365-day count. For further details, see the brief introduction to this table (Tavárez 2018, ms. draft).
Research Interests: History, Anthropology, Latin American and Caribbean History, Mesoamerican Archaeology, Aztecs, and 10 moreNahuatl, History of Colonial Mexico, Mesoamerica (Anthropology), Mesoamerica, Calendars, Mesoamerican Ethnohistory, Mexico, Colonial Latin American History, Zapotec, and Spanish conquest of the Americas
This essay establishes the correlation between the Zapotec 260-day divinatory count (biye) and the 365-day Zapotec vague year, or yza, and determines the correlation between these two counts and the Gregorian calendar (and, by extension,... more
This essay establishes the correlation between the Zapotec 260-day divinatory count (biye) and the 365-day Zapotec vague year, or yza, and determines the correlation between these two counts and the Gregorian calendar (and, by extension, wit the Julian calendar) based on multiple annotations made by Northern Zapotec ritual specialists in a large corpus of calendrical manuals preserved in AGI México 882, and on the only known colonial representation of the yza. The correlation between the 260-day count and the European calendar shows that, as late as the early 18th century, Zapotec specialists were in synchrony with the Mexica tonalpohualli (260-day count), as established by Caso.
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A companion piece to Justeson and Tavárez 2007, this article examines references to eclipses in two seventeenth-century Zapotec calendrical manuals. Our correlation analysis shows that as late as the early 18th century, Zapotec... more
A companion piece to Justeson and Tavárez 2007, this article examines references to eclipses in two seventeenth-century Zapotec calendrical manuals. Our correlation analysis shows that as late as the early 18th century, Zapotec specialists were in synchrony with the Mexica tonalpohualli (260-day count), as established by Caso. Moreover, two eclipse annotations in Book 81 explicitly record the occurrences of solar and lunar eclipses visible in the Sierra Zapoteca in 1691 and 1693. Annotations in Booklet 63 do not mention eclipses but allude to them by recording the names and Gregorian dates of Christian feasts celebrated on the dates of eclipses in 1686 and 1690. Our analysis suggests that colonial Zapotec calendar specialists monitored and perhaps also anticipated the occurrence of eclipses in terms of the patterns of eclipse recurrence in particular parts of the divinatory calendar.
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This paper translates and analyzes references to eclipses in two seventeenth-century Zapotec calendrical booklets.1 These booklets are part of a corpus of 106 separate calendrical texts and four collections of ritual songs that were... more
This paper translates and analyzes references to eclipses in two seventeenth-century Zapotec calendrical booklets.1 These booklets are part of a corpus of 106 separate calendrical texts and four collections of ritual songs that were turned over to ecclesiastical authorities in 1704 and 1705 as part of an ambitious campaign against traditional indigenous ritual practices conducted in the province of Villa Alta in northern Oaxaca. Both of these booklets contain a complete day-by-day representation of the Zapotec 260-day divinatory calendar, with annotations in Zapotec alongside many of these entries. Two such annotations in Booklet 81 explicitly record the occurrences of solar and lunar eclipses visible in the Sierra Zapoteca in 1691 and 1693. Annotations in Booklet 63 do not mention eclipses but allude to them by recording the names and Gregorian dates of Christian feasts celebrated on the dates of eclipses in 1686 and 1690; such allusions are otherwise found mainly with the Zapotec ...
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In this essay, I analyze a sample drawn from a corpus of about 107 alphabetic texts that were produced in a clandestine manner by Zapotec ritual specialists in northern Oaxaca, Mexico, during the second half of the seventeenth century. I... more
In this essay, I analyze a sample drawn from a corpus of about 107 alphabetic texts that were produced in a clandestine manner by Zapotec ritual specialists in northern Oaxaca, Mexico, during the second half of the seventeenth century. I argue that these texts represent an unusual appropriation of the Latin alphabet and of European literacy practices by local indigenous intellectuals. The article also notes how ritual specialists tied the correlations between two Zapotec counts--the 365-day vague year (yza) and the 260-day divinatory count (biyee)--and the Gregorian year by focusing on the feast of Saint Matthias.
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This article proposes the idea of refracting memories to understand the transformation of historical memory of Mesoamerican communities in the 17th and 18th centuries. This process is illustrated through the analysis of divinatory manuals... more
This article proposes the idea of refracting memories to understand the transformation of historical memory of Mesoamerican communities in the 17th and 18th centuries. This process is illustrated through the analysis of divinatory manuals that contained references to the arrival of Spanish, and through the Probanza of Yelabichi, a Northern Zapotec text that narrates the military and spiritual conquests and the ethnogenesis of Zapotecs, Mixes, and Chinantecs, as if they were part of the same process. The second document, introduced in a lawsuit in the 1750s, allows us to analyze how collective interests refracted the events of the conquest to form a series of enchained memories that shaped colonial Zapotec identity.
Este artículo presenta el concepto de memorias refractadas para comprender la
transformación de la memoria histórica en las comunidades mesoamericanas de los siglos xvii y xviii. Este proceso se ilustra a través del análisis de manuales adivinatorios que contenían referencias a la llegada de los españoles y a través de la Probanza de Yelabichi, un texto zapoteco del norte que narra las conquistas militar y espiritual y la etnogénesis de los zapotecas, mixes y chinantecos como si fueran parte del mismo proceso. El segundo documento, presentado en una demanda judicial de la década de 1750, nos permite analizar la manera en que los intereses colectivos refractaban los eventos de la conquista para constituir una serie de memorias encadenadas que conformaban la identidad zapoteca colonial.
Este artículo presenta el concepto de memorias refractadas para comprender la
transformación de la memoria histórica en las comunidades mesoamericanas de los siglos xvii y xviii. Este proceso se ilustra a través del análisis de manuales adivinatorios que contenían referencias a la llegada de los españoles y a través de la Probanza de Yelabichi, un texto zapoteco del norte que narra las conquistas militar y espiritual y la etnogénesis de los zapotecas, mixes y chinantecos como si fueran parte del mismo proceso. El segundo documento, presentado en una demanda judicial de la década de 1750, nos permite analizar la manera en que los intereses colectivos refractaban los eventos de la conquista para constituir una serie de memorias encadenadas que conformaban la identidad zapoteca colonial.
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In 1704-05, after one of the most ambitious campaigns against “idolatry” in the colonial Americas, Northern Zapotec communities in Villa Alta, Oaxaca, surrendered 102 calendrical manuals and four ritual song compilations. This... more
In 1704-05, after one of the most ambitious campaigns against “idolatry” in the colonial Americas, Northern Zapotec communities in Villa Alta, Oaxaca, surrendered 102 calendrical manuals and four ritual song compilations. This presentation, based on the first comprehensive survey of these songs and manuals, presents new insights regarding Mesoamerican cosmology and the 260-day divinatory count. It also examines multiple connections between cosmological beliefs and ritual protocols in this corpus, and sections from two pre-Columbian codices in the Borgia group: Fejérváry-Mayer 1, and Borgia 29-32. This talk surveys a Zapotec cosmological theory that linked the 260-day count with a three-tiered cosmos, analyzes parallels between Borgia images and Zapotec cosmogonic events, notes similarly structured ritual protocols in the Zapotec corpus and the Borgia, and concludes with a colonial ancestor summoning protocol that references the imagery of Classic-Period Zapotec monuments.
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https://nyu.zoom.us/webinar/register/WN_4G0xLnqwRVC6nKPrK0BK3w
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https://nyu.zoom.us/webinar/register/WN_4G0xLnqwRVC6nKPrK0BK3w
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Presentación del dossier monográfico “La imagen de las religiones indígenas en crónicas novohispanas. Nuevos caminos a transitar” Studi e Materiali Storia delle Religioni, 86 (2) 2020. Lunes 20 de septiembre 2021 - 18 HS (Italia) – 11 HS... more
Presentación del dossier monográfico “La imagen de las religiones indígenas en crónicas novohispanas. Nuevos caminos a transitar” Studi e Materiali Storia delle Religioni, 86 (2) 2020. Lunes 20 de septiembre 2021 - 18 HS (Italia) – 11 HS (México).
Saludos institucionales de Alessandro Saggioro (Editor de la revista SMSR - Sapienza Università di Roma)
Presentadores: Alessandro Lupo (Dipartimento di Storia, Antropologia, Religioni, Arti, Spettacolo, Sapienza Università di Roma), y Guilhem Olivier (Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, UNAM).
Saludos institucionales de Alessandro Saggioro (Editor de la revista SMSR - Sapienza Università di Roma)
Presentadores: Alessandro Lupo (Dipartimento di Storia, Antropologia, Religioni, Arti, Spettacolo, Sapienza Università di Roma), y Guilhem Olivier (Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, UNAM).
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Rethinking Zapotec Time is an enormous accomplishment [that] will become an important element of graduate education, and a building block for new research ... David Tavárez, a formidable historian and linguist of colonial-era Zapotec and... more
Rethinking Zapotec Time is an enormous accomplishment [that] will become an important element of graduate education, and a building block for new research ... David Tavárez, a formidable historian and linguist of colonial-era Zapotec and Nahuatl, brings us a book that is informed by two decades of work [which] contributes to ongoing discussions about the interaction of missionary Catholicism with traditional indigenous beliefs.
Research Interests: Religion, Christianity, History, Latin American Studies, Anthropology, and 12 moreIndigenous Studies, Languages and Linguistics, Latin American and Caribbean History, Colonialism, Nahuatl, Latin American Colonial Literature, Mesoamerican Ethnohistory, Evangelism, Mesoamerican Religion, Colonial Latin American History, Zapotec, and Dominican Order
by Ethelia Ruiz Medrano
Research Interests: Religion, History, Latin American Studies, Anthropology, Indigenous Studies, and 14 moreLatin American and Caribbean History, Ritual, Resistance (Social), Indigenous Knowledge, Nahuatl, Dominican History, Mesoamerica, Calendars, Mesoamerican Religion, Colonial Latin American History, Zapotec, Codex Borgia, New Evangelization, and Mexican Codices
by Guillaume Candela
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by Néstor Quiroa
Research Interests: Religion, Latin American Studies, Latin American and Caribbean History, Mexican Studies, Colonialism, and 12 moreFranciscan Studies, Nahuatl, Maya History, Dominican History, Peruvian History, K'iche'an Mayan Languages and Cultures, Quechua, Zapotec, Yucatec Maya, Tupi-Guarani, Quiche, and LIMA PERU
by Carlos Silva
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by Bérénice Gaillemin
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by Erika R. Hosselkus
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by Néstor Quiroa
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by Owen Jones
by Sarah Cline
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by Molly Bassett
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by Nora E. Jaffary
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by Frances Berdan
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por Elisa Frühauf García
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por José Romero Barrón
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Michael Palencia-Roth
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Colonial Latin American Review
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Abstract Por lo tanto, aunque sería sumamente difícil esperar que el conciso y cuidadosamente argumentado libro de Yannakakis fuera un estudio absolutamente innovador, este volumen muestra las posibilidades historiográficas latentes en... more
Abstract Por lo tanto, aunque sería sumamente difícil esperar que el conciso y cuidadosamente argumentado libro de Yannakakis fuera un estudio absolutamente innovador, este volumen muestra las posibilidades historiográficas latentes en las fuentes sobre Villa Alta desde una perspectiva relativamente novedosa: la historia social y cultural de los mediadores indígenas y de sus prácticas sociopolíticas en la América colonial.
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This article proposes the idea of refracting memories to understand the transformation of historical memory of Mesoamerican communities in the 17th and 18th centuries. This process is illustrated through the analysis of divinatory manuals... more
This article proposes the idea of refracting memories to understand the transformation of historical memory of Mesoamerican communities in the 17th and 18th centuries. This process is illustrated through the analysis of divinatory manuals that contained references to the arrival of Spanish, and through the Probanza of Yelabichi, a Northern Zapotec text that narrates the military and spiritual conquests and the ethnogenesis of Zapotecs, Mixes, and Chinantecs, as if they were part of the same process. The second document, introduced in a lawsuit in the 1750s, allows us to analyze how collective interests refracted the events of the conquest to form a series of enchained memories that shaped colonial Zapotec identity.
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Información del artículo Letras clandestinas, textos toledanos, colaboraciones lícitas: la producción textual de los intelectuales nahuas y zapotecos en el siglo XVII.
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... ejecución del canto. estas sílabas son variables, pero incluyen patrones recurrentes en los que predominan las semivocales “w” o “y” —ohuia, ohuaya; huee, haa; aya, ayao; ohuaye yia icha aha aya, etcétera—. en algunas ...
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RefDoc Refdoc est un service / is powered by. ...
Latin America currently holds a marginal position in global consciousness, ignored if not utterly “forgotten,” just as it experiences what he sees as a remarkable recovery from the legacy of debt, drugs, and dictatorship. A reporter for... more
Latin America currently holds a marginal position in global consciousness, ignored if not utterly “forgotten,” just as it experiences what he sees as a remarkable recovery from the legacy of debt, drugs, and dictatorship. A reporter for the British magazine The Economist, Reid has lived in and reported from Latin America for many years. He brings to the book much firsthand experience, numerous entertaining anecdotes, and not a few insights about the region. Early in the book he promises to “trespass” on the territory of academic ...
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Research Interests: Anthropology, Epistemology, Linguistic Anthropology, Genre, Magic, and 15 moreMorphology, Authority, Mimicry, Field, Fox, False Consciousness, Anthropology of Religion, Hill, M, E, C, L, G, J, and A
Gananath Obeyesekere makes an important contribution to the study of Indigenous anthropophagy with this ''deconstructive-restorative''ethnohistory that aims to further debunk the myth of the savage cannibal. 1 Cannibal... more
Gananath Obeyesekere makes an important contribution to the study of Indigenous anthropophagy with this ''deconstructive-restorative''ethnohistory that aims to further debunk the myth of the savage cannibal. 1 Cannibal Talk is a collection of essays on cannibalism and human sacrifice, an area in which Obeyesekere has published widely in recent years; he has made cannibal studies part of his groundbreaking deconstructive work, which attempts to ''restore the self-worth and integrity of a people defined as 'savage'''(265).
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Page 1. Cbimalpabin's Conquest A Nahua Historians Rewriting of Francisco Lopez de Gomaras La mquislade Mexico Edited and TiansJaledbj Susan Schroeder Anne J. Cruz Cristian Haa-de-ta-Carrera David B Wrez... more
Page 1. Cbimalpabin's Conquest A Nahua Historians Rewriting of Francisco Lopez de Gomaras La mquislade Mexico Edited and TiansJaledbj Susan Schroeder Anne J. Cruz Cristian Haa-de-ta-Carrera David B Wrez Page 2. Chimalpahin's Conquest Page 3. ...
Research Interests: Religion, History, Ethnohistory, Cultural Studies, Anthropology, and 15 moreMexican Studies, Colonialism, Mexico History, Nahuatl, History of Colonial Mexico, Empire, Latin American Colonial Literature, Imperialism, Zapotec, Language Studies, Nahuas, Historical Studies, Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, Francisco López De Gómara, and Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin
Castañeda de la Paz and Oudijk have been forced to retract not once, but twice (in 2018 and 2019) an utterly false and misleading post that addressed my work, due to multiple ethical violations. Since my response reached its objective, I... more
Castañeda de la Paz and Oudijk have been forced to retract not once, but twice (in 2018 and 2019) an utterly false and misleading post that addressed my work, due to multiple ethical violations. Since my response reached its objective, I decided to suspend it, for the time being.
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En dos ocasiones distintas (2018 y 2019), el texto falso y engañoso al que respondí fue retractado por sus autores, Castañeda de la Paz y Oudijk, ya que incurrió en múltiples violaciones a la ética profesional. Por lo tanto, y para evitar... more
En dos ocasiones distintas (2018 y 2019), el texto falso y engañoso al que respondí fue retractado por sus autores, Castañeda de la Paz y Oudijk, ya que incurrió en múltiples violaciones a la ética profesional. Por lo tanto, y para evitar la dispersión de tales disrazones, he decidido suspender mi respuesta por el momento.