ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere
gratitude to Mrs.Ramaprabha
Elumalai for their invaluable
guidance and support in the
successful completion of this project.
I would also like to thank our
Principal, Mrs. Saraswathi Goundan,
for providing me with this wonderful
opportunity to research and present
my findings on Soil-less Culture
Techniques and Their Applications.
This project would not have been
possible without their
encouragement and assistance.
INDEX
S.NO Content Page.no
1. Introduction 03
2. Monosaccharides 04
3. Disaccharides 06
4. Oligosaccharides 08
5. Functions of 10
Carbohydrates
6. Sources of 13
Carbohydrates
7. Carbohydrate-Rich 16
Foods
8. Conclusion 22
9. Bibliography 23
INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrates are one of the most essential
biomolecules found in nature and play a crucial
role in sustaining life. They are organic
compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, typically following the formula (CH2O)n ,
where "n" represents the number of carbon
atoms in the molecule. Carbohydrates are also
known as saccharides, derived from the Greek
word "sakcharon," meaning sugar.
These biomolecules are a primary source of
energy for living organisms and serve as building
blocks for various biological structures
In plants, carbohydrates like cellulose form the
structural framework of the cell wall, while in
animals, glycogen serves as the energy reservoir.
Carbohydrates are present in a wide range of
dietary sources, including fruits, vegetables,
grains, and dairy products, making them a vital
component of human nutrition.
With advancements in biochemistry, the
importance of carbohydrates has extended
beyond biology to industrial and pharmaceutical
applications. For instance, carbohydrates are
used in food processing as thickeners and
sweeteners, in biofuel production, and in the
development of biodegradable materials.
Classification of Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are classified based on their
chemical structure and the number of sugar units
they contain. They are broadly divided into
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
oligosaccharides. Each group differs in its
complexity, chemical properties, and biological
functions.
1. Monosaccharides:
Definition:
Monosaccharides are the simplest form of
carbohydrates that cannot be further hydrolyzed
into smaller sugar units. They are the building
blocks of more complex carbohydrates.
General Formula:
(CH2O)n , where 𝑛 is typically 3–7.
Properties:
Sweet-tasting and water-soluble.
Can exist in linear or cyclic forms.
They exhibit optical isomerism (D- and L-
forms).
Examples:
Glucose: Found in fruits, honey, and blood
(primary energy source for cells).
Fructose: Found in fruits and honey; the
sweetest naturally occurring sugar.
Galactose: Found in milk (as part of lactose)
and some polysaccharides.
Ribose and Deoxyribose: Components of
RNA and DNA, respectively.
Biological Importance:
Glucose is the primary fuel for cellular
respiration.
Ribose and deoxyribose are crucial for the
synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids.
2. Disaccharides :
Definition:
Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharide
units linked together by a glycosidic bond. They
are formed through a condensation reaction,
releasing a molecule of water.
General Formula:
C12H22O11
Properties:
Sweet and water-soluble.
Can be reducing or non-reducing sugars
depending on the presence of a free
aldehyde or ketone group.
Examples:
Sucrose (table sugar): Composed of
glucose + fructose; found in sugarcane and
sugar beet.
Lactose (milk sugar): Composed of glucose
+ galactose; found in milk and dairy
products.
Maltose (malt sugar): Composed of two
glucose molecules; found in malted grains
and beer.
Biological Importance:
Sucrose is the main transport form of sugar
in plants.
Lactose is a primary energy source for infants
during nursing.
Maltose is involved in the digestion of starch.
3. Oligosaccharides :
Definition:
Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates composed
of 3–10 monosaccharide units linked by
glycosidic bonds. They are intermediates
between simple sugars and polysaccharides.
General Formula:
C37H62N2O29
Properties:
Generally not sweet-tasting.
Found on the surface of cells, often attached
to lipids or proteins.
Examples:
Raffinose: A trisaccharide composed of
galactose, glucose, and fructose; found in
beans, cabbage, and broccoli.
Stachyose: A tetrasaccharide found in
legumes like soybeans.
Fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS): Found in
fruits and vegetables; used as prebiotics.
Biological Importance:
Serve as prebiotics, promoting the growth of
beneficial gut bacteria.
Play a role in cell recognition and signaling
(e.g., glycoproteins and glycolipids).
Used in the food industry as low-calorie
sweeteners and stabilizers.
Functions of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are essential biomolecules that
perform a wide range of functions in living
organisms. These functions go beyond their role
as a primary energy source and include
structural, metabolic, and regulatory roles. Below
are the detailed functions of carbohydrates:
1. Energy Source
Carbohydrates are the primary and most readily
available source of energy for the body.
Glucose is the key molecule metabolized during
cellular respiration to produce ATP (adenosine
triphosphate), the energy currency of cells.
Each gram of carbohydrate provides
approximately 4 kilocalories of energy.
2. Energy Storage
Carbohydrates store energy for future use in the
form of glycogen in animals and starch in plants.
These storage forms are mobilized when the
body requires energy.
3. Structural Role
Carbohydrates are key components of structural
elements in plants, animals, and microorganisms.
Cellulose, a polysaccharide, forms the structural
framework of plant cell walls, providing rigidity
and support.
Chitin, found in the exoskeletons of arthropods
and cell walls of fungi, also has structural
functions.
4. Role in DNA and RNA
Carbohydrates play a fundamental role in
genetics as they form part of the structure of
nucleic acids.
Ribose is a component of RNA, and deoxyribose
is a component of DNA, providing the sugar
backbone for nucleotide chains.
5. Cellular Communication
Carbohydrates are involved in cell recognition
and signaling processes.
Glycoproteins and glycolipids present on cell
membranes act as recognition sites for cell-cell
communication and immune response.
Sources of Carbohydrates :
Carbohydrates are widely distributed in nature
and can be obtained from various plant-based
and animal-based food sources. They are
classified as simple or complex based on their
chemical structure and the speed at which they
are digested. Below is a detailed overview of
carbohydrate sources:
1. Plant-Based Sources
The majority of carbohydrates in the human diet
come from plants. These sources include:
a) Cereals and Grains
Cereals are rich in starch, a complex
carbohydrate.
Examples: Rice, wheat, corn, oats, barley, and
millet.
b) Vegetables
Starchy vegetables contain significant amounts
of complex carbohydrates, while non-starchy
vegetables provide dietary fiber.
c) Fruits
Fruits are rich in natural sugars like fructose,
sucrose, and glucose. They also contain dietary
fiber.
Examples: Apples, bananas, mangoes, oranges,
berries, and grapes.
e) Nuts and Seeds
Nuts and seeds contain some carbohydrates,
mainly in the form of dietary fiber.
Examples: Almonds, walnuts, flaxseeds, chia
seeds, and sunflower seeds.
f) Tubers and Roots
These are rich in starch and provide a significant
source of carbohydrates.
Examples: Carrots, beets, and turnips.
2. Animal-Based Sources
While most carbohydrates come from plants,
some are found in animal products:
a) Milk and Dairy Products
Dairy contains lactose, a disaccharide
carbohydrate.
Examples: Milk, yogurt, cheese, and buttermilk.
b) Glycogen in Meat
Small amounts of glycogen, a stored form of
glucose, are present in the liver and muscle
tissues of animals.
Example: Organ meats like liver.
Carbohydrate-Rich Foods :
Carbohydrates are a primary source of energy
and are found in a variety of foods. They are
categorized based on their type: simple
carbohydrates (sugars) and complex
carbohydrates (starch and fiber). Below is a
detailed list of foods rich in carbohydrates:
1. Cereals and Grains :
Cereals and grains are major sources of complex
carbohydrates, particularly starch.
Examples:
Rice (white and brown)
Wheat (whole wheat, refined flour)
Oats
Corn
Barley
Quinoa
2. Vegetables
Starchy Vegetables:
These are high in carbohydrates, especially
starch.
Potatoes
Sweet potatoes
Corn
Peas
Yams
Cassava
Non-Starchy Vegetables:
Contain carbohydrates primarily in the form of
fiber.
Broccoli
Spinach
Kale
Cauliflower
3. Fruits
Fruits are natural sources of simple sugars like
fructose, glucose, and sucrose, along with fiber.
Examples:
Apples
Bananas
Oranges
Mangoes
Berries (strawberries, blueberries)
Grapes
Watermelon
Difference Between Good and
Bad Carbohydrates :
Good Bad
Aspect Carbohydra Carbohydra
tes tes
Definition Nutrient-rich, Highly
unprocessed or processed or
minimally refined
processed carbohydrates
carbohydrates with little
that provide nutritional
energy, fiber, value, often
vitamins, and high in sugars
minerals. and low in
fiber.
Examples Whole grains White bread,
(brown rice, pastries,
quinoa, oats), sugary cereals,
fruits, candy, soda,
vegetables, and other junk
legumes. foods.
Nutritional High in fiber, Low in
vitamins, nutrients;
minerals, and often high in
antioxidants. added sugars
and unhealthy
fats.
Additives No added Often contains
sugars or added sugars,
unhealthy fats. unhealthy fats,
and artificial
ingredients.
Effect on Low glycemic High glycemic
Blood Sugar index (GI); index (GI);
slowly digested quickly
and absorbed, digested,
leading to causing rapid
gradual spikes in blood
increases in sugar and
blood sugar energy
and sustained crashes.
energy.
Taste Naturally Intense
sweet or mild sweetness or
flavor. artificial flavors
due to added
sugar.
Impact on Helps maintain Contributes to
a healthy weight gain
Weight
weight due to due to empty
high satiety calories and
and slower rapid blood
digestion. sugar spikes.
Conclusion
In conclusion, carbohydrates play a crucial role in
providing energy to the body, but their quality
varies significantly. Good carbohydrates, found in
whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes,
are nutrient-dense, high in fiber, and help
maintain stable blood sugar levels, supporting
long-term health and weight management. In
contrast, bad carbohydrates, found in processed
foods like sugary snacks, white bread, and soft
drinks, are low in nutrients, high in added sugars,
and can lead to rapid blood sugar spikes, weight
gain, and increased risks of chronic diseases like
diabetes and heart disease. Therefore, focusing
on consuming good carbohydrates while limiting
bad ones is essential for maintaining overall
health and well-being.
Bibliography:
•HTTPS://BYJUS.COM/CHEMISTRY/CLASSIFICATION-OF-CARBOHYD RATES-
AND-ITS-STRUCTURE /
HTTPS://WWW.VEDANTU.COM/CHEMISTRY/STRUCTURE -AND-CLA
SSIFICATION -OF-CARBOHYDRATES
• HTTPS://WWW.ALLABOUTCHEMISTRY .NET/CARBOHYDRATE -ISC-C
HEMISTRY-PROJECT/
HTTPS://BYJUS.COM/CHEMISTRY/CLASSIFICATION -OF-CARBOHYD RATES-
AND-ITS-STRUCTURE /
• HTTPS://WWW.VEDANTU.COM/CHEMISTRY/STRUCTURE -AND-CLA
SSIFICATION -OF-CARBOHYDRATES
