Carbohydrates

1. Functional Properties of Sugars

1.1 Sweetness

• Sugars like sucrose, glucose, and fructose provide sweetness, which enhances
the taste of food.

• Different sugars have varying sweetness levels (e.g., fructose is sweeter than
sucrose).

• Sweetness is crucial in balancing flavors in desserts, beverages, and sauces.

1.2 Solubility

• Sugars dissolve in water, forming syrups that affect texture and mouthfeel.

• Higher solubility at high temperatures allows sugar crystallization in products

like candy.

• The ability to dissolve easily helps in the preparation of beverages and syrups.

1.3 Caramelization

• When heated above their melting point, sugars undergo caramelization, leading
to color and flavor changes.

• Used in making caramel candies, baked goods, and roasted coffee.

• The process develops a rich, deep brown color and a complex, sweet aroma.

1.4 Maillard Reaction (Non-Enzymatic Browning)

• Reaction between reducing sugars (like glucose) and proteins (amino acids)
during heating.

• Responsible for brown color and complex flavors in bread crusts, roasted meat,
and fried foods.

• This reaction enhances the sensory appeal of many cooked and baked foods.
1.5 Hygroscopicity (Moisture Absorption)

• Sugars absorb moisture from the air, preventing food from drying out.

• Used in baked goods to maintain softness.

• This property is important in keeping cookies and cakes fresh for longer.

1.6 Preservation

• High sugar concentrations create a low water activity environment, preventing

microbial growth.

• Used in jams, jellies, and syrups for preservation.

• This extends the shelf life of food products without artificial preservatives.

1.7 Fermentation

• Sugars act as a substrate for yeast and bacteria to produce alcohol, acids, and
gases.

• Essential in making bread, beer, wine, and yogurt.

• Fermentation not only improves texture but also enhances flavor complexity.

1.8 Freezing Point Depression

• Sugars lower the freezing point of water, preventing the formation of large ice
crystals.

• Important in ice cream and frozen desserts for smooth texture.

• This property ensures a creamy and consistent texture in frozen foods.

2. Functional Properties of Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates) mainly function as thickeners, stabilizers,

and texturizers in food. They play a vital role in improving the quality and shelf life of
processed foods.
2.1 Thickening and Gel Formation

• Starches (from corn, potato, wheat) swell and form gels when heated with
water, thickening sauces, soups, and puddings.

• Pectins form gels in jams and jellies.

• Alginates, carrageenan, and agar (from seaweed) form gels in dairy and
confectionery products.

• These gelling agents are widely used in the food industry for consistency and
stability.

2.2 Water-Holding Capacity

• Polysaccharides like gums and dietary fiber absorb water, improving food
texture and moisture retention.

• Used in bakery products to prevent dryness.

• This property enhances the softness of bread and cakes over time.

2.3 Stabilization and Emulsification

• Polysaccharides like guar gum, xanthan gum, and pectin stabilize emulsions in
salad dressings, sauces, and dairy products.

• Prevents separation of ingredients like oil and water.

• These stabilizers help maintain a uniform texture in various food formulations.

2.4 Fat Replacers

• Modified starches and gums mimic fat texture, reducing calorie content in low-
fat foods like mayonnaise and dressings.

• This helps in creating healthier food options without compromising texture.

2.5 Dietary Fiber and Digestive Health

• Cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin contribute to fiber content, improving

digestion and gut health.
 • Reduces cholesterol levels and helps in weight management.

• Fiber-rich foods are essential for maintaining a healthy digestive system.

2.6 Film Formation

• Some polysaccharides (like starch and alginate) form edible films that act as
protective coatings for fruits and vegetables.

• These coatings extend shelf life and reduce moisture loss in fresh produce.

2.7 Syneresis Control (Prevents Water Loss)

• Polysaccharides help retain water and prevent the release of liquid from gels
(important in yogurt and jellies).

• This improves the stability and consistency of gel-based foods.

2.8 Freeze-Thaw Stability

• Starches and gums prevent ice crystal formation and texture degradation in
frozen foods.

• This property ensures that frozen foods maintain their original texture after
thawing.

Chemical Reactions of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates, as essential biomolecules, undergo various chemical reactions that

influence their properties, functionality, and behavior in biological systems and food
processing. These reactions impact food texture, stability, taste, and shelf life. Below are
some key chemical reactions of carbohydrates explained in a detailed yet exam-friendly
manner.

1. Hydrolysis of Carbohydrates

Definition
Hydrolysis is the breakdown of carbohydrates into simpler sugars through the addition
of water molecules. This reaction is catalyzed by acids, bases, or specific enzymes and
plays a crucial role in digestion, food processing, and industrial applications.

Types of Hydrolysis

1. Acid Hydrolysis:

• Strong acids like HCl or H₂SO₄ break down polysaccharides into

monosaccharides.

• Example: Starch hydrolysis in the presence of HCl forms glucose.

• Used in the food industry to produce glucose syrups and invert sugar.

2. Enzymatic Hydrolysis:

• Enzymes like amylase, maltase, lactase, and sucrase catalyze hydrolysis

reactions.

• Example:

• Amylase converts starch into maltose and glucose.

• Lactase hydrolyzes lactose into glucose and galactose.

• Sucrase (Invertase) splits sucrose into glucose and fructose.

• Enzymatic hydrolysis is highly specific, ensuring selective breakdown of

carbohydrates.

3. Base-Catalyzed Hydrolysis:

• Alkaline hydrolysis is slower and is used in certain chemical modifications of

carbohydrates.

Significance in Foods

• Essential for digestion and absorption of carbohydrates in the human body.

• Used in the preparation of corn syrup, malt extract, and artificial sweeteners.

• Plays a role in the production of beer, bread, and dairy alternatives (lactose-
free milk).

2. Enolization of Carbohydrates
Definition

Enolization is the conversion of a carbohydrate’s keto or aldehyde group into an enol

form, containing a double bond and hydroxyl (-OH) group. This reaction typically occurs
under alkaline conditions and is a key step in sugar degradation and browning
reactions.

Mechanism

• When sugars are heated in basic solutions, they undergo tautomerization,

where the keto (ketose) or aldehyde (aldose) group transforms into an enol (a
compound with a hydroxyl group attached to a double bond).

• This reaction is reversible and often leads to further degradation or

rearrangement of sugars.

Importance in Food Chemistry

• Affects sugar stability under different pH conditions.

• Plays a role in Maillard browning (discussed later), which influences color and
flavor in baked goods and roasted foods.

• Important in sugar caramelization and flavor enhancement in food processing.

3. Mutarotation of Carbohydrates
Definition

Mutarotation is the spontaneous change in the optical rotation of a sugar solution due
to the interconversion between its α- and β-anomeric forms in aqueous solutions.

Mechanism

• Sugars with a free anomeric carbon (like glucose) exist in two cyclic forms: α
and β anomers.

• In solution, they continuously interconvert via an open-chain form, leading to a

gradual shift in optical rotation.

• Example:

• α-D-Glucose (specific rotation: +112°)

• β-D-Glucose (specific rotation: +19°)

 • The final equilibrium mixture has a rotation of +52.7°, a balance between α
and β forms.

Significance in Foods and Industry

• Affects sweetness perception in sugar syrups and honey.

• Important in sugar crystallization during candy-making and chocolate

processing.

• Plays a role in the fermentation of sugars by yeast in alcohol production.

4. Dehydration of Carbohydrates

Definition

Dehydration is the removal of water molecules from carbohydrates when exposed to

heat, acid, or chemical catalysts. This reaction leads to the formation of furan
derivatives, caramelization products, and other volatile compounds.

Mechanism

• Monosaccharides lose water when heated or treated with strong acids like
H₂SO₄.

• Example:

• Fructose and glucose form hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) when heated.

• Pentoses like xylose form furfural, used in food and chemical industries.

Significance in Foods

• Leads to caramelization, a key reaction in food browning.

• Contributes to aroma and flavor development in cooked and roasted foods.

• Important in sugar refining and processing.

5. Browning Reactions
Carbohydrates undergo browning reactions, which contribute to the color and flavor of
many cooked foods. There are two major types:
A. Caramelization

• Definition: The thermal decomposition of sugars at high temperatures, leading

to browning and flavor formation.

• Mechanism: Sugars break down into smaller volatile compounds, creating

caramel color and a rich, complex taste.

• Example: Formation of caramel in sugar syrups, baked goods, and roasted

coffee.

B. Maillard Reaction

• Definition: A reaction between reducing sugars and amino acids under heat,
producing brown pigments and flavor compounds.

• Example: The browning of bread crusts, grilled meats, and roasted coffee.

• Significance: Enhances food taste, texture, and aroma.

6. Gelatinization of Starch

Definition

Gelatinization is the swelling and hydration of starch granules when heated with water,
leading to thickening and viscosity changes.

Mechanism

• Starch granules absorb water and swell upon heating.

• Hydrogen bonds between starch molecules weaken, allowing amylose and

amylopectin to interact with water.

• The result is a thickened solution or gel, depending on starch type.

Importance in Foods

• Basis for sauces, gravies, puddings, and bakery products.

• Improves texture in soups, baby foods, and dairy desserts.

7. Retrogradation of Starch

Definition

Retrogradation is the rearrangement and crystallization of starch molecules, leading to

hardening and staling in starch-containing foods.

Mechanism

• When gelatinized starch cools, amylose molecules realign, forming a firm and
less soluble structure.

• Over time, water molecules are expelled, causing texture changes.

Food Significance

• Leads to staling of bread and firmness in refrigerated starch-based foods.

• Controlled by adding emulsifiers, fats, or modified starches.

• Used in instant foods to create desired textures.