Definition and Molecular Structures:

Sugars, also known as carbohydrates, are organic compounds composed of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms. They are classified based on the number of simple sugar
units they contain.
Monosaccharides are single sugar units. The most common monosaccharides include:
● Glucose (C6H12O6) - This is the primary source of energy for living organisms. It's a
hexose sugar, meaning it contains six carbon atoms.
● Galactose (C6H12O6) - Found primarily in dairy products, galactose is also a hexose
sugar.
● Fructose (C6H12O6) - Often referred to as fruit sugar, fructose is found in fruits, honey,
and vegetables. It's also a hexose sugar.
●
Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharide molecules join together through a
condensation reaction, forming a glycosidic bond. Common disaccharides include:
● Sucrose (C12H22O11) - Composed of glucose and fructose molecules bonded together.
Sucrose is commonly known as table sugar and is extracted from sugarcane or sugar
beets.
● Lactose (C12H22O11) - Comprising glucose and galactose molecules bonded together,
lactose is found in dairy products like milk.
● Maltose (C12H22O11) - Formed by two glucose molecules linked together. It's produced
during the germination of grains and is present in malted foods.
Function:
Sugars serve as a primary source of energy for living organisms. Glucose, in particular, is
crucial for cellular respiration, providing the necessary energy for metabolic processes.
Additionally, sugars play structural roles in organisms, forming part of cell walls and providing
stability to cellular structures.
Invert Sugars
Invert sugar is a mixture of glucose and fructose formed by the hydrolysis (chemical breakdown)
of sucrose, which is commonly known as table sugar. This hydrolysis process occurs when
sucrose is dissolved in water and catalyzed by an acid or enzyme, resulting in the separation of
glucose and fructose molecules.

The term "invert" refers to the change in the optical rotation of polarized light caused by the
hydrolysis of sucrose. Sucrose, in its original form, rotates polarized light to the right
(dextrorotatory), while the resulting mixture of glucose and fructose rotates polarized light to the
left (levorotatory). Hence, the name "invert" sugar.
Invert sugar is sweeter than sucrose and has unique properties that make it desirable in various
culinary and industrial applications. It is commonly used in baking, confectionery, and the
production of syrups and beverages due to its ability to retain moisture, prevent crystallization,
and enhance flavor and texture. Additionally, invert sugar plays a crucial role in the fermentation
process of certain alcoholic beverages and contributes to the desired taste profile of many food
products.
Definition of Sugar:
Sugar is a type of carbohydrate, a group of molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen atoms. These molecules are sweet-tasting and soluble in water.
Examples of sugars include glucose, fructose, and sucrose.
Classification of Sugars:
Sugars can be classified into two main groups: monosaccharides and disaccharides.
Monosaccharides: These are the simplest form of sugars, consisting of single sugar molecules.
Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
Disaccharides: These are formed by the combination of two monosaccharide molecules.
Examples include sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose
(glucose + glucose).
Function of Sugars:
Sugars serve as a vital source of energy for both plants and animals.
In plants, sugars are produced during photosynthesis, where they act as energy sources for
growth and development.
In our bodies, sugars are broken down during digestion into glucose, which is then used as fuel
by our cells for various metabolic processes.
Sources of Sugars:
Sugars can be found naturally in many foods, including fruits, vegetables, and dairy products.
Some common sources of sugars include:
Fruits: such as apples, bananas, and oranges.
Vegetables: such as carrots, beets, and sweet potatoes.
Dairy products: such as milk and yogurt.
Sugarcane and sugar beets: from which table sugar (sucrose) is extracted.
Honey and maple syrup: natural sweeteners produced by bees and trees respectively.
Conclusion:

Definition of Sugar:
Carbohydrate, sweet-tasting, soluble in water.
Classification of Sugars:
Monosaccharides: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose.
Disaccharides: Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose), Lactose (Glucose + Galactose), Maltose
(Glucose + Glucose).
Function of Sugars:
Energy source for plants and animals.
Sources of Sugars:
Fruits, Vegetables, Dairy products, Sugarcane, Sugar beets, Honey, Maple syrup.

8
THGrade
Plant and Food Chemistry

LAB 3

PROTEINS VS CARBOHYDRATES
Decomposition Reaction

Name: ____________________________________________ Score:

________________________-
Materials
o Potato
o A piece of chicken liver
o Knife
o Hydrogen peroxide 30%-90% vol

STEP TO STEP
o Peel and chop the potato, place it
inside a beaker or flask.
o Chop the animal liver into small
pieces and place it inside the beaker

no. 2

o Measure 100ml or 50ml of

hydrogen peroxide (wear gloves and

use the
graduated cylinder)
o See the changes.

Questions.

1. Write and draw the differences between each of the reactions.

Potato Liver

2. What is the function of the peroxidase in the experiment?

3. How can we relate the reaction with carbohydrates and proteins inside the
body?

4. With your own words define what is an enzyme

5. Write a conclusión

1. A. Describe a Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates are one of the main types of nutrients and are the most important source of
energy for your body. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
Carbohydrates can be simple or complex, depending on their chemical structure.
 o : These are also known as sugars. They are made of one or two sugar molecules.
Examples include glucose, fructose, and sucrose.
o : These consist of long chains of sugar molecules. They include starches and fiber
found in foods such as vegetables, grains, and beans.

B. Foods that Include Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are found in a wide variety of foods. Here are five examples:: Foods like bread,
rice, pasta, and cereals are rich in starches, a type of complex carbohydrate.: Fruits like apples,
bananas, berries, and oranges contain simple sugars and fiber.: Vegetables such as potatoes,
corn, and peas are high in starch.: Beans, lentils, and chickpeas are rich in complex
carbohydrates and fiber.: Milk, yogurt, and cheese contain lactose, a type of sugar.C.
Importance of Carbohydrates for the Body
Carbohydrates are crucial for the body for several reasons:

o : They are the body's primary source of energy. When you eat carbohydrates, your
body breaks them down into glucose, which is used for energy by your cells, tissues,
and organs.
o : The brain relies heavily on glucose for proper functioning. Lack of glucose can affect
cognitive functions.
o : Carbohydrates spare proteins from being used as an energy source, allowing proteins
to perform their primary role in growth and repair.
o : Fiber, a type of carbohydrate, aids in digestion and helps prevent constipation.

D. Side Effects of High Consumption of Carbohydrates

While carbohydrates are important, consuming too many can lead to several health issues:

o : Excess carbohydrates are stored as fat in the body, leading to weight gain.
o : Consuming too many simple carbohydrates can cause rapid spikes in blood sugar
levels, which can be harmful over time.
o : A diet high in refined carbohydrates and sugars can increase the risk of heart disease,
type 2 diabetes, and certain cancers.
o : Sugary foods can lead to tooth decay and cavities.

Absorption and Comparison with Proteins

o Carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars (like glucose) in the digestive tract.
o They are absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine.
o The hormone insulin helps cells absorb glucose from the blood, providing energy for
the body.
o Proteins are broken down into amino acids by stomach acids and enzymes in the small
intestine.
o Amino acids are absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to cells where they
are used for various functions like building and repairing tissues.

Compare and Contrast: Carbohydrates vs. Proteins

o : Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Proteins are made
up of amino acids, which contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
 o : Carbohydrates are primarily energy sources, while proteins are building blocks for
the body, important for growth, repair, and enzyme production.
o : Carbohydrates are broken down into sugars and absorbed quickly, providing a rapid
energy source. Proteins are broken down into amino acids, which are absorbed more
slowly and used for repair and building functions.
o : Excess carbohydrates are stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles or as fat.
Proteins are not stored in the body; excess amino acids are converted into energy or
fat.
o : Carbohydrates, especially simple sugars, can cause rapid increases in blood sugar
levels. Proteins have little direct effect on blood sugar but can influence insulin levels.

Understanding the role and impact of carbohydrates and proteins helps us make informed
dietary choices to maintain overall health and well-being.

Homework: Draw 5 different foods that are considered carbohydrates. (Make sure the
drawings are a nice size, well colored and neat).

2.

Objective: By the end of this lesson, you will understand the definition, classification, function, and
sources of sugars.

• Welcome, dear students, to our exploration of the fascinating world of sugars! Today, we delve
into the sweet chemistry of these essential compounds that play a crucial role in both plants
and our food.
• Sugar is a type of carbohydrate, a group of molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen atoms. These molecules are sweet-tasting and soluble in water.
• Examples of sugars include glucose, fructose, and sucrose.
• Sugars can be classified into two main groups: monosaccharides and disaccharides.
•
• are single sugar units. The most common monosaccharides include:
• (C6H12O6) - This is the primary source of energy for living organisms. It's a hexose sugar,
meaning it contains six carbon atoms.
• (C6H12O6) - Found primarily in dairy products, galactose is also a hexose sugar.
• (C6H12O6) - Often referred to as fruit sugar, fructose is found in fruits, honey, and vegetables.
It's also a hexose sugar.

are formed when two monosaccharide molecules join together through a condensation reaction,
forming a glycosidic bond. Common disaccharides include:

• (C12H22O11) - Composed of glucose and fructose molecules bonded together. Sucrose is

commonly known as table sugar and is extracted from sugarcane or sugar beets.
• (C12H22O11) - Comprising glucose and galactose molecules bonded together, lactose is found
in dairy products like milk.
• (C12H22O11) - Formed by two glucose molecules linked together. It's produced during the
germination of grains and is present in malted foods.
 • Sugars serve as a vital source of energy for both plants and animals.
• In plants, sugars are produced during photosynthesis, where they act as energy sources for
growth and development.
• In our bodies, sugars are broken down during digestion into glucose, which is then used as fuel
by our cells for various metabolic processes.
• Sugars can be found naturally in many foods, including fruits, vegetables, and dairy products.
• Some common sources of sugars include:
• Fruits: such as apples, bananas, and oranges.
• Vegetables: such as carrots, beets, and sweet potatoes.
• Dairy products: such as milk and yogurt.
• Sugarcane and sugar beets: from which table sugar (sucrose) is extracted.
• Honey and maple syrup: natural sweeteners produced by bees and trees respectively.
• Invert sugar is a mixture of glucose and fructose formed by the hydrolysis (chemical
breakdown) of sucrose, which is commonly known as table sugar. This hydrolysis process
occurs when sucrose is dissolved in water and catalyzed by an acid or enzyme, resulting in the
separation of glucose and fructose molecules.The term "invert" refers to the change in the
optical rotation of polarized light caused by the hydrolysis of sucrose. Sucrose, in its original
form, rotates polarized light to the right (dextrorotatory), while the resulting mixture of
glucose and fructose rotates polarized light to the left (levorotatory). Hence, the name "invert"
sugar.Invert sugar is sweeter than sucrose and has unique properties that make it desirable in
various culinary and industrial applications. It is commonly used in baking, confectionery, and
the production of syrups and beverages due to its ability to retain moisture, prevent
crystallization, and enhance flavor and texture. Additionally, invert sugar plays a crucial role in
the fermentation process of certain alcoholic beverages and contributes to the desired taste
profile of many food products.
• Today, we've uncovered the definition, classification, function, and sources of sugars.
Remember, while sugars provide us with energy, it's essential to consume them in moderation
as part of a balanced diet.
• Research and write a short paragraph about the importance of sugars in plant growth and
development.

Carbohydrate, sweet-tasting, soluble in water.

• Monosaccharides: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose.

• Disaccharides: Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose), Lactose (Glucose + Galactose), Maltose (Glucose +
Glucose).

Energy source for plants and animals. Fruits, Vegetables, Dairy products, Sugarcane, Sugar beets,
Honey, Maple syrup.

Proteins are essential macromolecules composed of amino acids, which are organic compounds
containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur. These amino acids are linked
together in long chains, forming complex structures that serve various functions in living organisms.
Proteins are vital for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs. They play
roles in catalyzing biochemical reactions, transporting molecules within cells and across cell
membranes, providing structural support, and serving as signaling molecules.
Legumes: Beans, lentils, chickpeas, and peas are excellent sources of plant-based proteins.Nuts and
Seeds: Almonds, walnuts, chia seeds, flaxseeds, and pumpkin seeds are high in protein content.Grains:
Quinoa, oats, barley, and whole wheat are grains with notable protein content.Soy Products: Tofu,
tempeh, edamame, and soy milk are rich sources of plant-derived proteins.Leafy Greens: Spinach, kale,
broccoli, and other leafy vegetables contain significant amounts of protein alongside other nutrients.

Proteins are crucial for the proper functioning of the body due to several reasons:

• They serve as the building blocks for tissues, muscles, bones, skin, hair, and nails.
• Many enzymes, which are catalysts for biochemical reactions, are proteins. They facilitate
essential metabolic processes in the body.
• Certain proteins act as hormones, regulating various physiological processes such as growth,
development, and metabolism.
• Antibodies, which are proteins, play a critical role in the immune system, defending the body
against pathogens and foreign substances.
• Proteins transport molecules such as oxygen (hemoglobin), lipids (lipoproteins), and ions
across cell membranes.

While proteins are necessary for optimal health, excessive consumption can lead to several side
effects: High protein intake can put a strain on the kidneys, potentially leading to kidney damage or
exacerbating pre-existing kidney conditions. Metabolizing protein requires water, so excessive protein
intake may increase the body's water needs, leading to dehydration if not adequately hydrated.
Consuming too much protein, especially from animal sources, may cause digestive discomfort,
including bloating, constipation, and diarrhea. Focusing excessively on protein-rich foods may lead to
neglecting other essential nutrients, resulting in an imbalanced diet. Some studies suggest that a diet
high in animal protein may be associated with an increased risk of certain chronic diseases, such as
heart disease and certain cancers.

Understanding the role of proteins in our diet and their significance for overall health is essential.
Incorporating a variety of protein sources, both plant-based and animal-derived, in moderation,
ensures a balanced diet that supports optimal health and well-being.

HOMEWORK: Research foods that are rich in protein and draw them (veeery neatly in your Main
Lesson books)

Photosynthesis:
Definition: Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light
energy into chemical energy stored in glucose, using carbon dioxide and water.
Detailed Explanation: During photosynthesis, light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll, a pigment found
in chloroplasts. This energy is used to split water molecules into oxygen, protons, and electrons in the
light-dependent reactions. The resulting oxygen is released into the atmosphere, while the protons and
electrons are used to generate ATP and NADPH, which power the Calvin cycle. In the Calvin cycle,
carbon dioxide is fixed and converted into glucose, a sugar that serves as an energy source for the plant.
Chlorophyll:
Definition: Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in the chloroplasts of plants and algae, responsible for
capturing light energy during photosynthesis.
Detailed Explanation: Chlorophyll molecules are located in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
They absorb light energy from the sun, particularly in the blue and red regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum, while reflecting green light, giving plants their characteristic color. This absorbed light energy
is used to drive the chemical reactions of photosynthesis, ultimately converting carbon dioxide and
water into glucose and oxygen.
Thylakoid Membranes:
Definition: Thylakoid membranes are membrane-bound compartments within chloroplasts where the
light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur.
Detailed Explanation: Thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll and other pigments, as well as protein
complexes involved in capturing and converting light energy. Light-dependent reactions take place
within these membranes, where water molecules are split into oxygen, protons, and electrons in a
process called photolysis. The thylakoid membranes also house the electron transport chain, which
generates ATP and NADPH using the energy from light.
Calvin Cycle:
Definition: The Calvin cycle is the series of biochemical reactions that occur in the stroma of
chloroplasts during the light-independent phase of photosynthesis.
Detailed Explanation: In the Calvin cycle, ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent
reactions are used to convert carbon dioxide into glucose. This process involves a series of enzymatic
reactions, including carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration of the starting molecule, ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBP). The Calvin cycle operates in three stages: carbon fixation, reduction, and
regeneration of RuBP. It ultimately produces glucose, which serves as a source of energy and carbon for
the plant.
Questions and Answers on Sugars and Photosynthesis

Definition and Molecular Structures of Sugars

Question 1: What are sugars and how are they classified?

Answer:
Sugars, also known as carbohydrates, are organic compounds composed of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms. They are classified into monosaccharides and
disaccharides based on the number of simple sugar units they contain.

Question 2: Name three common monosaccharides and their chemical formula.

Answer:

1. Glucose (C6H12O6) - This is the primary source of energy for living organisms. It's
a hexose sugar, meaning it contains six carbon atoms.
2. Galactose (C6H12O6) - Found primarily in dairy products, galactose is also a
hexose sugar.
3. Fructose (C6H12O6) - Often referred to as fruit sugar, fructose is found in fruits,
honey, and vegetables. It's also a hexose sugar.

Question 3: What are disaccharides and provide examples with their components.

Answer:
Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharide molecules join together through a
condensation reaction, forming a glycosidic bond. Examples include:

1. Sucrose (C12H22O11) - Composed of glucose and fructose molecules bonded

together. Commonly known as table sugar.
2. Lactose (C12H22O11) - Comprising glucose and galactose molecules bonded
together, found in dairy products like milk.
3. Maltose (C12H22O11) - Formed by two glucose molecules linked together,
produced during the germination of grains.

Question 4: What is invert sugar and how is it formed?

Answer:
Invert sugar is a mixture of glucose and fructose formed by the hydrolysis (chemical
breakdown) of sucrose. This process occurs when sucrose is dissolved in water and
catalyzed by an acid or enzyme, resulting in the separation of glucose and fructose
molecules.
Function of Sugars

Question 5: What is the primary function of sugars in living organisms?

Answer:
Sugars serve as a primary source of energy for living organisms. Glucose, in particular, is
crucial for cellular respiration, providing the necessary energy for metabolic processes.
Additionally, sugars play structural roles in organisms, forming part of cell walls and
providing stability to cellular structures.

Question 6: Why is invert sugar used in various culinary and industrial applications?

Answer:
Invert sugar is sweeter than sucrose and has unique properties that make it desirable in
various culinary and industrial applications. It is used in baking, confectionery, and the
production of syrups and beverages due to its ability to retain moisture, prevent
crystallization, and enhance flavor and texture.

Photosynthesis

Question 7: What is photosynthesis?

Answer:
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light
energy into chemical energy stored in glucose, using carbon dioxide and water.

Question 8: Describe the role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis.

Answer:
Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in the chloroplasts of plants and algae. It captures
light energy during photosynthesis, particularly from the blue and red regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum, and uses this energy to drive the chemical reactions that convert
carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.

Question 9: What are thylakoid membranes and their function in photosynthesis?

Answer:
Thylakoid membranes are membrane-bound compartments within chloroplasts where the
light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur. They contain chlorophyll and other
pigments, as well as protein complexes involved in capturing and converting light energy
into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.

Question 10: Explain the Calvin cycle in photosynthesis.

Answer:
The Calvin cycle is a series of biochemical reactions that occur in the stroma of
chloroplasts during the light-independent phase of photosynthesis. It uses ATP and
NADPH produced during the light-dependent reactions to convert carbon dioxide into
glucose. The cycle involves carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration of ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBP), ultimately producing glucose.
Past Continuous and Present Continuous Review

Present Continuous

Formation: The present continuous tense is formed using the present tense of the verb "to
be" (am/is/are) + the base verb + -ing.

Structure:

• Affirmative: Subject + am/is/are + base verb + -ing

o Example: I am studying.
• Negative: Subject + am/is/are + not + base verb + -ing
o Example: She is not playing.
• Interrogative: Am/Is/Are + subject + base verb + -ing?
o Example: Are they working?

Usage:

1. Actions happening at the moment of speaking:

o Example: She is reading a book right now.
2. Temporary actions:
o Example: He is staying with his friend this week.
3. Future plans or arrangements:
o Example: We are meeting them tomorrow.
4. Trends or repeated actions:
o Example: People are using smartphones more these days.

Examples:

• I am eating lunch.
• They are watching a movie.
• He is not feeling well today.
• Are you coming to the party?

Past Continuous

Formation: The past continuous tense is formed using the past tense of the verb "to be"
(was/were) + the base verb + -ing.

Structure:

• Affirmative: Subject + was/were + base verb + -ing

 o Example: I was studying.
• Negative: Subject + was/were + not + base verb + -ing
o Example: She was not playing.
• Interrogative: Was/Were + subject + base verb + -ing?
o Example: Were they working?

Usage:

1. Actions happening at a specific moment in the past:

o Example: She was reading a book at 8 PM last night.
2. Background actions in progress when another action occurred:
o Example: They were watching TV when the phone rang.
3. Parallel actions:
o Example: While I was cooking, he was cleaning the house.
4. Temporary actions in the past:
o Example: He was living in London last year.

Examples:

• I was eating lunch when you called.

• They were watching a movie at this time yesterday.
• He was not feeling well last night.
• Were you coming to the party?

Practice Questions

Present Continuous:

1. What is the present continuous form of "she (to read)"?

o Answer: She is reading.
2. How do you form a negative sentence in the present continuous for "they (to run)"?
o Answer: They are not running.
3. Make an interrogative sentence with "you (to do)".
o Answer: Are you doing?

Past Continuous:

1. What is the past continuous form of "he (to sleep)"?

o Answer: He was sleeping.
2. How do you form a negative sentence in the past continuous for "we (to talk)"?
o Answer: We were not talking.
3. Make an interrogative sentence with "she (to work)".
o Answer: Was she working?