(shortened version)

(shortened version)
 CORROSION is the degradation of materials by reaction with
surrounding media through chemical or electrochemical process

Cathode Site : 2 H2O + O2 + 4 e -> 4 OH-

[Water + Oxygen + Electron (Iron) = Hydroxyl OXYGEN
Ions] OXYGEN
OO2
2

Cathode Site : 2 Fe++ + 4 OH- -> 2 Fe (OH)2 WATER

WATER
[Iron Ions + Hydroxyl Ions = Ferrous Hydroxide] HH2OO
2

Anode Site :
2 Fe (OH)2 + H2O + ½ O2 -> 2 Fe (OH)3
[Iron Hydroxide + Water + Oxygen = Iron
Hydroxide (RUST)]

STEEL (IRON), Fe RUST, Fe (OH)3

12/06/25 3
 Hydrogen Gas

Acid Solution Droplet

Cathode (+)
e- e -
Cathode (+)

Anode (-)

STEEL Iron (Fe+++) Ions

2 H + + 2 e -  H2
[ Acid Solution + Iron Ion = Hydrogen Gas ]

12/06/25 4
Rust Grade – A Rust Grade – B Rust Grade – C Rust Grade – D
100% Millscale Millscale + Rust 100% Rust Rust Pits

12/06/25 5
(shortened version)
1. USE of CORROSION RESISTANT
MATERIALS
 Stainless Steel & Similar Alloys
 Galvanized (Metal Coating) Steels
2. PAINT & COATING APPLICATION
 Protective Coating / Painting Systems
(Powder/ Liquid)
 Anti-Foulings / Other Similar Specialised
Coatings/ Systems
3. CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM
 Sacrificial Anode System (Galvanic
Anode)
 Impressed Current Protection System
(ICCP – Inert Anode)
4. COMBINATION of PROTECTION SYSTEM

12/06/25 7
 METAL / ALLOY Potential in VOLTS
(Normally Used in Offshore/ Marine Structures) (Ag/AgCl ref.)
MAGNESIUM / Mg-6Al-3Zn/ ALUMINUM Anode -1.15 to -1.64
Al 5257-H25/ ZINC (MIL-A-18001G) -1.03 to -1.13
ALUMINUM Alloys (5083-0; X7005-T63; 5456-H321) -0.96 to -0.98
ALUMINUM Anode (5Zn)/ ALUMINUM Alloys -0.65 to -0.95
2% Ni CAST IRON/ Cast IRON / Carbon Steel A1010 -0.61 to -0.68 Note:
Seawater Velocity = 7.8 to 13 ft/sec
Hi-Strength, Low-Alloy STEEL/ 430 SS (Active) -0.57 to -0.61 Temperature = 11 to 30 deg C
304 STAINLESS STEEL (Active) / 410 SS (Active) -0.52 to -0.53 Potentials are measured
Versus Silver-Silver Chloride
Ni Resist Type 1/ Tobin BRONZE -0.40 to -0.47 Reference Electrode (SSC)
Yellow BRASS/ COPPER / Admiralty BRASS (24.6 C) -0.36
Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE) =
Red BRASS/ G BRONZE/ Admiralty BRASS (11.9 C) -0.30 to -0.33 +0.245 Volt
Aluminum BRASS/ 90-10 CUPRONickel (0.82 & 1.4 Fe) -0.28 to -0.29 Silver/ Silver Chloride (SSC) =
+0.25 Volt
70-30 & 90-10 CUPRONICKEL (0.45, 0.51, 1.4 & 1.5 Fe) -0.22 to -0.25 Copper/ Copper Sulfate (CSE) =
430 SS (Passive)/ 70-30 CuproNICKEL (0.51Fe) -0.20 to -0.26 +0.32 Volt
Zinc Electrode = -0.78 Volt
NICKEL 200/ 316 SS (Active)/ INCONEL 600 -0.17 to -0.20
410 SS (Passive)/ PDA TITANIUM/ SILVER -0.13 to -0.15
BI TITANIUM/ 304 SS (Passive)/ HASTELLOY C -0.08 to 0.10
MONEL 400/ 316 SS (Passive) -0.06 to -0.08
PLATINUM +0.26
GRAPHITE +0.25

12/06/25 8
 # 3 - SURFACE # 5 - GENERIC TYPE # 6 - PAINT
PREPARATION METHOD SELECTION APPLICATION METHOD

# 4 - COATING SYSTEM
1.) Primer Coat # 7 - TOTAL DRY FILM
2.) Intermediate Coat THICKNESS
3.) Finish Coat

# 2 - ENVIRONMENT
topcoat

midcoat TOTAL DFT

primer

# 1 - SUBSTRATE
12/06/25 9
(shortened version)
 RELATIVE HUMIDITY
85% max (40-70%)

AIR / AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

35 oC (20 - 25 oC)

STEEL SURFACE TEMPERATURE

3 - 5 oC above DEW POINT
DEW POINT TEMPERATURE
3 - 5 oC below STEEL TEMP

Dew point
calculator

STEEL

12/06/25 11
 ITEM DEFINITION RANGE MAX. LIMIT*

1 – AIR / AMBIENT Prevailing temperature of 20 - 30 35oC

Temperature in oC the air/ atmosphere.
2 – METAL or STEEL Actual skin temperature of 30 - 40 40oC
SURFACE Temperature in oC the metal or steel, Usually
10-20oC higher than air
when exposed directly
under the sunlight.
3 – PAINT Temperature in oC Ideal temperature for paint 15 - 25 20oC
for application & proper film
formation.

4 – DEW POINT Temperature Maximum temperature at - 3 to -5oC - 3oC below

in oC which moisture / water below Metal ( Steel)
vapour condenses. Steel Surface
Surface
5 – RELATIVE HUMIDITY in % Relative quantity of 40 - 70 85 %
moisture/ water vapor in the
air.

* Acceptable limits for blast cleaning and painting (Hempel).

12/06/25 12
 Barometer/ Thermometer RH & Thermometer
(Wall Mounted) with Probe (Digital)

RH & Air Thermometer

with Probe (Digital)

1a – Sling Psychrometer
or Hygrometer

Sling Hygrometer
(Bacharach Type) Surface Thermometer
with Probe (Digital)
Dew Point Calculator
Dial Surface Thermometer
(Magnetic Backing)
12/06/25 13
 Dry Bulb

Wet Bulb Dial Gage Digital Probe

Whirling / Sling PSYCHROMETER or

HYGROMETER :
Dry Bulb Thermometer – measures air or
ambient temperature (from 10 – 50 oC) liquid
Mercury filled. Electronic Digital Probe & Magnetic Dial
Wet Bulb Thermometer – measures wet METAL SURFACETHERMOMETER :
temperature. Mercury filled thermometer with Measures metal surface temperature (from 10 – 100 oC).
Fabric wick cover & tube water container.

12/06/25 14
(shortened version)
 1 - OIL & GREASE Suitable DETERGENT + WATER

2 - SOLUBLE SALT WATER Washing (WATER JETTING)

3 - DUST VACUUM CLEANING

4 - MOISTURE HEATING & VENTILLATION

12/06/25 16
5 - MILLSCALE & RUST Abrasive BLAST, Water Jetting, TOOL Cleaning

12/06/25 17
 SURFACE BLAST CLEANING STANDARD
ISO 8501- 1 and/or SSPC Visual 1

SURFACE ROUGHNESS or ANCHOR PROFILE

ISO 8503 – 1 (Comparator Gages)

SURFACE CHLORIDES or SOLUBLE SALTS

ISO 8502 – 6 & 9 (Bresle Method)

12/06/25 18
Old Paint Removal

Rust Removal

Blasting Abrasive

Blast Cleaning Equipment

12/06/25 19
 RUST GRADE STANDARDS

Rust Grade A Rust Grade B

Adherent Mill Scale Mill Scale + Rust

Rust Grade C Rust Grade D

100% Rust / Corrosion Pitted Rust

Note : Extract from Pictorial Standards – ISO 8501-1

12/06/25 20
 Sa 3 – WHITE METAL BLAST CLEANING GRADE (SSPC-SP5)

A – Sa 3
B – Sa 3

C – Sa 3 D – Sa 3

12/06/25 21
 Sa 2 ½ (2.5) – NEAR WHITE METAL BLAST CLEANING GRADE
(SSPC-SP10)

A – Sa 2.5

B – Sa 2.5

D – Sa 2.5
C – Sa 2.5

12/06/25 22
 Sa 2 – COMMERCIAL BLAST CLEANING GRADE (SSPC-SP6)

A – Sa 2

B – Sa 2

D – Sa 2
C – Sa 2

12/06/25 23
 Sa 1 – BRUSH-OFF/ SWEEP BLAST CLEANING GRADE (SSPC-SP7)

B – Sa 1

A – Sa 1

C – Sa 1 D – Sa 1

12/06/25 24
 Usually used for Maintenance & Repair Works or where
Abrasive blast cleaning is restricted .

Needle Gun

Peening Hammer

Power Jig

12/06/25 25
 Power Steel Brush

Scraper

Hand Steel Brush

Needle Gun

12/06/25 26
 Power Grinder

Power Grinder / Cutter

Grinder Disc

12/06/25 27
 St 3 – POWER TOOL CLEANING GRADE (SSPC-SP3)

A – St 3 B – St 3

D – St 3

C – St 3

12/06/25 28
 St 2 – HAND OR MANUAL TOOL CLEANING GRADE (SSPC-SP2)

A – St 2 B – St 2

D – St 2

C – St 2

12/06/25 29
 Fl – FLAME CLEANING GRADE

12/06/25 30
 ISO 8501-1 SSPC (Steel DESCRIPTION
Structure Painting
Council)
Sa 1 SP 7 Brush-Off or Sweep Blast Cleaning
Grade
- SP 1 Solvent Cleaning

Sa 2 SP 6 Commercial Blast Cleaning Grade

Sa 2 ½ or Sa 2.5 SP 10 Near White Metal Blast Cleaning Grade

Sa 3 SP 5 White Metal Blast Cleaning Grade

St 2 SP 2 Hand or Manual Tool Cleaning Grade

St 3 SP 3 Mechanical or Power Tool Cleaning

Grade
- SP 11 Combined Hand or Power Tool Cleaning
Grade (Create a 25 microns Profile)

Note : Indicative closest/nearest equivalent only between SSPC with ISO. Refer
to actual pictorial standards and detailed description. Both standards are viewed
without magnification.

12/06/25 31
 SURFACE TYPE Sa 2.5 / SP 10 Sa 3 / SP 5
Near White Metal White Metal
New Steel Kilogram Meter2 / Kilogram/ Meter2 /
Rust Grades A & B / Meter2 Man- Meter2 Man-
Hour Hour
SMOOTH 40 9 60 6
NORMAL 45 8 65 5.5
COMPLICATED 60 6 80 4.5
Note: Capacity = Kilogram per Square Meter & Consumption = Square Meter per Man
Hour. Indicative values only using mineral grit abrasives.

12/06/25 32
WATER JETTING (NACE/ SSPC-SP12) – process by which water at a
pressure higher than 70 MPa (700 Bar; 10,000 psi) is forced through a
nozzle for the purpose of cleaning a surface (NOTE: but cannot
create a profile).

12/06/25 33
 ISO 8503 – 1:1988

Medium Coarse Depth

= 50 – 75 microns Rz Sharp / Angular Medium

Dimpled/ Rounded Less/ Low

Note: Grit create sharp & angular profile while shot create dimpled & rounded
Profile. High profiles result to increase in primer consumption known as
DEAD VOLUME due to increased surface area & porosity.

12/06/25 34
 180
160 0
140
25
120
100 50
80 75
60 100
40 125
20
150
0
Rugotest ISO Keane- 175
No. 3 8503G Tator 200
25 – 180 microns 25 – 150 microns G/S
35 – 140 / 10 – 100 microns

Note : Rugotest No. 3 – Swiss origin (Ra), ISO 8503 G (Grit) & Keane
Tator - US origin G/S (Grit & Shot), both are Rz values.

12/06/25 35
 1 – Rugotest No. 3 Comparator
2 – Keane-Tator G/S Comparator
3 – ISO 8503G Comparator

5 – Replica Testex Tape & Micrometer

4 – Profile Needle Gage (Direct)

12/06/25 36
 e
ISO 8503G Comparator consists of 4
segments (quadrant) indicating surface
profiles/ roughness ranging from fine
to coarse for visual (or magnified)
Checking profile of blast cleaned steel comparison.
surfaces with Keane-Tator Comparator &
Light Magnifier.

12/06/25 37
 2 – Compare the Surface Roughness felt on a
new blast cleaned steel (biting sensation)
against with the comparator corresponding
1 – Using a fingernail, feel the Surface Roughness using the fingernail. Repeat the
Roughness created on a new blast cleaned steps 2-3 times until a closest comparison
steel (biting sensation). Ensure to cover all or similarity is achieved.
surfaces and make at least 2-3 times feel.

12/06/25 38
 Step 1 – TESTEX Replica Tape – Take surface
Profile imprint on the blast cleaned surface
using a TESTEX replica tape by affixing on the
surface and by rubbing using a plastic pointer
with rounded end or pencil rubber eraser.

Step 2 – Micrometer – Remove tape carefully

and check surface profile imprint on the
tape using Micrometer. Ensure to zero the
Micrometer and deduct the thickness of the
Tape (eg. 2 mils or 50 microns), this will give
the profile reading. Keep tape for record.

12/06/25 39
 BRESLE’ Method Field Test Kit
1 – Bresle Sampler Extraction Cell
2 – Syringes
3 – Distilled Water (with Zero
Conductivity)
4 – Pocket Conductivity Meter (Digital)
5 – Steel Surface Dial Thermometer
(with Magnetic back)
6 – Blast Cleaned Steel Surface

12/06/25 40
 Step 4
Step 3 Open a bottle of the
Step 1 Remove the entrapped Distilled water and
Step 2
Carefully open a air inside the cell fill in the syringe
Carefully affix the
BRESLE sampler cell using the syringe to approx. 25 ml.
BRESLE sampler cell
& remove backing. create vacuum.
on blast cleaned
steel surfaces.

12/06/25 41
 Step 7
Transfer the extracted
Step 5 water into the clean
Conductivity Meter Step 8
Inject & fill-in with 3.5 ml Step 6
sampling cup. Measure out the
of distilled water into Carefully extract the conductivity of the
the cell with the syringe. distilled water from extract with the
Massage lightly the cell the cell with the Conductivity Meter.
to stir for 1-2 minutes. syringe. Ensure that Record & run a blank.
same volume is
extracted.

12/06/25 42
Conductivity, Equiv. Equiv. NaCl Remarks
mS/m* @ 20 oC Chloride microgram /
microgram / cm2 @ 20oC
cm2 @ 20oC Temperature of Correction
Water, oC Factor
0.50 0.70 1.00 mS = Micro 15.0 1.10
Siemens
17.5 1.05
1.00 1.30 2.10
20.0 1.00
2.00 2.60 4.20 22.5 0.95
3.00 3.90 6.20 25.0 0.90
4.00 5.20 8.30
5.00 6.50 10.40 NOTE:
5.30 7.00 11.20 Always run a blank test with the distilled
water used for salt extraction & check
5.50 7.20 11.40 Maximum both water temperature & conductivity
Limit
6.00 7.80 12.50

Temperature Corrected Conductivity , mS/m = Actual Water Temperature x

Correction Factor @20 degree C. Conductivity Reading – Blank Conductivity.

12/06/25 43
(shortened version)
 THICKNESS
THINNER
TEMPERATURE
TIME

PAINT IS A LIQUID MATERIAL WHICH WHEN

APPLIED TO A WELL PREPARED & SUITABLE
SUBSTRATE/ SURFACE IN A THIN LAYER OR
FILM WILL DRY TO FORM A COHESIVE AND
ADHERENT FILM

12/06/25 45
1 – BINDER or RESIN 2 - SOLVENTS

PROVIDES :
PROVIDES : Dissolution of Binders
Generic Classification Application Properties
Volume Solids Evaporation Rate (Drying Time)
Adhesion & Cohesion Flash Point
Anti-Corrosion Properties
Chemical Resistance Examples : Xylene, Methyl Iso-
Abrasion / Mechanical Resistance Butyl Ketone, Isopropyl Alcohol

Examples : Epoxy, Polyurethanes,

Acrylic, Alkyd, Silicones
12/06/25 46
 3 - PIGMENT 4 - EXTENDER

PROVIDES :
PROVIDES : Economy
Color Application Properties
Opacity or Hiding Power Mechanical Strength
Volume Solids Gloss Control
Anti-Corrosion Properties Rheology & Viscosity
Fouling Protection Fouling Protection
Anti-Corrosion Properties
Examples : Titanium Dioxide, Zinc
Phosphate, Iron Oxide, Cuprous Oxide Examples: Dolomite, Chalk, Bauxite,
(except Lead and Chromates) Silica Flume, Cuprous Oxide

12/06/25 47
 PROVIDES
Special properties with
regard to manufacture,
5 - ADDITIVE application and storage

Examples: Siccative or Metal Solution Driers, Anti-skinning & Wetting Agents

12/06/25 48
 Raw Materials

1. PRE-MIXING

2. GRINDING/
DISPERSION

12/06/25 49
 3. FINAL MIXING

4. QUALITY CONTROL

Filling & Lidding

Finish Goods WH
12/06/25 50
 Finish Goods Ware House

QC Laboratory with Color Computer

Multi-Tint Small Batch Tinting Machine

12/06/25 51
(shortened version)
 •Oxidatively Curing
Asphalt, Tar
and
Bitumen Drying Oil
Chlorinated Rubber Alkyd
Vinyl Modified Alkyd
Acrylic
Epoxy
Polyurethane
Polysiloxane
Oxiarane Ester

Emulsion
Latex/ Dispersion
Waterborne Zinc Silicate
Silicone

•Chemically Curing
•Physically Drying

12/06/25 53
 PHYSICALLY DRYING CHEMICALLY CURING*
BITUMEN/ ASPHALT/ COAL TAR – Spin- DRYING OILS / OLEORESINOUS - Natural oils are
offs from petrochemical plant or triglycerides such as tung oil combined with other
petroleum cut backs. resins.
ACRYLIC – Polymeric derivatives of ALKYDS, MODIFIED ALKYDS - Reaction product of
acrylic & meth-acrylic acid. a polybasic acid, polyhydric alcohol and a
monobasic fatty acid or oil.

CHLORINATED RUBBER - Natural rubber EPOXY (AMINE & AMIDE) - Condensation of

reacted with chlorine. bisphenol A & epichlohydrin.

VINYL / VINYL CHLORIDE - POLYURETHANE / ISOCYANATE – ALIPHATIC &

Copolymerization of vinyl chloride and AROMATIC) - Alcoholysis products of drying oils
vinyl acetate. are reacted with isocyanate.
EMULSION, WATER-BASED or WATER- ALKYL ZINC SILICATES / INORGANIC ZINC
BORNE, LATEX , CO-POLYMERS & SILICATES – Ethyl zinc silicate (solvent borne &
DISPERSION - Acrylic, Vinyl or Vinyl - water borne)
Acrylic
POLYSILOXANES / SILICONES - Formed by
chemical modification of quartz, sand, silicon and
organic resins.

12/06/25 54
 PHYSICALLY DRYING CHEMICALLY CURING*
Common Properties – Solvent Borne Common Properties – Solvent Borne
THERMOPLASTIC - dry film property to NON-THERMOPLASTIC – not affected when
soften when exposed at temp. above 35 deg exposed at temp above 35 deg. C but has
C & hardens as temp. cools off. specific dry service temp resistance.

REVERSIBLE – dry film property to soften/ IRREVERSIBLE – When fully cured, the film
dissolves when wiped with its thinner. cannot be affected by thinner/ solvent.

SOLVENT SENSITIVE – same as reversible RESISTANT TO SOLVENT (Own) – same as

property. above.

EXCELLENT RECOATABILITY – can be CRITICAL RECOAT INTERVAL – Recoating

recoated immediately when film fully dry. requires minimum recoat interval time.

TEMPERATURE INDEPENDENT ON FILM TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT ON FILM

FORMATION – No specific temperature FORMATION – Highly dependent on specific
requirement for drying of film. min. temp to achieve excellent formation of
the film.

*Oxidative Curing Types has similar properties.

12/06/25 55
 Classification of Hempel Paints

Every Hempel product identified by means of a 5

digit Quality number and a 5 digit colour number

Quality Number; 1st digit indicates

0 : Clear varnish , Thinner
1 : Primer for steel & Other metals
2 : Primer for non metallic substrates
3 : paste product, high solids matl eq: Filler,
4 : intermediate coating, high build
5 : enamel , Top coat
6 : Commercial product
7 : Antifouling
8 : Misc
9 : Misc eq : Curing agent , cleaning agent

12/06/25 56
 Classification of Hempel Paints

Every Hempel product identified by means of a 5

digit Quality number and a 5 digit colour number

Quality Number; 2nd digit indicates

0 : Asphalt, Bitumen , Tar
1 : Oxidation Drying, long oil alkyd( 60 %
fatty )
2 : Oxidation Drying, medium -long oil alkyd
3 : Short oil alkyd
4 : Misc
5 : Chemically curing
6 : Phisically Drying
7 : Chemically curing / Two component ;
epoxy
8 : waterborne
9 : Misc

12/06/25 57
 Classification of Hempel Paints

Example :
Hempatex Enamel 56360
5 ---- Top Coat
6 ---- Physically drying
3 6 ---- Serial Number
0 ---- Standard Formula

12/06/25 58
 Classification of Hempel Paints

Colour Numbers:
1st digit series
00000 Transparent
10000 White
10010 – 19980 Whitish , Grey
19990 Black
20010 - 29990 Yellow , Cream , Buff
30010 - 39990 Blue , Violet
40010 - 49990 Green
50010 - 59990 Red, Orange , Pink
60010 – 69990 Brown

note 5th digit indicates : 0 or 1 Lead free

6 lead containing

12/06/25 59
 Classification of Hempel Paints
Hempel Product Name composed of :
A Family name + Optional Proper Name + Quality

Number

Physically drying paints:

HEMPATEX ( CR , Acrylic )
HEMPANYL ( Vinyl )
HEMUCRYL ( Acrylic WB )
Hempatone ( Vinyl WB )
Chemically Curing Paints :
HEMPALIN ( Alkyd )
HEMPADUR ( Epoxy , Modified epoxy )
HEMPATHANE ( Polyurethane )
Galvosil ( Zinc silicate )

example : HEMPATEX Enamel 56360

Hempalin Primer 12050
Hempadur Multi Strength 35530
12/06/25 60
(shortened version)
 # 3 - SURFACE # 5 - GENERIC TYPE # 6 - PAINT
PREPARATION METHOD SELECTION APPLICATION METHOD

# 4 - COATING SYSTEM
1.) Primer Coat # 7 - TOTAL DRY FILM
2.) Intermediate Coat THICKNESS
3.) Finish Coat

FT
D
# 2 - ENVIRONMENT
FINISH COAT

INTERMEDIATE

PRIMER

STEEL

# 1 - SUBSTRATE

12/06/25 62
 Method BRUSH
Application By Hand
Characteristics Good Penetration
Ideal for Stripe Coating
Typical Applicable DFT 40 Microns/ 1.6 Mils Touch-Up Stripe Coating
Application Rate 100 sq. Meter / 8 hrs.
Stripe coating brush

12/06/25 63
 STRIPE COATING by BRUSH

STRIPE COATING by PAINT BRUSH

Primer / undercoat application by using BRUSH over corners,
edges, narrow areas, welds, and other inaccessible/ corrosion
trap areas to ensure that all these difficult & high susceptible
areas are getting required DFT & coat.

12/06/25 64
 Method ROLLER
Application By Hand
Characteristics Less Good Penetration
Gives Uneven, Porous Film
Lower Applicable DFT than Brush 30 to 40 Microns / 1.2 to 1.6 Mils
Application Rate 200 – 300 sq. meters/ 8 - hours

Paint rollers & handles

12/06/25 65
 Method CONVENTIONAL AIR SPRAY
Characteristics Supply Air directly feed from Compressor for atomization
(30 – 60 psi)
Spray Gun features 3 adjustments knobs.
Requires more thinning (e.g. 25% by Volume minimum).
Best for excellent finishing paint job but creates too much
spray dusts.
Application Rate 200 – 400 square meters per 8 - hours

Spray Guns – suction/ gravity feed Air cap & spray mists

12/06/25 66
 Airless Spray Pump Set-Up

Airless Spray Gun & Parts

Method AIRLESS SPRAY

Characteristics Set-up includes airless pump (e.g. pump ratio) which is
operated by a high pressure air supply from (100 PSI)
Compressor
Spray Gun feature simple construction & easy to use as only 1
adjustment. Excellent for application of highly viscous paints.
Less thinning & spray mist (normally 5% by volume).

Application Rate 700 – 1200 square meters per 8-hours

12/06/25 67
 Airless Spray Paint Application

12/06/25 68
(shortened version)
 Gauge
125 100 75 50 25

WET PAINT

STEEL

WFT Gage – Comb Type

Wet Film Thickness Measurement

Dry Film Thickness Measurement

DFT Gage & Calibration Accessories

12/06/25 70
DFT GAGE READINGS Figure A1 - Part of Structure

Spot 1 Spot 2

Approx 2 m W
1.5”(4 cm)

Spot 3

Spot 4 Spot 5

Approx 5 m L

Total Area = 5L x 2W = 10 m2 (100 ft2)

12/06/25 71
 STEEL

NOTE: Typical coating system consists of 3 coats (e.g.

primer, mid coat & topcoat).

12/06/25 72
(shortened version)
Volume Solids - VS Thickness Units:
Micron = 0.001 mm.
Wet Film Thickness
Mil = 0.001 inch
VS = DFT 1 Mil = 25.4 Microns
WFT

DFT(µm) x 100
VS (%) =
WFT(µm)
Dry Film
Thickness
Theoretical Spreading Rate - (TSR)

Area in sqm painted per liter paint @ given DFT

1 ltr
DFT (Micron)

VS(%) x 10 1 ltr ~ 1 mm on 1 m2 - (1mm = 1000 micron)

TSR(m /ltr) =
2

DFT(Micron)

DFT
12/06/25 = Dry Film Thickness - WFT = Wet Film Thickness 74
 Theoretical Consumption - (TC)

A(m2)
TC(ltr) =
TSR(m2/ltr)

= DFT(Micron) x A(m2)
VS(%) x 10

A – Area as Surface Area

TSR – Theoretical Spreading Rate
DFT – Dry Film Thickness
VS – Volume Solids in %

12/06/25 75
 Practical or Actual Consumption (PC or AC)

PC or AC (ltr) = A (m2) x CF
TSR (m2/ltr)

Loss or Loss Factor Consumption

Waste LF = (100 - % Loss) Factor
(%) 100 (CF =1/% Loss)

10 0.90 1.11
20 0.80 1.25
30 0.70 1.40
35 0.65 1.53
40 0.60 1.66
50 0.50 2.00

12/06/25 76
 DEAD VOLUME – DV (Primer)

DEAD VOLUME is defined as the extra paint

consumption required for filling-up the
roughness.
Roughness measured Dead Volume
as average of Rz (liters/ meter2)
(microns)
30 0.02
45 0.03
60 0.04
75 0.05
90 0.06
100 0.07

Note: Applicable only for 1st coat applied directly over blasted
surfaces (e.g. primer).

12/06/25 77
 VOLUME SOLIDS AFTER THINNING

(%VS After = % VS x 100

Thinning ) % Thinner* + 100

Where:
% VS – Volume Solids
% Thinner – Thinning volume

* Not applicable for products

that are 100% VS.

12/06/25 78
(shortened version)
 PAINT FIM DEFECT
is defined as any deviation from a continuous
COHESIVE and well ADHERING film.

Probable Causes of Paint Defect

SPECIFICATION
SURFACE PREPARATION
APPLICATION
DRYING & CURING
PRODUCTION

”Most defects are caused by inadequate

skill and knowledge of the painter!!”

12/06/25 80
 Paint Defect – “ALLIGATORING”

DESCRIPTION COATING APPEARS TO BE CRACKED, SIMILAR TO THE SKIN OF AN

ALLIGATOR
CAUSES INSUFFICIENT DRYING OF FILMS PRIOR TO RECOATING; APPLIED/
CURED AT TOO HIGH TEMPERATURE; EXCESSIVE FILM THICKNESS;
PHYSICAL IMPACT; INCOMPATIBILITY OF TOP AND UNDERCOATS

12/06/25 81
 Paint Defect – BLISTERING

DESCRIPTION SMALL, SWELLED AREAS THAT RESEMBLE BUBBLES

CAUSES RUST, OIL, GREASE UNDER SURFACE; OIL OR MOISTURE IN SPRAY
LINES; TRAPPED SOLVENT; EXPOSURE OF FILM TO CONSTANT OR
REPEATED HIGH HUMIDITY; COATING APPLIED OVER TOO HOT
SURFACES; PRESENCE OF SOLUBLE SALTS (OSMOTIC BLISTERS)

12/06/25 82
 Paint Defect – BLUSHING / “AMINE BLOOM”

DESCRIPTION FINISH WITH A FLAT, MILKY APPEARANCE. MOST OFTEN

ENCOUNTERED WITH AMINE CURED & COAL TAR EPOXIES
CAUSES MOISTURE CONDENSATION IN HIGH HUMIDITY ATMOSPHERE;
FAST THINNERS; CONDENSATION ON A COLD SURFACE

12/06/25 83
 Paint Defect – CHALKING

DESCRIPTION LOSS OF GLOSS; POWDERY SURFACE

CAUSES WEATHERING OF PAINT FILMS; INSUFFICIENT PAINT AGITATION;
USE OF POORLY BALANCED THINNING SOLVENTS

12/06/25 84
 Paint Defect – CHECKING

DESCRIPTION NARROW, IRREGULAR BREAKS IN THE TOPCOAT THAT EXPOSES

UNDERCOAT. NORMALLY, DO NOT PENETRATE TO THE
SUBSTRATE
CAUSES INSUFFICIENT DRYING OF FILMS PRIOR TO RECOATING; APPLIED/
CURED AT TOO HIGH TEMPERATURE; EXCESSIVE FILM
THICKNESS; PHYSICAL IMPACT; INCOMPATIBILITY OF TOP AND
UNDERCOATS

12/06/25 85
 Paint Defect – CRACKING

DESCRIPTION DEEP, IRREGULAR CRACKS THROUGH THE PAINT FILM TO

THE SUBSTRATE
CAUSES INSUFFICIENT DRYING OF FILMS PRIOR TO RECOATING;
APPLIED/ CURED AT TOO HIGH TEMPERATURE; EXCESSIVE
FILM THICKNESS; PHYSICAL IMPACT; INCOMPATIBILITY OF
TOP & UNDERCOATS

12/06/25 86
 Paint Defect – CRATERING

DESCRIPTION SMALL, UNIFORM INDENTATION IN THE FILM

CAUSES AIR POCKETS TRAPPED IN WET FILM DURING SPRAYING;
OIL OR MOISTURE IN AIR LINES

12/06/25 87
 Paint Defect – DELAMINATION / FLAKING

DESCRIPTION LOSS OF ADHESION TO SUBSTRATE OR BETWEEN COATS

CAUSES UNSATISFACTORY SURFACE PREPARATION; INCOMPATIBLE
PRIMER OR UNDERCOAT; SUBSTRATE OR INTERCOAT
CONTAMINATION; EXCESSIVE CURE TIME BETWEEN COATS

12/06/25 88
 Paint Defect – EMBEDDED DUST, DIRT, SAND

DESCRIPTION FOREIGN PARTICLES EMBEDDED OR PARTIALLY IN THE

COATING FILM
CAUSES APPLICATION OVER EMBEDDED DUST, DIRT, SAND OR OTHER
CONTAMINANTS; DRIFTING OF FOREIGN PARTICLES ONTO WET
FILM

12/06/25 89
 Paint Defect – FISH EYES

DESCRIPTION FORMATION OF SEPARATIONS OF THE FILM THAT

RESEMBLES HOLES OR DEEP DEPRESSION
CAUSES APPLICATION OVER EMBEDDED DUST, DIRT, SAND OR
OTHER CONTAMINANTS; DRIFTING OF FOREIGN
PARTICLES ONTO WET FILM

12/06/25 90
 Paint Defect – “MUDCRACKING”

DESCRIPTION IRREGULAR CRACKING THAT OCCURS AS THE COATING

DRIES, RESEMBLING MUD THAT HAS CRACKED IN THE
DRY LAKE BED (GENERALLY ASSOCIATED WITH
INORGANIC ZINCS)
CAUSES EXCESSIVE FILM THICKNESS, OR CONTAMINATION OF
SURFACE BY OIL, MOISTURE OR ORGANIC
CONTAMINANTS.

12/06/25 91
 Paint Defect – “ORANGE PEEL”

DESCRIPTION FINELY PEBBLED OR DIMPLED SURFACE TEXTURE,

APPEARANCE SIMILAR TO THE SKIN OF AN ORANGE
CAUSES IMPROPER ATOMIZATION DUE TO LOW AIR PRESSURE;
FAST SOLVENT EVAPORATION; GUN TOO CLOSE TO
SURFACE

12/06/25 92
 Paint Defect – PINHOLES OR “HOLIDAYS”

DESCRIPTION TINY, DEEP HOLES, SOMETIMES ONLY THROUGH ONE COAT,

OCASSIONALLY PENETRATING TO THE METAL SUBSTRATE
(ALSO KNOWN AS “HOLIDAYS’)
CAUSES SOLVENT ENTRAPMENT; POROSITY IN THE PREVIOUSLY
APPLIED COATING OR IN METAL SUBSTRATE; INCORRECT
SPRAY VISCOSITY

12/06/25 93
 Paint Defect – RUNS & SAGS OR “CURTAIN”

DESCRIPTION TINY, DEEP HOLES, SOMETIMES ONLY THROUGH ONE COAT,

OCASSIONALLY PENETRATING TO THE METAL SUBSTRATE
(ALSO KNOWN AS “HOLIDAYS’)
CAUSES SOLVENT ENTRAPMENT; POROSITY IN THE PREVIOUSLY
APPLIED COATING OR IN METAL SUBSTRATE; INCORRECT
SPRAY VISCOSITY

12/06/25 94
 Paint Defect – WRINKLING OR WRINKLES

DESCRIPTION ROUGH, CRINKLED SURFACE

CAUSES SURFACE SKINNING OVER UNCURED PAINT BECAUSE OF TOO MUCH
THICKNESS &/OR WEATHER TOO WARM OR TOO COLD; PAINT WITH
SOLVENT SYSTEM APPLIED OVER INCOMPATIBLE PAINT;
EXCESSIVE SOFTENING OF BASE COAT BY TOPCOAT

12/06/25 95
 Paint Defect – “BRUSH MARK”

DESCRIPTION UNIFORM RIDGES DUPLICATING THE BRISTLE MARKS OF THE

BRUSH WITH UNSMOOTH APPEARANCE (COSMETIC)
CAUSES POOR WORKMANSHIP OR UNSKILLED PAINTER; UNDER
THINNING OF PAINT; USE OF IMPROPER BRUSH BRISTLE TYPE
OR WRONG BRUSH

12/06/25 96
 SOLVENT IMPROPER COATING SALT
SOLVENT IMPROPER COATING EXUDATION OF SALT
RETENTION APPLICATION EXUDATION OF CONTAMINATION
RETENTION APPLICATION COMPONENTS CONTAMINATION
COMPONENTS
EG. TARS, OILS, ETC.
EG. TARS, OILS, ETC.

Causing voids In primer On substrate

Causing voids In primer On substrate
Attraction of water after evaporation After treatment
Attraction of water after evaporation After treatment
by water miscible of solvents
by water miscible of solvents
solvents
solvents

OSMOSIS OSMOSIS
OSMOSIS
OSMOSIS POROSITY
POROSITY

Increase water Introduction of electrochemical

Increase water Introduction of electrochemical
permeability corrosion transport of ions
permeability corrosion transport of ions
(electro-endo osmosis )
(electro-endo osmosis )

BLISTERING
BLISTERING
CATHODIC
CATHODICDISBONDMENT
DISBONDMENT
LOSS
LOSS OFADHESION
OF ADHESION

CORROSION

12/06/25 97
(shortened version)