Gerald O West

In honouring both Joachim Kügler’s commitment to biblical scholarship
and to African contexts, this essay reflects on the Ujamaa Centre’s work
over more than twenty-five years with organised communities of those living with disability. The essay follows the See-Judge-Act process, so familiar to Kügler, beginning with See: the reality of those living with disability in South Africa (and further north in the continent). The essay then turns to actual biblical text (Judge), from three different perspectives. First, I reflect on texts used against those living with disability, recognising a pervasive voice in scripture which discriminates against and stigmatises those living with disability. Second, I reflect on texts selected by those living with disability as potentially useful resources in their struggle for a full and dignified life. Third, I reflect on the kind of Bible that these two trajectories evidence, a Bible that is inherently a site of struggle with respect to disability – a disabled Bible. Fourth, the essay also reflects on the pervasive interlocking theological system of retribution that stigmatises, discriminates, and condemns those living with disability, alongside their HIV-positive, unemployed, and queer compatriots. Finally, the Act component of the essay reflects on the ongoing work of the Ujamaa Centre in this area and the kinds of actions particular organised groups of people living with disability take up.

While Volume I of Health-Promoting Churches provides health education on several health issues, including suggestions for practical actions, and Volume II provides a framework for establishing programmatically strong health promotion ministries, this third volume accompanies churches in their in-depth reflection on difficult health. issues. The WCC has previously used the Contextual Bible Study methodology to good effect in helping churches address various challenging issues.1 The participatory way in which this manual was developed has ensured that various voices and experiences are represented, enriching the publication for a global audience. These contextual Bible studies will accompany churches into deeper reflection on often difficult health issues in the context of the Ecumenical Global Health Strategy, the health-related expression of WCC’s Pilgrimage of Justice and Peace.

In this article we reflect on a participatory process in which Bible study resources have been constructed to address the realities of health and healing around the world. The project on which our article reflects was initiated by the Health and Healing Programme of the World Council of Churches. Contextual Bible study is a powerful tool for accompanying and equipping local congregations to re-frame their faith in these changing global and local contexts.

It was clear in the struggle against apartheid that there was
nothing about the race-based system of ‘separate development’
that should be salvaged. Apartheid as a system must be
abolished; there was no room for apartheid being reformed.
“Phansi apartheid! Phansi!” meant precisely this. Should the
same be said about patriarchy? Does “Phansi patriarchy!
Phansi” mean that patriarchy as a system must be abolished?

Contextual Bible Study as it has developed within the Ujamaa Centre for Community Development and Research over the past thirty years has been focussed on systemic change. Contextual Bible Study (CBS) has
been formed in the intersections of South African Contextual Theology, South African Black Theology, and African Women’s Theology. What is common to these forms of African theology is that they are all committed
to systemic or structural analysis and change. What the South African Kairos Document (Kairos 1985) referred to as “Church Theology” has its focus on individual and personal change, while what the Kairos Document
referred to as “Prophetic Theology” has its focus on structural or systemic change. CBS Prophetic Theology, but it is a form of Prophetic Theology that is produced by collaboration between ordinary African Christians and
socially engaged African biblical scholars and theologians. It is how Prophetic Theology is produced that makes it Prophetic Theology. In this essay,
which is dedicated to the life and work of one of the champions of Contextual Bible Study, Nyambura J. Njoroge, I will discuss the significance of ‘how’ theology is done, and why the process of doing Prophetic
Theology offers resources for forms of interpretive resilience.

Genesis is the starting point for an African queer biblical trajectory in this
article. Locating queer African bodies as subjects of interpretation of the
Bible, this article demonstrates how the book of Genesis has been used
within actual African contexts to recognize a queer trajectory in scripture.
The Bible, we argue, is a site of struggle, with contending trajectories/
voices, some of which are queer, particularly when read from LGBTIQA+
African social locations.

This article attempts to discern an economic narrative remnant amidst the dominant ethnoreligious narrative concerning the division of the united monarchy. Historical-critical comparison of the MT and LXX highlights the source-critical dimensions of the stories of the division of the united monarchy after the death of Solomon. This is clearly a moment of ideotheological contestation, as the four variant accounts demonstrate. However, within each of the larger ‘division of the kingdom’ narratives, there is an economic narrative remnant. The focus of this article is on identifying and delimiting this economic narrative remnant within
each of the two variant accounts in the MT and the two variant accounts in the LXX. Having identified these four variant narratives, literary-narrative analysis is used in order to delimit an economic narrative remnant (1 Ki 12:1–18, 2 Chr 10:1–18, 3 Reigns 12:1–18, and 3 Reigns 12:24p-t), with a special emphasis on 3 Reigns 12:24p-t. The article then turns to a
preliminary socio-historical ideo-theological analysis of 3 Reigns 12:24p-t, in order tosituate this variant remnant socio-historically. Finally, the article argues that this particular economic-oriented remnant narrative (3 Reigns 12;24p-t) provides critical resources with which to engage aspects of South Africa’s contemporary post-colonial economic struggle.

In a recent article I characterised the biblical hermeneutics of James H. Cone as a hermeneutic of radical reception and the biblical hermeneutics of Itumeleng Mosala as a hermeneutic of radical production. In this article I argue that though a hermeneutic of reception is the distinctive feature of African biblical hermeneutics, a hermeneutic of production is a particular and distinct contribution by South African biblical scholarship to African biblical scholarship. The article then reflects on how these two hermeneutics might intersect through the inclusion of ordinary African readers of the Bible in both the reception process and in a collaborative analysis of the contested sites of the Bible's production.

In my recent book, The Stolen Bible: From Tool of Imperialism to African Icon (2016), I chart the reception of the Bible by Africans from its arrival in the ships of imperial Holland (1652) through the missionary-colonial era and apartheid to present day South Africa where the Bible is now an African artefact. One of the chapters in the book deals with how the Bible has been interpreted in South African Black Theology and South African Contextual Theology. Central to each of these overlapping forms of South African liberation theology are related notions of the Bible as a site of struggle. In the final chapter of the book I reflect on the usefulness of this notion in post-apartheid South Africa.

As I have reflected on work that was done during the 1980-90s in South African Black Theology and South African Contextual Theology I have become more and more sure that the notion of the Bible as ‘a site of struggle’ is crucial to our contemporary South African context. I have begun, therefore, to work on a series of papers, articles, and essays that will be reworked into a book. The De Carle Distinguished Lectureship at the University of Otago gives me an opportunity to explore the shape of such a book. The book will be published internationally by Brill (Leiden, the Netherlands) and in South Africa by Cluster Publications.

“The Bible as a site of struggle” allows me to bring my biblical scholarship work and my community-based activist work together. The Ujamaa Centre for Community Development and Research, established in the late 1980s as part of the struggle against apartheid, is the site of much of my work, intersecting the academy and the community. After nearly thirty years of work with the Ujamaa Centre I have recognised more clearly what it is that our work with the Bible offers to local communities of the poor and marginalised. Central to what we offer is a participatory praxis in which we work with the Bible as ‘a site of struggle’ – of multiple, often contending ideo-theological voices. Working with a Bible that is ‘a site of struggle’ offers forms of interpretive resilience to poor and marginalised communities who are often stigmatised and victimised by dominant monovocal appropriations of the Bible. In this lecture series I will reflect on both the academic and community dimensions of this work.

What sense does it make to speak of "indigenous exegesis"? In some sense this article is an exegesis of this question and this phrase. While acknowledging the presence and importance ٠٢ ordinary African "readers" of the Bible in the formation of African biblical scholarship, African biblical scholarship has said very little about the textual interpretative interests of ordinary African "readers" and the place of these inte^retatlve interests in the academy. This article addresses and redresses this anomaly, arguing that it does make sense to speak ٠٢ "indigenous exegesis" and that indigenous exegesis does have a place in the academy alongside the more familiar forms ٠٢ exegesis.

Using the notion of ‘entanglement’ this article analyses two
distinctive features of African biblical scholarship. The first form
of entanglement is African biblical scholarship’s entanglement
with the colonial realities that brought the Bible to Sub-Saharan
Africa. The second form of entanglement is an intentional
ideo-theological dialogue between African contexts and biblical
texts. African biblical scholarship is only accountable, this article
argues, in so far as it engages directly with these forms of
entanglement.

The Stolen Bible tells the story of how Southern Africans have interacted with the Bible from its arrival in Dutch imperial ships in the mid-1600s through to contemporary post-apartheid South Africa.
The Stolen Bible emphasises African agency and distinguishes between African receptions of the Bible and African receptions of missionary-colonial Christianity.
Through a series of detailed historical, geographical, and hermeneutical case-studies the book analyses Southern African receptions of the Bible, including the earliest African encounters with the Bible, the translation of the Bible into an African language, the appropriation of the Bible by African Independent Churches, the use of the Bible in the
Black liberation struggle, and the ways in which the Bible is embodied in the lives of ordinary Africans.

This article analyses the formative period of a particular form of contextual theology, South African Contextual Bible Study (CBS), from 1988–1993. This form of contextual theology is located within the range of South African contextual theologies, including specifically the Institute for Contextual Theology’s Contextual Theology and South African Black Theology. CBS receives its shape from these related contextual theologies but has a particular emphasis on biblical studies, recognising the importance of both the role of the socially engaged biblical scholar and the relevance of biblical studies method to contextual theology. The significance of this historical analysis is that it documents and analyses the formative period of what has become an internationally recognised form of contextual biblical studies and theology.

The Stolen Bible analyses Southern African receptions of the Bible from its arrival in imperial Dutch ships in the mid-1600s through to the post-apartheid period of South African democracy, reflecting on how a tool of imperialism becomes an African icon.

The Stolen Bible analyses Southern African receptions of the Bible from its arrival in imperial Dutch ships in the mid-1600s through to the post-apartheid period of South African democracy, reflecting on how a tool of imperialism becomes an African icon.

The Stolen Bible analyses Southern African receptions of the Bible from its arrival in imperial Dutch ships in the mid-1600s through to the post-apartheid period of South African democracy, reflecting on how a tool of imperialism becomes an African icon.

This article attempts to discern an economic narrative remnant amidst the dominant ethno-religious narrative concerning the division of the united monarchy. Historical-critical comparison of the MT and LXX highlights the source-critical dimensions of the stories of the division of the united monarchy after the death of Solomon. This is clearly a moment of ideo-theological contestation, as the four variant accounts demonstrate. However, within each of the larger ‘division of the kingdom’ narratives, there is an economic narrative remnant. The focus of this article is on identifying and delimiting this economic narrative remnant within each of the two variant accounts in the MT and the two variant accounts in the LXX. Having identified these four variant narratives, literary-narrative analysis is used in order to delimit an economic narrative remnant (1 Ki 12:1–18, 2 Chr 10:1–18, 3 Reigns 12:1–18, and 3 Reigns 24:12p-t), with a special emphasis on 3 Reigns 24:12p-t. The article then t...

The Stolen Bible analyses Southern African receptions of the Bible from its arrival in imperial Dutch ships in the mid-1600s through to the post-apartheid period of South African democracy, reflecting on how a tool of imperialism becomes an African icon.

The Stolen Bible analyses Southern African receptions of the Bible from its arrival in imperial Dutch ships in the mid-1600s through to the post-apartheid period of South African democracy, reflecting on how a tool of imperialism becomes an African icon.

Abstract This article analyses theological contestation in the work of Trevor Makhoba, focusing on his work on HIV and AIDS. The article locates Makhoba's work within the dominant theological orientation concerning HIV and AIDS, namely that HIV and AIDS are a punishment from God and/or the ancestors. The article argues that while Makhoba—as both social commentator and religious prophet—inhabits this theological perspective, his work interrogates and contends with this dominant theological orientation. Makhoba dares to question not only the dominant theology, but also God. In so doing, he mediates between retribution and redemption.

Prior to the translation of the Bible in Africa, Africans were already engaging with the Bible, initially as an iconic object of power and then as an aural object. In the first section of this article I attempt to detect elements of the early reception of the Bible among the BaTlhaping people. The second section of the article then analyses the theology that lies behind Bible translation, for rendering the Bible into local vernaculars is not a selfevident impulse. The translation of the Bible into local languages must be understood as an as pect of a larger theological project. Finally, the third section of the article reflects on the capacity of the Bible 'to speak for itself', arguing that once the Bible has been translated into a local language it slips, at least partially, out of the grasp of those who translated it.

In this profile we discuss the reading practice of the Ujamaa Centre, a project that uses biblical and theological resources for social transformation. Central to our reading practice is collaboration between socially engaged biblical scholars and ‘readers’ of the Bible in poor, working-class, and marginalised communities. One of the biblical texts we have collaboratively read is the story of Tamar, one of David's daughters, who is brutally raped by her brother, Amnon. This text, as the profile demonstrates, has had a profound impact in faith-based communities, providing resources for resisting abuse and for articulating and owning local life-giving theologies.

Research has shown that young African women are one of the key populations that is most at risk to HIV infection. Indications are that these young women are increasingly engaging in age-disparate ‘sugar daddy’ relationships which is increasing their vulnerability. This article follows the See-Judge-Act methodology, beginning with an analysis of these age-disparate sexual relationships in southern Africa in the context of HIV. The article then analyses a religious resource. Contextual Bible Study, which has the capacity to provide resources for engagement with age-disparate sexual relationships by young African women. A narrative analysis of the biblical book of Ruth is used as a part of this religious resource. The third part of the article considers how this religious resource might contribute to social change in the context of HIV vulnerability.

Using the notion of ‘entanglement’ this article analyses two distinctive features of African biblical scholarship. The first form of entanglement is African biblical scholarship’s entanglement with the colonial realities that brought the Bible to Sub-Saharan Africa. The second form of entanglement is an intentional ideo-theological dialogue between African contexts and biblical texts. African biblical scholarship is only accountable, this article argues, in so far as it engages directly with these forms of entanglement.

There is a long history of collaboration between “popular” or “contextual” forms of biblical interpretation between Brazil and South Africa, going back into the early 1980’s. Though there are significant differences between these forms of Bible “reading”, there are values and processes that cohere across these contexts, providing an integrity to such forms of Bible reading. This article reflects on the values and processes that may be discerned across the Brazilian and South African interpretive practices after more than thirty years of conversation across these contexts.

There is general agreement among those who cast an analytical eye on African biblical scholarship that it is dominated by what has been called 'the comparative paradigm'. This chapter interrogates the comparative paradigm, in an attempt both to understand what African biblical scholars are up to and to understand the similarities and differences between what they do and what Euro-American colleagues do. It makes a heuristic distinction between life interests and interpretive interests in order to characterise African biblical scholarship. The chapter presents guiding questions for the interrogation of the comparative paradigm: why dialogue with the Bible; and what are the dimensions of the dialogue with the Bible. African biblical scholarship is the closest connection to the dominant forms of biblical scholarship in the Euro-American tradition.Keywords: African biblical scholarship; comparative paradigm; Euro-American scholarship

The Stolen Bible analyses Southern African receptions of the Bible from its arrival in imperial Dutch ships in the mid-1600s through to the post-apartheid period of South African democracy, reflecting on how a tool of imperialism becomes an African icon.

The Stolen Bible analyses Southern African receptions of the Bible from its arrival in imperial Dutch ships in the mid-1600s through to the post-apartheid period of South African democracy, reflecting on how a tool of imperialism becomes an African icon.

The Stolen Bible analyses Southern African receptions of the Bible from its arrival in imperial Dutch ships in the mid-1600s through to the post-apartheid period of South African democracy, reflecting on how a tool of imperialism becomes an African icon.

The Stolen Bible analyses Southern African receptions of the Bible from its arrival in imperial Dutch ships in the mid-1600s through to the post-apartheid period of South African democracy, reflecting on how a tool of imperialism becomes an African icon.

The Stolen Bible analyses Southern African receptions of the Bible from its arrival in imperial Dutch ships in the mid-1600s through to the post-apartheid period of South African democracy, reflecting on how a tool of imperialism becomes an African icon.

The Stolen Bible analyses Southern African receptions of the Bible from its arrival in imperial Dutch ships in the mid-1600s through to the post-apartheid period of South African democracy, reflecting on how a tool of imperialism becomes an African icon.

From the time of the Reformation, the Bible has always been among the primary sources for Anglicanism. Through a close study of biblical hermeneutics, this chapter reflects on how ‘scripture’ has been located among the other primary sources, tradition, and reason, at various stages and in different places within Anglican history. The chapter then goes on to argue that context ought to be considered a fourth primary source for Anglicanism. Drawing on postcolonial Anglican biblical interpretation and the experience of various stages of imperial expansion, particularly from a Southern African Anglican context, the chapter analyses how context reconfigures the other three primary sources.

What sense does it make to speak of indigenous exegesis? In some sense this article is an exegesis of this question and this phrase. While acknowledging the presence and importance of ordinary African readers of the Bible in the formation of African biblical scholarship, African biblical scholarship has said very little about the textual interpretative interests of ordinary African readers and the place of these interpretative interests in the academy. This article addresses and redresses this anomaly, arguing that it does make sense to speak of indigenous exegesis and that indigenous exegesis does have a place in the academy alongside the more familiar forms of exegesis.

Isaiah Shembe is a significant figure in African biblical hermeneutics as he represents the first generation of African interpreters of the Bible in southern Africa. Shembe's case is particularly informative in that he was relatively independent of missionary formation. Though his biblical hermeneutic does draw on missionary discourse, it also participates in the discourse of Zulu traditional religion and culture, and the discourse of colonial encounter and conflict in the early 1900s. From these three discourses Shembe was to shape his own discourse. This article examines Shembe's use of the Bible in his construction of a particular form of African Christianity. The focus of the article is Shembe's teaching on adultery. Central to Shembe's reconstruction of community in Ibandla lamaNazaretha is his teaching on adultery, much of which is shaped by his interpretation of biblical texts.

Despite the substantial interest in postcolonialism and postcolonial biblical criticism in many parts of the world, (South) African biblical scholarship has been cautious in its response. This article attempts to understand this reluctance, recognising that some of the unfamiliar feel of the discourse stems from the dominance of diasporal sites in its ongoing theorisation, some from its tendency to reify, commodify, and consume anything home-grown and local, some from its failure to envisage a clear liberation project, and some from the way in which postcolonial analysis has been projected back into ancient biblical contexts, and in so doing diminishing current contexts of actual postcolonial contestation.

African biblical scholarship has achieved a substantial self-consciousness consciousness as a discipline on the African continent, and yet there has been little explicit reflection on the vocation of the African biblical scholar. This article situates itself among the many currents that might be said to characterise African biblical scholarship, examining how each of these currents makes particular demands on the African biblical scholar. Adopting a somewhat autobiographical stance, but risking also generalisations, the article reflects on the vocation of an African biblical scholar. Recognising the particular socio-historical contexts of South African biblical scholarship, the article begins with the story of a white male English-speaking South African biblical scholar situating himself within the broader South African and African scholarly terrain. From this specific social location, the article broadens out to examine the theoretical frames that shape the vocation of the African biblical scholar, to interrogate the accountability the African biblical scholar has to his / her local community and the responsibility she / he has towards the discipline of biblical studies, to analyse the relationship between criticality and faith, and to reflect on how all of this impacts on the pedagogy of the African biblical scholar.

Liberationist hermeneutics is primarily a way of reading which is the product of late twentieth-century political theology. Liberation theology is known from scholarly books and articles but has its roots in the Basic Christian Communities. The community setting means an avoidance of a narrowly individualist religious reading. Theology is not just a matter of abstract reflection, but reflection on understandings which are based on an active involvement. Christianity lives by the norm of the reign of God in the still unrealized future of creation, not by a fixed, completed past. Radford Ruether's hermeneutical model has many affinities with Clodovis Bof's correspondence of relationships model. Historical study enables the reader to explore hitherto neglected corners of the Bible using a method which reflects all that is best in what Hans-Georg Gadamer has illuminated about the hermeneutical basis of research in the humanities.

Introduction The image of two walking together, invoked by the Trinity Institute as one of its themes for its conference on "Reading Scripture through Other Eyes," resonates with the Contextual Bible Study movement. The work of the Bible movement in Brazil, coordinated and facilitated by the Centro de Estudos Biblicos (CEBI), draws directly on the image of the two disciples in Luke 24:13-35 who are making their way after the death of Jesus from Jerusalem to the village of Emmaus. The narrator tells us that they were "talking with each other" as they walked. CEBI uses this story as an example of "popular education" in their programmatic book The Walk to Emmaus.1 Like so much of CEBIs work, the idea of using this biblical story as a programmatic resource and the details of the contextual Bible reading methodology that this story demonstrated emerged from a communal process. During a workshop in Sao Paulo in August 1991 contextual Bible reading practitioners met together, "examined the theory of popular education, clarified concepts and engaged in extensive discussions." One of the fruits of these discussions was the recognition of "the similarities that we found between the text of Luke 24:13-35 and the issues of popular education." The workshop reflections on diese similarities were then written up by Carlos Dreher, who drew upon "many other experiences" and experimented with the emerging methodological framework, reworking it as he went along. In introducing the book he makes it clear that his contribution is part of a larger movement and that this contextual Bible reading "method" is "that which we do along the way"2; method is not something fixed but something that is "done" as part of the process of action and reflection, as one moves from practice to theory, and then from theory to practice, and then from practice to theory, in an endless cycle of praxis. Dreher discerns a seven-step process in CEBIs Contextual Bible Study method, each of which is echoed in the story of the walk to Emmaus. The method begins with a recognition of "the culture of silence" which encompasses these disciples and so many of the oppressed, then shifts to the role of Jesus or the contemporary facilitator who draws near, walks together with the oppressed, listens to their perspective, asks questions, establishes trust, equalizes power relations, and enters into a analogical process of "speaking with." The third step in the methodology emphasizes the disciples' knowledge, their own analysis of reality, taking the knowledge of the oppressed as the starting point and "ground" of conversation. The fourth step is the recognition of the role of Jesus as a "popular educator," who engages in a re-reading of Scripture together with the disciples, adopting a "pedagogical posture" that interrogates both the received scriptural tradition and local understandings of reality in a dialogical and collaborative manner.3 Dreher s exploration of this fourth step is rich and complex, recognizing both its pivotal role in the contextual Bible reading process and its controversial dimensions. How much of a role the CEBItrained pedagogue plays depends on how One understands domination and resistance, and to what extent the oppressed have become ideologically "captivated" by the ideologies of the dominant.4 The fifth step acknowledges the importance of dialogical and collaborative practice in opening the eyes of the disciples and the oppressed. Re-reading Scripture is an element in this practice, but shared activity, including ritual activity like die Eucharist, and especially collaborative work, is the vital component for tran$formation and empowerment to take place. The sixth step involves "the courage to disappear," as Jesus does and as the CEBI-trained animator must, for we must believe that disciples and the oppressed generally "are capable of taking their history into their own hands." "Anything else," argues Dreher, "would be to educate for dependence. …

There are four main strands of African liberation theologies and though they share important similarities, each has made a distinctive contribution. The earliest form, emerging alongside missionary and colonial incursions into Africa has been termed inculturation liberation theology, or simply African theology. Here the emphasis is on contending with the missionary-colonial denigration of African religion and culture. The second form, common to southern Africa, including Tanzania and South Africa in particular, is Black theology, or simply liberation theology (following the Latin American designation) where the emphasis is on the political and economic (and racial in the case of South Africa) dimensions of the struggle against varying forms of colonialism. A distinctive feature of this form is a deep sense of the ambiguity of both the Bible and Christianity, seeing in each the capacity for domination and liberation. This distinctive feature is a key feature of the third strand, African feminist theology. Emerging out of both African theology and Black theology, it shares elements of their social analysis, but emphasises gender. The fourth form is relatively new and yet also very old. Postcolonial theologies have taken some time to emerge as a distinctive form in African contexts, but are slowly finding a place alongside the other three. This strand focuses on matters of identity and empire. Though each of these strands makes its own distinctive contribution, the liberation of South Africa in 1994 has ushered in significant engagement across these strands, weaving them together in new and useful ways.

This chapter analyses how and with what we connect biblical text and local present context in the process of interpretation. What has emerged has been recognition that it is useful to identify a third pole in the interpretive process besides the poles of context and text. This third pole is usually suppressed in favour of a bi-polar model of interpretation. However, identifying a third pole helps us to be honest about the reader and his/ her ideo-theological work that goes on in the interpretive act. The ongoing process of re-reading scripture from within our social locations also constantly reconstitutes our ideo-theological orientation. Biblical scholarship does not always cooperate with socially engaged biblical scholars. The exile is a particularly good example at this moment in (South) Africas history.Keywords: African biblical scholarship; exile; ideo-theological orientation; post-colonial south africa; third pole

This article explores how religion possesses and is possessed by Africans. It does this by recognising both the power of religion to configure and of Africans as agents who reconfigure what they encounter in their African contexts. The central question of this article is how placing African agency and context in the forefront reconfigures talk of Islam and Christianity in Africa. The question is taken up through an analysis of two African religious leaders, Shaykh Ahmadu Bamba from West Africa and Isaiah Shembe from South Africa.