- Book History, Academic Libraries, History of the Book, Communication Of Memory In Archives, Libraries And Museums, Book History (History), Libraries, and 58 moreMedieval manuscripts & early printed books; history of libraries; visual arts & digital media, History Of Rare Book Libraries, Book trade History, Information Science, Digital Era, Library and Archival Science, Web 2.0, Web 3.0, Social Media, Digital Preservation, E-Government, Faith, Early Modern Italy, Early Modern economic and social history, Early Modern England, Early Modern Era, Studies On Men And Masculinity, History, Cultural History, Social History, Military History, Early Modern History, Urban History, Gender History, Ottoman History, History and Memory, Historical Anthropology, Historical Sociology, Masculinity, Global History, Early modern Ottoman History, Early Modern France, Early Modern Catholicism, Medieval Nobility, Early Modern Body, Early Modern Americas, Religious Conversion and Converts in the Early Modern Mediterranean context, Cultural Intermediaries In The Early Modern Mediterranean, European Catholicism, Knights Templar, History of Roman Catholicism, Nobility, Elites, Aristocracy, Court history, Anthropology of the Mediterranean, Power and authority in the Early Modern period, Victorian Masculinity, History of Childhood and Youth, Anthropology of Children and Childhood, Sociology of Children and Childhood, Historical Theology, Sociology of Religion, European History, Order of Malta, 16the century Mediterranean, 17th Century Mediterranean, and Masculinity and Gender Studiesedit
- My academic training in both history and librarianship has enabled me to combine these and to focus on aspects variou... moreMy academic training in both history and librarianship has enabled me to combine these and to focus on aspects various aspects relating to the history of communication in general and of archival and print media in particular. I would welcome any suggestions for joint collaboration with fellow researchers interested in these or related areas.
Between 2008-13 I was Head of Department of Library of Archive Sciences at the University of Malta. In 2013 I was appointed chairman of Malta's National Archives Council, the supreme body regulating archives on the island.
I have been conducting research in original archival sources since the 1980s and have published extensively and I am considered as the main authority of the history of printing and its dissemination in Malta.
My main focus has been on the various channels of communication: written, verbal, visual and symbolic, which characterised the early modern period. The role of printed and manuscript matter, verbal communication between and within Mediterranean communities and the role of art, entertainment and other forms of public display have all received my research attention, as reflected in my publications. Modes of communication and the messages they conveyed moulded national identities. The role of prohibited literature, of subversive talk and of the visual displays of protest against the traditional power-holders during the period stood in stark contrast with the imposition of religious, state and social conformity, again through various communicative media.
Locally, I have carried out years of research utilising the archive of the Inquisition, that of the Order of St John and of the Magna Curia Castellania. I have also researched regularly in vital archival collections abroad, particularly the Archivio Segreto Vaticano; the Biblioteca Vaticana holdings, the Archivio della Congregazione di Propaganda Fide and that of the Roman Inquisition, now the Archivio Storico della Congregazione Per la Dottrina della Fede and the archive of the Order of St John in Rome and in the UK.
Conferences and projects:
I have organised and participated various seminars, conferences and lectures both in Malta and abroad and which dealt with various early modern history themes.
I have coordinated a number of research-related projects. Between 1993 and 1997 I was responsible for preparing the required volume by volume metadata for the microfilming the entire archive of the Order of St John, held at the National Library of Malta. This was carried out in collaboration with the Hill Monastic Manuscript Library of Minnesota, USA. As a result of this project the almost 6,800- volume archive of the Order of St John has been made available made accessible for research, while also ensuring the preservation of its content for posterity.
Between 2003 and 2005 I was responsible for the detailed description of the Albert Ganado cartographic collection. This involved the detailed description of each of the over 500 Malta or Malta-related printed and manuscript maps in the Ganado collection prior to its transfer to the national collection.
The historical importance of this collection, which spans the 16th to the 19th centuries, cannot be overestimated. A vast amount of data was thus recorded (pertaining to the location and survival/spread of Maltese and Gozitan towns and villages, the evolving road network, defence projects and the utilisation of harbours and bays, among other) and is now being made accessible for research purposes.
Phone: +356 23402411
Address: Dept of Library Information & Archive Sciences, Room 501
Email: william.zammit@um.edu.mtedit
Research Interests:
A discussion of various examples of previously unknown maps, plans and illustrations pertaining to Malta between the 17th and 18th centuries.
Research Interests:
Articles in Mill-Parlament: Periodical issued by the Office of the Speaker, since 2017 to date as follows: (2017). Issue 17: ‘Printed Ephemera about Politics in Malta: Part I’, pp. 24-5. (2017). Issue 18: ‘Printed Ephemera about Politics... more
Articles in Mill-Parlament: Periodical issued by the Office of the Speaker, since 2017 to date as follows:
(2017). Issue 17: ‘Printed Ephemera about Politics in Malta: Part I’, pp. 24-5.
(2017). Issue 18: ‘Printed Ephemera about Politics in Malta: Part II’, pp. 58-9.
(2018). Issue 19: ‘Students’ Protests and the Sette Giugno 1919’, pp. 42-3.
(2018). Issue 20: ‘The First Self-Government phase (1921-1930), pp. 50-1.
(2018). Issue 21: ‘The Compact between the Constitutional Party and the Labour Party, January 1926’, pp. 52-5.
(2017). Issue 17: ‘Printed Ephemera about Politics in Malta: Part I’, pp. 24-5.
(2017). Issue 18: ‘Printed Ephemera about Politics in Malta: Part II’, pp. 58-9.
(2018). Issue 19: ‘Students’ Protests and the Sette Giugno 1919’, pp. 42-3.
(2018). Issue 20: ‘The First Self-Government phase (1921-1930), pp. 50-1.
(2018). Issue 21: ‘The Compact between the Constitutional Party and the Labour Party, January 1926’, pp. 52-5.
Research Interests:
Introduction to Section 4: ‘Aspects of Maltese History’ (pp. 50–1). - Document 23: ‘The Last Will of Bishop Baldassare Cagliares in 1631’ (pp. 56–7). - Document 24: ‘The episcopal consecration of a future Pope held in Malta in 1635’ (pp.... more
Introduction to Section 4: ‘Aspects of Maltese History’ (pp. 50–1).
- Document 23: ‘The Last Will of Bishop Baldassare Cagliares in 1631’ (pp. 56–7).
- Document 24: ‘The episcopal consecration of a future Pope held in Malta in 1635’ (pp. 58–9).
- Document 25: ‘Geronimo Marulli, I natali delle religiose militie de’cavalieri Spedalieri, e Templari, e della Religione del Tempio l’ultima roina’ (Malta, 1643) (pp. 60–1).
- Document 28: ‘Parchment certificate of adherence to a Masonic Lodge in 1766’ (pp. 66-7).
- Document 29: ‘A plan of Valletta and Floriana’ (pp. 68-9).
- Document 30: ‘Request for a general imprimatur or specified publications in 1756’ (pp.70-1).
- Document 32: ‘The last Chapter General held by the Order in Malta in 1776 (pp. 74-5).
- Document 37: ‘The Conventual Church of St John elevated to the status of Co-Cathedral in 1816’ (pp. 86-7).
- Document 38: ‘Confirmation of Co-Cathedral status for St John’s in 1925’ (pp. 88-9).
- Document 23: ‘The Last Will of Bishop Baldassare Cagliares in 1631’ (pp. 56–7).
- Document 24: ‘The episcopal consecration of a future Pope held in Malta in 1635’ (pp. 58–9).
- Document 25: ‘Geronimo Marulli, I natali delle religiose militie de’cavalieri Spedalieri, e Templari, e della Religione del Tempio l’ultima roina’ (Malta, 1643) (pp. 60–1).
- Document 28: ‘Parchment certificate of adherence to a Masonic Lodge in 1766’ (pp. 66-7).
- Document 29: ‘A plan of Valletta and Floriana’ (pp. 68-9).
- Document 30: ‘Request for a general imprimatur or specified publications in 1756’ (pp.70-1).
- Document 32: ‘The last Chapter General held by the Order in Malta in 1776 (pp. 74-5).
- Document 37: ‘The Conventual Church of St John elevated to the status of Co-Cathedral in 1816’ (pp. 86-7).
- Document 38: ‘Confirmation of Co-Cathedral status for St John’s in 1925’ (pp. 88-9).
Research Interests:
A detailed analysis of the prohibition of one of the Order of St John’s most renowned histories, based on original sources in France and Italy.
Research Interests:
An examination of Malta’s National Library reveals just to what extent the collection - both where its printed and manuscript material is concerned - constitutes an important cultural asset of a European dimension.
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This publication is one of two produced by our university as its contribution to Valletta’s designation as European Capital of Culture in 2018. The paper discusses the transition from paper to digital and related issues where the Maltese... more
This publication is one of two produced by our university as its contribution to Valletta’s designation as European Capital of Culture in 2018. The paper discusses the transition from paper to digital and related issues where the Maltese printed and manuscript written heritage is concerned. A second, abridged edition of the paper was published under the title On Culture: Mapping Valletta 2018 (Vicki-Ann Cremona ed.), pp. 46–57.
Research Interests:
A study on availability of English-language literature and other published texts in the original English or in translation in 17th and 18th-century Malta. The typology, sources and dissemination of such material is discussed.
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Based on a previously unpublished description of the surrender of Malta to Napoleon in June 1798 and written by the prominent Maltese Gio. Nicolò Muscat, the paper explores the possible motivations behind this account in the context of... more
Based on a previously unpublished description of the surrender of Malta to Napoleon in June 1798 and written by the prominent Maltese Gio. Nicolò Muscat, the paper explores the possible motivations behind this account in the context of the rapidly-changing political situation in Malta.
Research Interests:
During the 19th century, the Congregation of the Holy Office, as well as that of the Index, remained vigilant over works printed in Malta and which were reported for their respective scrutiny. The first phase within the context of such... more
During the 19th century, the Congregation of the Holy Office, as well as that of the Index, remained vigilant over works printed in Malta and which were reported for their respective scrutiny. The first phase within the context of such controls was that pertaining to the publishing activity of Protestant missionary societies in Malta during the first four decades of the century. This was followed by the local publication of pro-Risorgimento and often anti-Catholic literature on the Island. Finally, the paper refers to post-1871 Maltese publications which were similarly reported to Rome.
Paper published 'Itinerari del Libro nella Storia: Per Anna Giulia Cavagna' (Bologna, 2017 pp. 215-226). Edited by Francesca Nepori, Fiammetta Sabba and Paolo Tinti.
Paper published 'Itinerari del Libro nella Storia: Per Anna Giulia Cavagna' (Bologna, 2017 pp. 215-226). Edited by Francesca Nepori, Fiammetta Sabba and Paolo Tinti.
Research Interests: Censorship, Book History, Censorship (History), Printing History, Book History (History), and 11 moreCensura, Research and Publications, Malta, History of Malta, Roman Inquisition, Catholic Church History, Inquisizione e censura in età moderna, Research and Publication, Storia Del Libro, Storia del libro antico, and Index of Prohibited Books
Among the important collections held at Palazzo Falson, Mdina, Malta is the library, consisting of some 4,000 items many of which are rare works of Melitensia. The collection has recently been catalogued resulting in the discovery of... more
Among the important collections held at Palazzo Falson, Mdina, Malta is the library, consisting of some 4,000 items many of which are rare works of Melitensia. The collection has recently been catalogued resulting in the discovery of annotated editions of works. In this study, four such works are discussed, varying from the first edition of Martin Luther's 'In Epistolam' of 1535, to Abela's 1647 'Descrittione di Malta' which includes two unknown MS sonnets.
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A discussion of the prohibition of Vertot's 'Historie des Chevaliers de Malte', first published in 1726 and based on material in the Vatican and Maltese libraries and archives.
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A study of the ways in which the Great Siege of 1565 has become integrated itself in the Maltese national psyche through, among other, its verbal and visual inclusion in Maltese History texbooks and in other popular texts.
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The paper discusses the role of libraries, archives and of related written memory institutions in Malta's capital city, Valletta. The concept of national ownership has now been considerably diluted into one of custody and dissemination.... more
The paper discusses the role of libraries, archives and of related written memory institutions in Malta's capital city, Valletta. The concept of national ownership has now been considerably diluted into one of custody and dissemination. This carries ethical implications relating to best practices where conservation and dissemination are concerned, ensuring as wide an access as possible on both national and international levels (Preer 2008). Online searchable catalogues and the digital uploading of texts constitute the concrete application of technology in this respect and further rapid developments are expected. While physically located and cared for in a specific geographical area, written memory recognised as universal cultural heritage, should be, by right, made accessible to all of humanity. 2 Access to written heritage varies in degree and intensity from one cultural reality to another. Emphasis upon available resources to integrate such written heritage within the country's formal education setups is a fundamental future investment. A national well-structured cultural policy, sustaining cultural awareness can hardly be achieved without access to, and familiarity with, one's written cultural heritage. This is particularly crucial when – as in the case of Maltese written memory collections – such heritage more often than not has significance far beyond the island's own shores.
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A discussion of some rare almancs from 18th-century Malta.
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A study of three engraved portraits of Hospitaller Grand Master Gregorio Carafa (1680-90).
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The study sheds new light upon what is perhaps the best-known story of a treasure trove discovered in Gozo, an idol in the form of a golden calf reputedly unearthed by Antonio Pace in 1729. The episode resulted in the arrest, torture, and... more
The study sheds new light upon what is perhaps the best-known story of a treasure trove discovered in Gozo, an idol in the form of a golden calf reputedly unearthed by Antonio Pace in 1729. The episode resulted in the arrest, torture, and death of Giuseppe Cassar, accused of having acquired the treasure and refusing to hand it over to Grand Master Vilhena. Cassar's substantial property was also confiscated and subsequently passed over by the grand master to the hospital of St John in Gozo. The story of the discovery was doubted even by some contemporaries, while others, such as the Hospitaller Baron de Stadl and the historians Agius de Soldanis and Giovanni Antonio Ciantar, accepted it. Newly-discovered documentation confirms Pace's unreliable character and Cassar's activity as a moneylender which may have contributed to his fall. Vilhena himself was not averse to interfering directly in the course of justice to suit his own ends. All this makes it most likely that the discovery was a figment of Pace's imagination and which resulted in the brutal death of Cassar and the taking over of his wealth. T he more or less constant occupation of the Maltese islands for millennia and the struggles over their conquest by various Mediterranean powers especially prior to 1530 has always made the discovery of treasure in the form of hidden coins or precious artefacts a real possibility. The constant risk of incursions by sea, coupled with the very real fear of one's wealth being taken away by robbers, continued to induce the more prosperous inhabitants of both islands to resort to hiding their wealth through the use of various stratagems. It was only with the spread of banking facilities and the building of a gradual trust in them that hiding one's moveable riches started to give way to having them entrusted to financial institutions.
The paper discusses the presence of orthodox and prohibited literature in different media in 17th and 18th century Malta. Patterns of dissemination and the extent to which prohibited material in print form could be produced and... more
The paper discusses the presence of orthodox and prohibited literature in different media in 17th and 18th century Malta. Patterns of dissemination and the extent to which prohibited material in print form could be produced and communicated are delved into. The State's monopoly over printing and a rigid censorship mechanism over both locally-produced and imported works did not prevent the circulation of illicit literature given the cosmpolitan nature of 'Maltese' society and the heavy use of its harbour.
Between late 1699 and early 1700 the Inquisitorial palace at Vittoriosa required structural alterations in view of the precarious conditions of its prisons as well as parts of its piano nobile. The original plans of these improvements... more
Between late 1699 and early 1700 the Inquisitorial palace at Vittoriosa required structural alterations in view of the precarious conditions of its prisons as well as parts of its piano nobile. The original plans of these improvements have now been traced and are here being analysed to enable a clearer understanding of the development of the building and the workings of the inquisitorial tribunal on the Island. The documentation and plans also throw light upon the financing of such structural projects as well as related artistic commissions.
Research Interests:
The paper discusses a newly-discovered ink drawing of Grand Master Nicholas Cotoner (1663-80) which serves as the frontispiece to Bartolomeo dal Pozzo's 2-volume MS history of the Hospitaller Order, which was subsequently published, but... more
The paper discusses a newly-discovered ink drawing of Grand Master Nicholas Cotoner (1663-80) which serves as the frontispiece to Bartolomeo dal Pozzo's 2-volume MS history of the Hospitaller Order, which was subsequently published, but without the frontispiece, in 1703 and 1715.
Research Interests:
Printed accounts of the' Reggimento di Malta', set up following the abortive 1775 'Revolt of the Priests'. The accounts provide very detailed information regarding the requirements of an 18th century regiment and also about the... more
Printed accounts of the' Reggimento di Malta', set up following the abortive 1775 'Revolt of the Priests'. The accounts provide very detailed information regarding the requirements of an 18th century regiment and also about the nationalities and age groups of the recruits. They constitute some of the rare printed matter related to the Hospitaller and are not described in the standard bibliographies of the Order.
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A discussion of Knight Ginori's publication entitled 'Sopra la morte del Valletta' (Florence, 1569).
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A study of a mid-18th century proposal for providing the knights of the Hospitaller Order of Malta with orthodox activities at a time of rapid decline in traditional morals within the institution.
Consists of a study of printing on silk and other non-paper media in 18th and 19th century Malta
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The paper aims to bring to attention the sizeable collection of bound volumes containing a miscellany of papers relating to the workings of the Roman Inquisition in Malta down to 1798. This material became separate from the main archive... more
The paper aims to bring to attention the sizeable collection of bound volumes containing a miscellany of papers relating to the workings of the Roman Inquisition in Malta down to 1798. This material became separate from the main archive now held in the Cathedral Archives at Mdina and is little known by historians
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The paper discusses the survival of the archive of the Roman Inquisition in Malta following the occupation of the Maltese islands by the French republic in June 1798. A combination of determined effort and historical accident resulted in... more
The paper discusses the survival of the archive of the Roman Inquisition in Malta following the occupation of the Maltese islands by the French republic in June 1798. A combination of determined effort and historical accident resulted in the survival of one of the most complete arhcives of the workings of the Roman Inquisition, spanning the mid-16th century to the end of the 18th.
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The paper delves into the evolution of the Carnival coccagna in 18th-century Malta in its role as a reinforcer of the ruler's power and benevolence towards his subjects. The ritual became ever more elaborate and pregnant with symbolism.... more
The paper delves into the evolution of the Carnival coccagna in 18th-century Malta in its role as a reinforcer of the ruler's power and benevolence towards his subjects. The ritual became ever more elaborate and pregnant with symbolism. The ever-present risk of incidents, resulting in a reversal of the intended aim of strengthening the ruler's esteem in the eyes of the 'people' was an ever-present reality, as the great coccagna massacre of 1763 was to poignantly prove.
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Research Interests:
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The book is based on primary sources at the Vatican Archive and in Maltese collections. It discusses the nature and prevalence of crime in 17th and 18th century Malta. Different chapters are dedicated to the various types of crime, with a... more
The book is based on primary sources at the Vatican Archive and in Maltese collections. It discusses the nature and prevalence of crime in 17th and 18th century Malta. Different chapters are dedicated to the various types of crime, with a section describing those carried out by the free population and another describing crime committed by the Muslim slave community on the island. 480 p. Illustrated.
Research Interests:
In this book the author discusses the evolution of printing activity in Malta and of its product since its start in 1642 down to the granting of press liberty in 1839.
Publisher: Gutenberg , Malta, 2008; 424 p; ill. (some in colour).
Publisher: Gutenberg , Malta, 2008; 424 p; ill. (some in colour).
Research Interests:
A study of early modern Hospitaller historiographical practices in the context of the internal and external controls exercised upon officially and non-officially-commissioned histories. The Vertot episode is particulalry revealing as it... more
A study of early modern Hospitaller historiographical practices in the context of the internal and external controls exercised upon officially and non-officially-commissioned histories. The Vertot episode is particulalry revealing as it constitutes the only known early-modern example of an officially-commissioned history which ended up denounced by both the Order and the Roman Catholic establishment.
Research Interests:
A discussion of print censorship in Malta, following the introduction of printing on the island as a state monopoly in 1756, but controlled by the secular government, the local Church and the Inquisition. The case highlights the strict... more
A discussion of print censorship in Malta, following the introduction of printing on the island as a state monopoly in 1756, but controlled by the secular government, the local Church and the Inquisition. The case highlights the strict control that Roman Catholic institutions could still effectively wield even in the face of rising absolutism.
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The paper discusses the role and evolution of Carnival as a major public spectacle in 17th-and 18th-century Malta. What originally consisted of a short period of bounty, preceding the rigours of the Christian Lent, was transformed-through... more
The paper discusses the role and evolution of Carnival as a major public spectacle in 17th-and 18th-century Malta. What originally consisted of a short period of bounty, preceding the rigours of the Christian Lent, was transformed-through discussed strategies-into an increasingly elaborate public spectacle, primarily by the Baroque State. The rise of the theatre, the coccagna and the elaborate floats, harnessed Carnival into a public relations exercise aimed at demonstrating that a hybrid of power and paternalism was characteristic of political absolutism.
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The paper deals with the gradual creation of the perception of the Inquisition in Malta as a cruel and barbarous institution during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. As a locally defunct institution, Maltese novelists found it... more
The paper deals with the gradual creation of the perception of the Inquisition in Malta as a cruel and barbarous institution during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. As a locally defunct institution, Maltese novelists found it suitable as a theme for much of the early popular literature in Maltese, sold on subscription basis and therefore wide-reaching in its dissemination. The paper discusses the forces at work behind such literature and the extent to which it has moulded the popular mentality, through literary invention, where the Maltese Inquisition is concerned.
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A study upon the motivations and mechanisms of Muslim conversion to Catholicism in Hospitaller Malta. Both Muslim slaves but also free Muslims periodically opted for conversion in Malta. The paper provides statistical data of such... more
A study upon the motivations and mechanisms of Muslim conversion to Catholicism in Hospitaller Malta. Both Muslim slaves but also free Muslims periodically opted for conversion in Malta. The paper provides statistical data of such conversions from untapped primary sources.
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Un colloquio internazionale tra specialisti di varie discipline per interrogarsi su una imprevista fonte storica: i graffiti, i disegni e le iscrizioni delle celle delle carceri segrete del mSanto Uffizio spagnolo a Palermo.
Research Interests:
First invented in China and brought to Europe by Muslim merchants across the Silk Road, the use of paper in the West took off in the Mediterranean towards the end of the Middle Ages. Overshadowed in cultural and media history by the... more
First invented in China and brought to Europe by Muslim merchants across the Silk Road, the use of paper in the West took off in the Mediterranean towards the end of the Middle Ages. Overshadowed in cultural and media history by the invention of print, paper has since played a fundamental role as the media infrastructure for innumerable processes that involve the registration and communication of data, knowledge and value in human communities and institutions of all sorts—from religious orders, financial and mercantile societies, to global empires. Only recently has the new digital age become a serious competitor to the global rule of paper.
This special subsection of CROMOHS proposes five essays, four of which examine particular cases of paper as a medium for the codification and exchange of knowledge, information and value, whereas the fifth one provides an outline of the state of the art on the history of the so-called paper revolution and some general methodological issues illustrated with relevant case studies. Our essays also exemplify the sort of research conducted by the “Paper in Motion” work group within the People in Motion COST action, which seeks to look into the role of paper as a medium for the connectivity of information in processes and practices which involve objects, people and ideas in motion.
Our essays seek to approach five distinct but also closely related varieties of paper formats and documentary genres:
(a) the use of paper documents in legal and political administration across linguistic and cultural boundaries;
(b) financial and commercial correspondence in combination with news exchange across the Mediterranean, exemplified by the case of the Maltese archives and the correspondence of the Spanish merchant Simón Ruiz;
(c) library catalogs as both records of knowledge and agents in the creation of a hierarchy of disciplines, in their special capacity as meta-registers with several layers of data that classify titles, genres, formats and disciplines as they also project power relations and embody socio-cultural values;
(d) auction catalogs as a documentary genre which combines (b) and
(c), since they record market value alongside the symbolic intellectual, aesthetic or political capital of the artefacts that they list.
This special subsection of CROMOHS proposes five essays, four of which examine particular cases of paper as a medium for the codification and exchange of knowledge, information and value, whereas the fifth one provides an outline of the state of the art on the history of the so-called paper revolution and some general methodological issues illustrated with relevant case studies. Our essays also exemplify the sort of research conducted by the “Paper in Motion” work group within the People in Motion COST action, which seeks to look into the role of paper as a medium for the connectivity of information in processes and practices which involve objects, people and ideas in motion.
Our essays seek to approach five distinct but also closely related varieties of paper formats and documentary genres:
(a) the use of paper documents in legal and political administration across linguistic and cultural boundaries;
(b) financial and commercial correspondence in combination with news exchange across the Mediterranean, exemplified by the case of the Maltese archives and the correspondence of the Spanish merchant Simón Ruiz;
(c) library catalogs as both records of knowledge and agents in the creation of a hierarchy of disciplines, in their special capacity as meta-registers with several layers of data that classify titles, genres, formats and disciplines as they also project power relations and embody socio-cultural values;
(d) auction catalogs as a documentary genre which combines (b) and
(c), since they record market value alongside the symbolic intellectual, aesthetic or political capital of the artefacts that they list.