SUGAR TECHNOLOGY

CHE 527

COURSE LECTURER:
Dr. (Mrs) T.E. Oladimeji
 Course Outline
• Module I: Sugar and its production in Nigeria
• Module II: Sugar Cane to Sugar
• Module III: By-Products of Sugar Production
• Module IV: Sugar Cane Production
• Module V: Sugar Production plants and
Equipment
• Module V: Refined Sugar Production
– Repeat Processes in Raw Sugar Production
• Module VII: Ethanol Production
 MODULE I
SUGAR AND ITS PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA

1.1 SUGAR
• It is a carbohydrates which is usually referred to
sucrose, the solid crystalline sweetener for foods and
beverages.
• Sucrose is found in most plants, but abundant in
sugarcane and sugar beet plants, other sources include
sorghum, the sugar maple and the date palm
• The world’s highest producer of sugar produce about
90 million tones/year, 60% sugar cane and 40% from
sugar beet
 SUGAR

• Sucrose is natural and nontoxic, sweet testing, water

soluble crystalline carbohydrates, and every 1 gram
of sugar provide body 4K.calories
• Sucrose (saccharose) is a disaccharide which, by
hydrolysis forms one molecule of glucose (dextrose)
and one molecule of fructose (levulose).
 HISTORY OF SUGAR

• Sugar was first produced in India

• Sugar was expensive at first so honey was more often
used for sweetening in the world.
• Sugarcane- South Asia and Southeast Asia
• Sugar stayed relatively unimportant until the Indians
discovered methods to turning sugarcane juice into
granulated crystals which is easier to store and to
transport
• China established its first sugarcane plantations
about 2000 yrs ago
 HISTORY OF SUGAR

• Nigeria’s total annual sugar production from

domestically grown raw sugar stood at 14,918 metric
tonnes in 2017.
• Golden sugar operates one 10,000- hectare plantation
in Niger State, with one refinery in Lagos State.
• Sugarcane can be cultivated almost in all the states
locally but commercially it is produced in Katsina,
Taraba, Kano, Adamawa, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kebbi,
Lagos and Sokoto State.
 HISTORY OF SUGAR

Assignment
Submit a write-up of the following:
• Detailed note on history of sugar and its first
production in Nigeria
• How did Nigeria’s Sugar production collapse
for decades.

Date of submission- 11th April,2023

 Functions of Sugars in Foods
1. Sweetness, flavor enhancement, and flavor balance:
• The most notable function of sugar in food is its sweet taste.
Sweet taste serves as a sensory cue for energy as well as a
source of pleasure.
• Sweetness improves the palatability of food
• The addition of sugar enhances flavors by increasing the
aroma of the flavor.
• The addition of sugar also balances the sweetness and acidity
in fruit-based products such as beverages, sauces, and
preserves e.g. the sweetness of sugar balances the bitterness
of cocoa in chocolate
 Functions of Sugars in Foods
2. Color and flavor formation:
• The Maillard browning reaction and caramelization are
fundamental to the formation of color and flavor in several
food products.
• Caramelization occurs when sugars are heated above their
melting point in the absence of proteins causing the sugars to
degrade
• Caramelization is used in a wide range of products including
sauces, candies, desserts, breads, jams, and dessert wine. This
reaction can also be used to commercially produce caramel
colors and flavors
Classwork- Find out the caramelization temperature of the
following sugar- fructose, galactose, sucrose, glucose, lactose.
 Classwork

Find out the caramelization temperature of the following sugar-

fructose, galactose, sucrose, glucose, lactose.

Caramelization temperatures
Sugar Temperature
Fructose 105 °C (221 °F)
Galactose 160 °C (320 °F)
Glucose 150 °C (302 °F)
Sucrose 170 °C (338 °F)
Maltose 180 °C (360 °F)
 Functions of Sugars in Foods
Processes of formation of caramelization
• Caramelization of sucrose starts with the melting of
the sugar at high temperatures followed by foaming
(boiling).
• Sucrose first decomposes into glucose and fructose.
This is followed by a condensation step, in which the
individual sugars lose water and react with each
other.
• Hundreds of new aromatic compounds are formed
having a range of complex flavors.
 Functions of Sugars in Foods

Three main product groups are formed at

caramelization:

1) A dehydration product, caramelan C12H18O9

2) Carmelen C36H50O25 - Polymer

3) Caramelin C125H188O80 - Polymer

 Functions of Sugars in Foods
3. Bulk and texture:
• Sugar provides bulk which impacts the mouthfeel and texture
of many food products
• Sugar plays an important role in the texture of bakery
products.
• It tenderizes bakery products by preventing overdevelopment
of gluten and slows down gelanization. For cookies, sugar
influences the spread of dough and surface cracking
• Sugar crystallization is a major determinant of the texture for
candies
 Functions of Sugars in Foods
4. FERMENTATION
• Fermentation is a process in which microorganisms in the
absence of oxygen generate energy by oxidizing carbohydrates.
• Common food and beverages produced from fermentation
include yogurt, vinegar, sour cream, wine, beer, bread, cheese &
soy sauce,
• Lactic acid bacteria fermentations is significant for increasing the
shelf-life of milk and preventing pathogens from growing in it.
• These metabolic products contribute significantly to flavor
development & final aroma and taste of fermented dairy products
such as sour cream, yogurt, and cheeses.
• Yeast fermentation is another type of food fermentation. It is
used in the production of yeast-leavened bakery products.
 Functions of Sugars in Foods
5. PRESERVATION:
• The hygroscopic nature of sugar plays a crucial role in
reducing water activity in foods
• The water in a food item is controlled so that it is
unavailable for chemical or biochemical reactions. Sugar
prevents spoilage of jams, jellies, and preserves after the
jar has been opened.
• Sugar also acts as a humectant in baked goods, which
prevents drying out and staleness, thus extending the
shelf-life of these products
 Functions of Sugars in Foods
6. PHARMACEUTICALS
• It increase the palatability of medicine to ensure patient
compliance
• Sugar also provides other desirable functional properties in
pharmaceuticals due to its low toxicity, high purity, and
diverse physicochemical properties.
• The correct formulation of sugar and the active ingredients in
the medication can provide accurate delivery of the required
dose and control the release of the active ingredients to the
targeted site of the body
 CARBOHYDRATES
• Plants use CO2 from the air, water from the soil and
energy from the sun to produce carbohydrates and
oxygen through a process called photosynthesis
• Carbohydrates are organic compounds that contain
carbon(C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) in the ratio
of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom for
every one carbon atom (CH2O)
• Two or more sugar molecules can be assembled to
form complex carbohydrates
 TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATE
• The two main types of carbohydrate in food are
simple carbohydrates (sugars) and complex
carbohydrate (starches and fiber)
1) Simple Carbohydrates (Simple sugars)
These are naturally present as simple sugars in fruits,
milk and other foods. The two main types of sugars are
monosaccharides and disaccharides
(a) MONOSACCHARIDES:
• It consist of a single sugar molecule
• The most common monosaccharides are; glucose,
fructose and galactose.
 SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
• All the three monosaccharides have six carbons and
all have the chemical formula C6H12O6
• The carbon and oxygen atoms of glucose and
galactose form a 6 sided rings
 SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
GLUCOSE
• It is the most abundant simple carbohydrate in nature
• It is also called dextrose and is the primary source of
energy for the body
• Glucose is the only fuel used by brain cells. It supplies
energy to the cells
• It is an aldohexose (C6H12O6), since it contains an
aldehyde group and six carbon atoms; there are two
forms of it: Open-chain (acyclic) and ring (cyclic) form.
• Glucose is soluble in water to give a neutral solution.
• Starch digestion in the body yields glucose
 SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
GLUCOSE
• Most times glucose does not exist
monosaccharides in food but instead joined to
other sugars to form disaccharides, starch or
dietary fiber.
 SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
FRUCTOSE
• Fructose taste the sweetest of all the sugars and
occurs naturally in fruits and vegetables.
• Plants and some microbes can synthesize
fructose from carbon dioxide and water.
• Fructose is a hexose monosaccharide, can exist in
a non-cyclic, straight chain form and the
compound has a ketone group at carbon-2 in the
chain
• There are two enantiomers of fructose L - and D –
forms, but in nature, D-fructose is common
 SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
FRUCTOSE
• Pure fructose is also a caloric sweetener
added to foods, soft drinks, desert, candies
and beverages.
 SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
GALACTOSE
• This sugar, contains six carbons (hexose), is an
important monosaccharide and component of
the disaccharide lactose, which is present in
milk and dairy foods.
• It is an energetic source in cell metabolism.
• A simple sugar that is unique to milk and dairy
foods. Galactose is not found free in nature,
but is bound to glucose to form lactose.
 SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
b) DISACCHARIDES
• It consist of two sugar molecules chemically joined
together. 3 major disaccharides important in human
nutrition includes; sucrose, lactose and maltose
SUCROSE
• Often called table sugar, sucrose is a disaccharide
that is composed of one glucose unit and one
fructose unit joined together by a chemical bond
• It is readily broken in the small intestine
 SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
• Sucrose is found naturally in fruits and vegetables,
but in the highest quantities in sugar beets and sugar
cane.
• When sucrose is digested or placed in an acidic
environment (such as in many ready-to-drink
beverages), it ‘inverts’ and yields 50% glucose and
50% fructose.
ysical properties of sucrose
Temperatu Solubili
re ty
o
C o
F %
1. Solubility 20 68 67.1
50 122 72.4
100 212 84.1
SH
2. Specific heat (SH) (67% solution) 20 68 0.63
106 218 0.72
3. Equilibrium relative humidity 60%
4. Boiling point 67% solution boils at
105oC (225oF)
5. Optical rotation +66.5o
6. Specific gravity (SG) Temp SG
for 67.1% solution 20 1.33
“ 60 1.29
for 74% solution 20 1.37
“ 60 1.33
 SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
LACTOSE
• A disaccharide found naturally in milk, it is composed
of one galactose unit and one glucose unit. Lactose is
sometimes called milk sugar.
• Human milk has a higher concentration (7g per 100
ml) of lactose than cow milk (4.5 g per 100 ml).
Therefore human milk tastes sweeter than cow milk
 SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
MALTOSE
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
2) Complex Carbohydrates (complex sugars)
• They are chains of more than two sugar
molecules
• Two major complex sugars includes;
oligosaccharides and polysaccharides
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
a) OLIGOSACCHARIDES
• They are short carbohydrate chain of 3-10 sugar
molecules
• 2 most common oligosaccharides are
Raffinose- 3 monosaccharides molecules- 1
galactose,1fruc, 1 gluc
 Stachyose- 4 monosaccharides molecules- 2
galactose,1fruc, 1 gluc
• The body cannot break down both but by intestinal
bacteria, this is responsible for the gaseous effects
of foods such as beans
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
• Human milk contains more than 200 different
oligosaccharides which varies due to genetic makeup
and other factors
• For breastfed infants, oligosaccharides serve as
dietary fibre which makes stooling easy, it also build
the infant’s immunity to disease.
• Oligosaccharides in human milk provide sialic acid, a
compound essential for normal brain development
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE

b) POLYSACCHARIDES
• These are long carbohydrate chains of monosaccharides. It could
be long chains or branched. Different types include;

 Starch
• Plants stores energy as starch for use during growth and
reproduction
• Rich sources include grains, (wheat, rice, corn, oat, millet and
barley) legumes ( peas, beans and lentils) and tubers (yams
potatoes and cassava)
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
• Two main forms of starch in plants – Amylose
(unbranched chains of glucose molecules) and
amylopectin (branched chains of glucose molecules)
• Wheat flour contains higher proportion of amylose
while cornstarch contains higher proportion of
amylopectin
• In the body, amylopectin digest more rapidly than
amylose
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
 Glycogen

• Animals and humans store carbohydrate in form of glycogen

(animal starch)
• It composed of highly branched chains of glucose molecules

• When we need extra glucose, glycogen in our cells can be

broken down into single glucose molecule
• Due to enzymatic attack of glycogen, it multiplies the
number of sites available for enzyme activity
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
• Most glycogen is stored is stored in skeletal muscle and liver.
• Liver cells use glycogen to regulate blood glucose levels in
the body.
• Liver glycogen can provide 100-150 mg of glucose per
minute to the blood for up to 12 hrs.
• Some athletes practice carbohydrate loading regimen which
increases the amount of stored glycogen by 20-40%
providing competitive edge for marathon running
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
 Fiber
• Different sources include- fruits, vegetables, legumes
and whole grains.
• Different sources of fibers are;
• Dietary fiber: indigestible carbohydrate e.g cellulose
and lignins
• Functional fiber: isolated, indigestible carbohydrates
that have beneficial physiological effects in humans e.g
extracted plant pectins, gums and resistant starch
• Total fiber: sum of dietary and functional fiber. They
are not digested in human e.g cellulose, hemicellulose,
pectins, gums etc
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
 Cellulose

• In plants, cellulose makes the walls of cells strong and

rigid. It forms the woody fibers that support tall trees
• It is made up of long, straight chains of glucose
molecules
• Examples include grains, fruits and vegetables.
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
 Hemicelluloses

• They are diverse group of polysaccharides varies

from plant to plant
• They are mixed with cellulose in plant cell walls
• They are composed of a variety of monosaccharides
with many branching side chains
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
 Pectins
• Sources- all plants esp. fruits.
• Gel-forming polysaccharides
• The pectin in fruits acts like a cement which keeps
them in shape
• When fruits overripe, pectin breaks down and d fruit
loses shape
• When mixed with sugar and acid, pectin forms a gel
used to add firmness to jellies, jam, sauces and sald
dressing
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
 Gums and Mucillages

• Like pectins, they are thick, gel-forming fibers that

help to hold plant cells together
• Food industry uses plant gums (gum Arabic, guar
gum etc) and mucilage(carrageenan) to thicken,
stabilize and add texture to foods such as salad
dressings, puddings, pie fillings, candies, sauces and
drinks
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
 Lignins
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
 Beta-glucans
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
 Chitin and Chitosan

• They are polysaccharides found in the exoskeleton of

crabs and lobsters and also in cell walls of most fungi
• They are primarily consumed in supplement form
• It is useful for weight loss and may impair the
absorption fat-soluble vitamins and some minerals
Tips to reduce sugar intake
 ASSIGNMENT
Each group will give a detailed power point
presentation on the topic assigned below;
Group 1- Carbohydrate digestion and absorption
Group 2- Carbohydrate and glucose/ Regulating blood glucose
level
Group 3- Role of carbohydrate in our diet/ good choices of
carbohydrate that are good for the body
Group 4- Carbohydrate and health/ allowable intake
Group 5- types of sugar used in foods- naturel sweetners, sugar
alcohols, saccharin (not less than 11
Presentation Date: Monday- group 1
Wednesday – group 2-5
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
In appearance sucrose/sugar is solid and colorless, odorless,
sweet tasting. It has following physical properties
1) Solubility
• Sucrose is extremely soluble in water and in alcohol and
other polar solvents while insoluble in benzene, ether
and other nonpolar organic solvents.
• at the freezing point of water 180 grams of sucrose are
soluble in 100 grams of water and 500 grams at its
boiling point
• While about 138 grams sugar are soluble in 100 grams of
alcohol (ethanol) at room temperature.
 PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
2) Non-Conductor:
• Sucrose is a non-conductor. A pure solution of sucrose
will have no conductivity as measured against a water
standard and it also reduce the conductivity of salt
solutions.
3) Sucrose and Water Humidity:
• Sucrose can ‘tie up’ water. It affects the water activity
(aw) of the solution in which sucrose is present
Aw = P/Po
Where P= Partial vapor pressure of food moisture
Po= Saturation vapor pressure of water
 PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
• Water activity is sometimes referred to Equilibrium
Relative Humidity (ERH). Water is a solution of 44
degree. Brix Sucrose (56% moisture) has the same
water activity, 0.8, as a mixture of starch and water
with a moisture of 20 per cent.
• Thus, sucrose is used preservation of foods
• Sucrose sugar can tolerate to a wide range
of humidity. However, it does have its
limitations in its tendency to cake or
solidify in it’s storage container
 PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
• Thus, sugar remains free flowing under
normal European climatic conditions.
When the relative humidity drops below
70%, the syrup form crystals. When the
R.H is over 70%, it gives rise to conditions
which encourage mould growth during
storage.
 PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
4) Vapor Pressure
• The vapor pressure of water in an aqueous (watery)
sucrose solution will decrease with an increase in
dissolved sucrose.
5) Surface Tension
• Adding sucrose in solution increases its surface
tension (highly strung state) of the solution
6) Effect on Boiling and Freezing Points
• Sugar in solution lowers the freezing point and raises
the boiling point of the solution
 PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
7) Heat of Solution
• When crystalline sucrose is dissolved in water, the
temperature of that solution decreases.
• While for amorphous (shapeless) or milled
(moderate) sucrose, the heat of solution is positive.
• A decrease in temperature is also observed on
diluting/adding more water into solution
 PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
8) Viscosity
• Viscosity is the resistance to flow
• viscosity increases with more solids content but not
linearly.
• While viscosity decreases rapidly with an increase in
temperature of that solution.
• In general term, as sucrose purity decreases its
viscosity will increase
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
• All sugars are fairly reactive. Hence glucose and
fructose molecules are bonded together when the
sucrose molecule is formed. These two
monosaccharides are much more reactive than
sucrose. Hence, they act as chemical reducing
agents. Chemical properties of sugar are;
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
1) Inversion Reaction
• In acidic solutions, sucrose will break down
into its two components monosaccharides
(glucose and fructose). This reaction will
accelerate acidity and increase temperature.
• Most sucrose reaction in solutions, including
human metabolism (energy releasing process
in body) begin with inversion reaction
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
2) Thermal Decomposition
• While crystalline sucrose is dry, it will be stable up to
its melting point but when it melted, it will
decompose into glucose and fructose.
• If it is heated to around 200OC, a whole series of
decomposition products are formed. Then a non-
sweet, dark brown, water-soluble mixture called
‘Caramel’ is produced.
• Further heating will lead to a Carbon residue (ash) and
in the presence of oxygen, this thermal decomposition
becomes combustion (burning), forming CO2 and H2O.
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
3) Acidic Degradation
• In acids, having pH (Hydrogen in
concentration) below 3, the resulting
monosaccharides from the inversion reaction
will form various condensation (release of
water) reaction products.
• This will result into making a series of
oligosaccharides, in which many
monosaccharides are jointed, as isomaltose,
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
4) Alkaline Degradation
• The alkaline degradation products of sucrose are
more likely to include cleavage (splitting process)
productsas organic acids. Once the process starts,
the primary products released participate in further
reactionsas formation of cyclic compounds (Ketose
and Acids)
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
5) Non-reducing and Stability of Sucrose
• Sucrose is a non-reducing and stable in heated, up to
100OC.
• Its molecule fructose will decompose above 60OC and
both glucose and fructoseare unstable in alkaline
solutions, while sucrose remains most stable
 BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
Sugar is an important feed stock for many critical
biological reactions. Biological properties are:
1) Yeast Fermentation:
• Sucrose/sugar used in yeast fermentation
process. Sugar has been used in bread causing
it to rise and converting grapes juice into wine.
It produces alcohol and CO2.
 BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
Sugar is an important feed stock for many critical
biological reactions. Biological properties are:
1) Yeast Fermentation:
• Sucrose/sugar used in yeast fermentation process.
Sugar has been used in bread causing it to rise and
converting grapes juice into wine. It produces alcohol
and CO2.
• In baking, sugar added to converted into volatile
(flying) compounds that are given off as gas and
vapors in the oven. In alcoholic beverage production
 BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
• In wine making converts the 18 to 24 per cent
sucrose content of the pressed grapes juice
into 10 to 13 % alcohol by volume. Sweet and
dessert wines are made by adding additional
sugar to the fermenting mixture
 BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SUGAR
2) Biotechnology
• Lactic acid (found in curd), Citric acid (found in
lemon), Butyric acid, Acetic acid, Ketose and many
other chemicals are commercially produced by
biochemical means with sucrose used as a substrate
or starting material.