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ASM Corrosion of Carbon Steels

ASM Corrosion of Carbon Steels

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Rashid Guliyev
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83 views22 pages

ASM Corrosion of Carbon Steels

ASM Corrosion of Carbon Steels

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Rashid Guliyev
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Corrosion of Carbon Steels Chairman: James H. Bryson, Inland Steel Company CARBON STEEL, the most widely used engi neering, material, accounts for over 64 milion tons, oF approximately 88%, of the annual steel production in the United States (Tables Vand 2), Despre is rekaively” limited corrosion resis tance, carbon steel is used in large Tonnages te arin applications, nuclear posse nd fossil Tue Power plts, transportation. chemical process: Ing. petroleum prodtction und refining. pipelines, fining. construction, and metal processing feguipment, ‘Tae specie steps. Taken in these Industries 10 mitigate the carrosion of carbon Stel are discussed in detail inthe Section "Spe Gific Industries and Environments” in this VoL lume and will not be repeated here. This article consists of Ae major sections: ‘© Carbon Steels Weathering Steels © Metallic Coated © Onuanic Coated Steels Where applicable, reference will be made 10 £ speciicanile in this Handbook in which more ‘eixled information can be feud. In addition previous 9th Edition Volumes of Metals Hand hook should be consulted for data related 10 carbon steels. OF panicilar note are Volume | Properties and Selection: Irons and Steels; Vol fume 4, Heat Tearing: and Volume 9, Meru lagrapiy and Microstractres. Carbon Steels A. Probar Inland Steel Compony The cont of metallic corrosion 10 the total economy must be measured in hundreds of rik tions of dollars per year. Because carbon steos represent the largest single class of alloys in use, both in terms of tonnage and total cost, iti cast tO Understand thatthe corrosion of carbon steel Fe a problem of enormous practical importance “This, of course, is the reason forthe existence of ‘entire industries devoted to providing protective Stems for roms and seeks, Aspects of corrosioe contol wil be discussed fuer tm this article. Ie This section, only the intrinsic aspects of the ‘corrosion system, primarily the environmental 8nd compositional factors, will be addressed. This is ot_meant (0 imply that design is not Important. Indeed, design changes are often the ‘mat efficient manner of dealing with s particular corrosion problem. This aspect of corrosion con {tol is discussed inthe nticle "Design Details to Minimize Corrosion” i this Volume: Carton, oF mild, steels are by thelr nature of ly. these levels of addition donot generally Ainited alloy content, usually less than 2 by produce any remarkable changes in general cor Weight forthe Total oF all alditons. Unforionate- tosion behavior. One possible exception to this Table 1 Not shipments of U.S. steel mill products—all grades Sl rac ‘on = — ingots and eel casings Ea oa 7 Pinon slabs ad es rs va Ska i Wire ois ao al Strtra sapes 28 es 3a ou 68 Stel pig os 2 Phe So an Sanda over as 09 Pa 13 sein bs 3 Trash spikes a ‘Wheto and orp a bt Ban ot ole a 2 ese gt Ss Hy ts El Rent 0 on Tool see on a Pipe and thing “anda sss be ms to rroviancal a2 i ota a reste ta “1 . a Src 9 on 20 ua tans ° on 2 ui awe su 12 ‘al ud spi. ra 3 Batted and etal * on ‘woven whe fence a fen and bag ire EY Mm on Blak plate 218 uy ba Tin late zat te 3 Tin re set os 2 Ev is “Ta il prsacts—all ter oi “ m Sheets trolled has ns Bis vs oud ald ihe Wo et is Sheets and ip. avai fot dipped. a9 94 ow 4 ecto or 0 “3 0 Bother metic: Coated Vie 1 vis 1s eeeal a oe By 7 sie ot ral 6 ox 0 09 ok valid ms G one nm Tous te raeas 08 79 00 cure a0 8 65.09 wae ‘Stainless aid heat essing 13st 12 19 Ail othe han sails 7a > wt 510 / Spe ic Alloy Systems statement would be the weathering steels, in ‘whieh small additions of copper, chromium, nick €l, andor phosphorus produce signilieant redue- lions in corraston rate in ceriain environments These steels will be discussed more fully in the following section of this amticle. At the levels preseat in low-alloy steels, the usual impurities have no significant effect on corrosion rate in the tmosphere, neutral waters, of soils. Only in the tse of ach attack isan effect observed. In this lnvter ease, the presence of phosphorus and sur ‘markedly increase the rate of flack, Indeed, in acid systems, the pure irons sppoar to exhib the Ines resistance to attack, In solving 2 particular corrosion problem, a ‘rama change in attack rate cz attained by altering the corrosive em The deaeration of water and the addition of corrosion inhibitors are two examples that have broad application in the area of aqueous comro- sion. These and olher method that maybe set in some eases are discussed in the Section "Cor rosion Protection Methods" in this Volume, Because corrosion is such a mulufaceted phe nomenon, itis generally useful 10 allempt 10 categorize the various types. This is usully Jone fou an environmental basis. Therefore, inthis Sectlon, atmospheric corrosion, aqueous com: ‘ion, and some other corrosion types of interes, such as corresion in soils, concrete, and boilers and heating plants, will be addressed. Atmospheric Corrosion Atmospheres ae often classified as being rural industrial oF marine n nature, Such a classifies. tion is of course a gross oversimplifcation of the situation. TC is easy Co ist locations along the Seacoast that have heavy industrial pollution in the atmosphere. Such Toeations are both marine ‘nd industrial. Furthermore, two decidedly environments can differ widely in average yearly temperature and rainfall and can therefore have ‘onsierably different cormosive tendencies, In {strat expansion into formerly rural areas can easily change the aggressiveness of « particule Tbcation. Finally, long term tends in the environ. ment, such as changes in rainfall patter, mean temperature, and perhaps acid rain, ean make ‘extrapolations from pas! behavior less reliable ‘Other Factors that limit the UseTulness of atmo- spherie-exposure data aze the general nonlinear ity of weight lows due to corrosion with time and the fact that most atmospheric-corrosion data are presented as un average over the entire test panel Surface. Most atmospheric exposure dati for Steels show decrease in the rate of attack with {ime of expose so that extrapolations of sich data to times longer than those covered by the ‘exnosire data cam Iced 10 aa overdesign in cross Section. Finally, in-many cases, the average ‘weight loss per unitatea is of less concern than {he time to perforation, This factor fs mane elt fl fo localize attack, which can be masked by the averaging of data, as is done in weight loss ‘eterminations Given al the caveats mentioned above, the de- sun engineer is well juste in using atmosperic~ Corrosion data as more indicative than aandative. ‘Widhall ofthis fa min, some ofthe corrosion data for various carbon steels in some representative environments wil be discussed, More dota in formation i available in Ret 1 10 3. "The elec of various enviroments on the coro: sion rte-is indicated ia Table 3. Table 3 is & Table 2 Net shipments of U.S. steel mill products by market classification—all grades Set for converting ad proseaing Independent forprs not ceowhere ssid) Iter fasteners Stel service sents and ditto ‘Consus, ilading maintenance (Contesctors”peotets "ens, pas fe Indopendent forges. Toa Rail tapsporation "reght cars passenger cars, and locimtives Rik and al bor Tora ‘Shipbikting and marine equipment. Airraft and aerupace ‘ian gar ise Moi, aiatrying ad himberine Apulia ercahurl machiney Avot. Total Machinery industrial eauipment sad ool ‘piuances, tena, adele ‘ter domestic al commercial sip Containers. packaging an shipping mati, ‘Cane apd sures Bares, drums nd sipping pis. Aether Ordaasce athe itary Export (reporting compa compilation of weight loss measurements for old rolled carbon stels afer 2 years of exposure. The mort staring feature of Tuble 3 is the extreme Tange of corrosion rales existing Galeta, Point Beach, Panama, is more than 450 times 89 agares sive than the site at Norman Wells, NWT. Can ada. This diference in corrosion eile is easily sreiter than any effect that ean be produced by Sinall changes in composition of the stel. Again, this underscores the fact that in dealing with the ‘corosion of carbon steels the alleratkie of design for environmental actors i usally mare eeeive than changing the grade of stew Further examination of Table 3 shows thatthe ‘marine environments tend to be neat the aggres: ‘ive end ofthe list und that cold environments ave fenerilly tess aggressive than warm sites. The average Yearly emperatate cannot, in general be isolated trom the moisture effect, because most ff the more tropical exposure sites ate also in ‘regions with high humidity. One exception is arid Phoenin. AZ, ‘Corrosion Film Formation and Break- down. The corrosion of cron see the sim sphere and in many agueous environments is best Understood from a fil formation nd breaklown Sanupovnt [eis am inescapable fact that iron in the resenes of oxygen andor wate is thenmodynarn- Teall unstable with respect to its oxides. Thus, the eae oer eT) oes oe os x o uh is vet 4 30 36 138 Be mye a a a " Mat i * os se “4 m ‘a i 7 at ‘a iS 3 a os a os 2a 1k 2 uw 187 02 3 03 3 8 u 3 an si 2 " 13s 1 18 Us vos 2 sey 4 rd @ = us s fa s ts 2 04 2 3 x 4 3 ss 7 8a 7 a vesin ig nver wheter the te il ast bot father at what eate Inte absence of fim foemation find wth constant environment, one Would expect the oxidation rate ta he constanl Conversely ifthe corrosion product film that forms isolates the stel from the corrosive environment, ane would expect, 1 zero corrosion rate after the intl flan formation period. A tightly adherent fly thst permits oly Sifusion transfer of the reactants would be curse terized by s cortosion sate that decreases withthe square root of the expats time. ‘Because the above wealzations are rucely encountered in the corrosion of carbon steel, it is obvious that other factors that tend to disrupt Sable fl formation must be wperatve. These ‘hetors can be external, such as erosion by wind fof rain, or they may he internal tthe iy self, Such as stresses caused by the diferent specitic Volumes of metal and oxide. iis the complexity ‘of these various breakdown processes that makes ‘quantitative prediction of corrosion so di makes exiripolations of data from short-term behavior to longer times so dificult, und makes precise preditions of behavior at partir test te based on observations at a ulferent ste Metsaly impassible “The corrosion of iron in the atmosphere pro- ceils by the formation of hydrated oxides, The hall cell reactions can be expressed as Toble 3 Comparative rankings of 43 locations based on steel loss of weight (grams) of 10- x 15-cm (4 ons of steel ‘Norn Was, NWT, Cana Poenin, AZ Saskatoon Sas. Canad savin, Vanccoer ison Fort Aror Pir, Panam, ©. Morens Ml Oras, Ont. Cane Potter Court. PA Wiatersuy. Ci Ste Cotege, PA Montel PG, Canada Melhoure. Asan Hox Wark Rosado), NS Dare, NH South end, PA Trait BC. Canada Hetietem. F Cleve O1L iors, Params, C2 Tondo ates, Eagle Monroeville, PX Newark, Ni Man, Philippine stds Lion na, Ce ase Chicago, Cape Renwedy 8 kon OS mie) fom ocean B Prisey Island. England B00 Lindon Staton), Eagan 3600000 Hata deer Budding) NS. 560700 Cage Renpeay, 38 me) ‘rom ocean, ti elevation Soon Kure ech, NOs 250m m0 ‘R00. Mo. Cape Remedy, SS 698) #02 Tom quest, an slevation 30000 Wiese, Eng S102 Cape Kennedy, 38 10 9) From oan, gtd level boangeress. ond Kure each, NC. 25 (040 ot Galea Point Beach, Panes, C2 WO, 4 LO + 20 2OHY- (cathodic) Fe Fe + 2e anodic) Further reactions can then occur, such a5 Fer + 20H” — Fell), 2EL(OH). + HO + 40, 2FOH), ‘The hydrated oxides can lose water dusing dry erie anal revert to the anhydrocn ferrous and Tertie oxides. In adsiton, a layer of magnetic (FeO) or FeO-Fe:0y often forms between ion oxide (FeO) and hematite (Fe,O3). Actually, tte various oxides and hydroxides of iron form rather complicated system of compounds. The Sompound FeOOH has been found to exis in Corrosion of Carbon Steels / 511 [ sete | E | | 7 ‘i 3 : ; LZ ie ri i. ie i : | 3 5 £10 so,neeaimosoters. a = _ | ‘sw ” o @ 108 o Ey o CT o 00 eas cite ae eae tees eta Fig. 1 fants rete cin est Fig. 2 Sct sete ity ar mpoes ‘mart containing 0.017% $0, Expanur prod: 39 doy “The crosion roe ol von exposed lor 38 days at 100% ‘eltvehuity fe ahown for cmmperion, Somes: Re 6 thee different crystal forms plus aa amorphous form. The occurrence of the various oxile spe- cies is dependent on pH, oxygen availabilty, ‘Various atmospheric pollutants, and the compo. Sitio oti stcl as in weathering steels contain ing copper and phosphorus (Ref 5). The actual nature ofthe rust film is important because FeO ‘and FeOOH seem to be more adherent than FeO, and Fe.0}, and therefore more likely to sow the corrosive attack, but the higher oxides and oxy-hydroxides are more prone to spallation Atmospheric Factors in Atmospheric Corrosion Because there isa substantial variation in the corrosion rates of carbon stels at different atmo. Spheric-est focations, it is only logical to ask Which factors coninhuie to these diferences. Although the prediction of eeerosivity is stil not possible, it appears tha humidity, temperature, find the levels of ehloride, sulfate, and probably bther atmospheric pollutants preseat each exert fan influence on the corrosion ate of carbon Humidity ond Atmospheric Pollutants. Because atmospheric cerrosion isan electrolyte process, the presence of an electrolyte is r2 ulrec. This should not be taken to mean tnt tbe Steel surface must he auash with water: a very thin adsorbed bm of water i all that vs required. Daring. an actual exposure, the metal spends some portion of the time avash with water be- use of Fain oF Splashing and portion of the tine covered witha ihn adsorbed water fm, The portion of time spent covered with the thin water fhm depends quite strongly on relative humidity at the exposure site (Fig. 1). This fact has led ‘ny corrosion setentists to investigate the inf tence ofthe time of wetness on the corrosion rate (Ret 7-17. “These studies have showa that time of wet- ness, although an important factor. cannot be ‘considered in isolation when estimating corrosion rates, An excelent example ofthis fact i dem fonsrated in Fig. 2, in wich the weight rain of iron is plotted asa function of reative humidity for an exposure of $5 days in an atmosphere containing U.01% sulfur dioxide (S03). Ia the lower righthand corner of Tig. 2s the measured corrosion rate for iron expose for the same time uty nor 0% relative yb absened Sevres Rerie Sutrpathtion, units fect of atmoipherc golktion on rating Fig. 3 ‘UK. (4 sr pllion us). The le ested conte 0.28% Gu. Test duran: I year Source Bes on fd Stel Research Asiocation inan SO-free aimosphote at 99% relative humid: ity. Ihe inrease un corrosion rate produced 9 the addition of SO, to the atmosphere is substan. lil, as demonstrated in Fig. 3. which shows setual exposure data rom fou ferent exposure ‘ites with Varying levels of sfur pollution inthe Atmosphere. The accelerating effect of sulfur ts obvious, "Anther feature of interest is the apparent existence of ertical humidity level below which the corrosion rate is small, AS shosn in Fig the ef sphere Corrosion rate shows a steady increase within ‘reasiny humidity. Although there is scarcity of data, i seems reasonable tha oxides of nitrogen in the atmosphere would also exhibit an acceler ating effect on the corrosion of steel. Indeed, any gaseous atmospheric constituent capable of Strong electrolytic activity shouldbe suspected ay being capable of increasing the corrosion rate fof steeh Figure 5 shows the corrosion rate per 512/ Specific Alloy Systems day of wetness at st test sites und demonstrates Ihe accelerating effact of temperature on corre. sion fate. From Fig. Ste) and (0. one cam infer the acelerating effect of chloride ions on atmaspher= Effects of Alloying Ad bom steels ae by’ defini loved. is aol surprising exhibit sige ferences ia almospherie-corra- Sion rate." Nevertheless, alloying can make ‘changes in the atmospherie-cotrosion rate of ear bon steel. The elements generally found 19 he ‘mst beneficial in this repatd are copper. nickel silicon, chromium, and phosphorus. Of these, the ‘nas sirking example is that of copper: increases from 0,01 19 0.5% have been shown to decrease the vorsosion rate by 4 Tastor of O70 C0 thees Ref 20, 21, Additions ofthe above elements im cox bination are generally more effective than when ‘added singly. although the effets are not addr tive. The effects rom one siudy are shown in Fig. (to 1D. The effectiveness of these elements in Felandiag corrosion also appesrs to depen on the forosive environment, with the most benefit ‘appearing in industrial stmospheres (Ref 23) inetics of Atmospheric Corrosion ‘The rate of atiospheric corrosion of steels is not constant with time but usually decreases a the length of exposure increases. This fact indi- cates the diculty i using most ofthe published imospherie corrosion date i any quantitative way. Much af the published data consists of Useight lose dv to corrosion averaged over the lime of exposure, which is itself often variable Sich corrosion rate calculations are miseading. especially when the expawure time Is shor, he Eause the ensuing rate of attack ean be consider ttbly lower, Several uuthors have shown that the ‘mount of corrosion osctring as a function of time can be expressed us (Rel 2430) ns. Because car ‘ot very highly {most grades clo not woke 1eq 1) where W is the sight Joss of metal due to Corrosion. ris the expoware time in years, aK nd are emmptical constants, The goodness of Bt Seems to he excellent, hut unl more dla rom, ‘various atmospherie-exposure sites are analyzed, Eq Lis of limited value: Because the values of K Corrosion rate, mast a — > ow w Heleve hum. lative hamid ofthe i= ‘of steal conte with gers of Ysa (0.7 gen. Exo rd tnd # depend on both the alloy system and the exposure ste. great del of work mst Be done hefore general use of Eq I can be made in real ‘upplications. The one possible exception would he when data for the expose situation and alloy system are already known. In this cave, Fq I can he very usefit sn estimating long-term corrosion behavior from as ile 262 years of data (Ret 28), although 3-19 ¢year data give a Better estimate Perhaps mast important. Eq I points ou sit is impossible to describe cither the extent o¢ rate ‘of corrosion under atmospheric conditions with a Single parameter. which is what much of the Feported corrosion data persists in doing. When the results of a severabyear exposure test are condensed 1 single vale, et the average Toss per year or the total Toss fir the x70 peti, cme canno! estimate the Values of the Kinetic parameters governing the system. Wilh ‘out the vals ofthese parameters, extrapolation of results to Tonger exposure periods becomes laite unreliable, When good estimates for the Kinctie parameters are available, extrapolations lo F-or #year performance from [and 2-year data have been found to agiee within SF of ‘observed performance (Ref 4), Aqueous Corrosion Carbon steel pipe and vessels are often re- quire 10 Cunsport iter oF are sibmerzed a Water to some extent during service. This expo sure ean be under conditions of varying temper ture. ow rate, pH und so on all of which can ter ihe rate of vorrosion. The relative acidity of the solutions probably the most importaot factor te he considered AL low pH. the evolution of hydrogen tends ta eliminate the possibilty af protective film formation 40 that sel continues {a corrod, bit in akline solutions. the formation of protective fms really reduces the corrosion fate, the preater the alkalinty, the slower the rte of atlack becomes. In neuteal solutions, bther factors, such ae acration, become Fite Aletermining so that generalization becomes ene Aidit. All of these factors can Be graphically ‘demonstrated, as in Fig. 1 ‘The corosion af slels in wernted seawater i bout the same overal as in aerated freswater but this iy somewhat misleading because the improved electrical conductivity of seawater can lead 10 increased pitting. Furthermore, because ‘of ie improved conductance. the concentration cells can operate over long distances, ai this leads to a mare nonuniform attack than in fresh water. jy also well documented that siltermate yeling through immersion and exposure to air produces more pitting attack than continuous Immersion (Ret 22-4). The effect of various alloying additions and ‘exposure conulitians wn the corresion behavior of bats exposed for u period of 15 years in England ig summrived in Tahle 4. Although this sty showed a benehcial effect of both copper and fickel additions other staiey reported no wer ‘cant bench (ef 38. 35). Interestingly, the cor fosion rales of specimens completely inmersed ip seawater donot appear 10 depend on the geographical location of the text site, therefore hy inference, the mean temperature does not pear {0 play an important role (Ref 37), "This constancy of the corrosion rate in scawo- ter has been atibuted to the more rapid fouling of the exposed sieel by munne orgunisms, such ts bamnacles and algae ia warmer seas (RET 38), is further speculated that this fouling ests the Increases expocted trom the temperature tise For example it has heen demonstrated that tn ier Iboratory conditions of rapidly flowing sea Water where fouling is sippressed 3 re of 18S [52°F) will approximately double the attack rate ‘The effect of velocity af the seawater on the corrosion rate K illstrated in Fig. 12. etal marine exposures. periods of rapid ow” from tidal motion may not Be eective. because the slack periods at reversal may’ allow marine engi nism to attach themecives fo the metal sirface TH these organisms can survive the subsequent high flow. then 2 growth on the exposed surface can devolap. This elecivelyeeduces the Velocity Of Seawater at the metaliwater interface so that bulk flow rates are no longer sate determining. ‘Additional information an the corwesion of steels in marine environmeats ean be Found i the atcle "Marine Corrosion inthis Volume. The effect of marine organisms on eorrosion Is di ‘cussed in the articles "General Corrosion” snd ‘Tecatizedt Corrosion” inthis Volume, Inform: tion on corsosion in fresiwaler—which inludes all” nonsaline natural” waters, polluted of Unpolluted, fouad in inland bodies. such as Seams, rivers, ponds, and lakes—is available i the atticle "Corrosion in Fresh Water” in Vol tame 1 ofthe 9th Eaton of Metals Handbook Soil Corrosion ‘The response of carbon see! t0 oil carnninn depends primarily on the nature of the soil and certain other environmental factors, such as the availablity of moisture nd oxygen, These he tor cu lead to extreme vaiiation: inthe rate of aituek. For example, under the worst conditions. ' busied vessel may perforate in less than T yea although ‘rchaeologieal digs in aril desert re ipions hve uncovered iron tools dating buck hundreds of years. Because ofthis intone vari blity- any clmative weight loss date or kineic Information is virally worthles for design use Some general rules can be formulated, however Soils with high moisture content high electccal conductivity, high acidity, and high dissolved falls will be most corrasive. At the other ex Inemes of character, the soi il be virally inert To carbon steel The effect of aeration om soils is Senha diferent from the effec of aeration ot Water because poorly ueruted conditions in water ‘ean lead Wo accelerated tack by sulfate tedacing langorobve taster "The effext of law levels of alloying sitions on the sol corrosion of carbon sects 1s mogest st Dest with most comm aditiaos showing 1 sSiifican benefit. Some sata lg, 13) seem 10 Show a small henefit of (7 Cu + 3.5% Ni over plain carbo steels however itis debatable wher fr this improved performance could justify the fded ally cost. Thi decison must involve ther factors, such asthe cost ofa failure and the ost of replacement Interestingly. it has been demonstrated thot both the weight Ions and anima pit depth in soil corrosion can be represented By an equation of the form (Ret 4 Zoom (C42) where Z is either the weight loss of maximum pit Aepth, i time of exposure, anid @-and mare eonstants that depend oa the specific soil coro Sim sitetion, Equation 2 of the same Form as Corrosion of Carbon Steels / 513 renee Tenperatue enor Teeth ee: s ® © a ot 4 + 0 = 2 ae ae | dew ce iw | iw 2 ° i _ 3 4 tae Lt Pee pepe ol 4] 2 | 224 i o a 5 oo 5 # & 8 B a o 8 ry Tempe ¢ Temperate, Temperate “© o 0 tempore "t Temosrst, Tempera a? see uw ‘. ae s » il o ° is fo wy 200 be 2 | im | P 7 3 ee | s Bw < | 30 au coe | FE of a‘ a ve 3 ° bao le e o VA ° ‘ “ al ® ee a Se Temperature, "C TermperaieC “emparare.°C la © o Fig. 5 Severe nl an) fr el ered Cand OM (0) rl 8. Som Ba PA owe a Kew Booch, NC, + 3550. {200 6) om sczor [es Kare Beach, NE, 24 m 80) Wom ceron. Source: Rat 19 Fa 1. The imifritiy between Fig Laud 2 muy he enteror, corrosion products cam he washed ut the composition of the stel reinforcing member aa cine Mencia applicability of a pawer lew nd offen lead to” cosmetically objectionable Its likely that alloying could reduse the over saeashne hat hecauve bath iypes ef corrosion stains, OT greater concerm is the case of pre- rate of aack, but whether the reduction would retlauhmgntallycloceulytte-these ay te some stressed concrete [n this material che comosion be similfeant i light of the added cost is probe aeermae twanectton A move detailed eiscus. process can Teal foloss of suctural strength and) matic. Additional information on the corrosion carr Pimaictsroued goresion is availe in Ret eventual failure, OTthe cases studied. the falures and corrosion protection of stects in concrete Sores foe evalusting corrosion in soils are of presiressed structures are not associated with be found in Ref 44 to 48 and in the Mand inuheartele “sinulned Seryiee Test’ stress corrosion, but are merely due tothe lossof “Corrosion in Structures” and “Cathodh ine" tee the Section “Corrosion Testing in load-bearing area of steel (Ref 41. tection in this Volume, Sei" in this Volume. "The prevence of chlorde ions appears to be the principal ease of steel corrosion im concrete (Ret Corrosion in Concrete Ty Varwsattempts at reducmpor chiming he Boiler Service “Gorvusion problem have oesed on protecuve cot “The corrosion proces in eonerete is such that ings fore seek members (galvanized. pains. and Corrosion in boilers s a spesil ease of sauenes in ictreats conditions thstincreane the rate son. decressing the conerete permeability. i- corrosion that cavolves elevated temperatures ‘the trstuck Thos phenomenon iselated to the ac: ercising the depthof concrete cover. oFeliminating availabilty of oxygen appest to be the ratedetet- Tete aroue commion products of iron and theehlonde fon trough fhe use of sealants. and so mann step insofar ao genera attack concerned Weave larger spoeiie volume than the steel on Although many ofthese appeacneshaveshown In closed-loop systems the intial oxygen supply of Fee Pe ome of the corronion some degrac of succes, the application of eabodic the waters rapidly consumed inthe ey stages of products saues crosses that ean Jead fo cracks protection hasbeen the most succesfulim arresting fl formation wo that corrosion rates ao ust ithe concrete, These erucks allow easier access corrosion (Ref 4, fot @ problem, In nonclosedloup systems. de- Berihe atacking medium and theretore more There does Not appear to be aay significant aeration is usually adequate for ehininating general (Rh ack, When the stacks ane open to the body of ata relating the severity of corrosion to corrosion problems, 514 / Specific Alloy Systems \ © us » : : 2 : e ee é i 3 See ' oi : apes -. ‘Semirucal = — rr a vs espe. roma, Fig. 6 {ff

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